Changzhi (Shangdang), the Hometown of Feng clan, Shanxi Province
The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Jingning Era (33 B.C. continued)
At first, the Left Yizhizi King had proposed the strategy by which Huhanye Chanyu submitted to the Han, thereby bringing peace and stability. Later, however, slander arose against him, alleging that he boasted of his own merit. Huhanye Chanyu therefore grew suspicious and resentful. Fearing execution, the Left Yizhizi King fled to the Han with more than a thousand followers. The Han court granted him the title of Marquis Within the Passes, allotted him a fief of three hundred households, and permitted him to retain the seal and ribbon of a Xiongnu king.
When Huhanye Chanyu later came to court, he met with the Left Yizhizi King and said, “Your counsel greatly benefited me, bringing peace to the Xiongnu. This merit is yours and cannot be forgotten. I failed to trust you and allowed you to depart without seeking to detain you—this was my fault. I now wish to report this to the Son of Heaven and request your return to the Xiongnu court.”
The Left Yizhizi King replied, “The Chanyu relied upon Heaven’s mandate in submitting to the Han and thereby attained peace. This was due to the divine favor of the Chanyu and the blessing of the Son of Heaven—how could I claim such merit? Having already surrendered to the Han, to return again to the Xiongnu would be to serve two masters. I wish to serve the Chanyu by remaining as an envoy of the Han, and I dare not obey your command.”
Though Huhanye Chanyu repeatedly urged him, he could not persuade the Left Yizhizi King to return, and thus departed alone.
The Chanyu then conferred upon Wang Zhaojun the title of Ninghu Yanzhi (“Queen of Pacifying the Nomad”), and she bore him a son named Yituzhiyashi, who later became the Right Rizhu King.
The Crown Prince underwent his capping ceremony.
In February, the Grand Master of the Censorate, Li Yanshou, passed away.
Earlier, Shi Xian had observed that Feng Fengshi and his sons were men of reputation and influence, and that Feng Fengshi’s daughter, Feng Yuan—known as Feng Zhaoyi[Lady of Bright Deportment]—served as a favored consort within the inner palace. Desiring to attach himself to their power, Shi Xian recommended Feng Qun, the older brother of Feng Yuan, saying: “The Feng Zhaoyi’s elder brother, Herald Feng, is deferential and punctilious in carrying out commands; he is fit to attend within the inner quarters.” The Emperor summoned Feng Qun, intending to appoint him as Privy Counselor. Feng Qun, however, seized the occasion to speak openly against Shi Xian’s monopolization of authority. The Emperor was greatly annoyed and dismissed him back to a Palace Gentleman.
When the office of Grand Master of the Censorate fell vacant, many officials recommended Feng Qun’s elder brother, the Grand Herald Feng Yewang. The Emperor ordered the Minister of State Secretariat to select the most worthy candidate among officials with 2000-picul rank, and Feng Yewang was judged to be best in conduct and ability. The Emperor then consulted Shi Xian, who replied: “Among the Nine Ministers, none surpasses Feng Yewang. Yet because he is the elder brother of Consort(Zhaoyi) Feng, I fear that later generations may say Your Majesty elevated him out of partiality toward your consort.”
The Emperor agreed, saying, “Well spoken—I had not considered this.” He then told the officials, “If I were to appoint Feng Yewang among the Three Excellencies, future generations would surely say that I favored my consort’s kin, and would cite Feng Yewang as their example.”
In March, the Emperor issued an edict, saying:
“Firm and unyielding, steadfast and resolute, indeed without personal desire—such is Feng Yewang, Grand Herald. Clear of mind and skillful in speech, fit to be dispatched to the four quarters—such is Wulu Chongzong, Privy Treasurer. Upright and incorrupt, frugal and disciplined—such is Zhang Tan, Junior Tutor to the Heir Apparent. Let the Junior Tutor be appointed Grand Minister of Justice.”
The Prefect of Henan, Shao Xinchen of Jiujiang, was appointed Privy Treasurer. Formerly Prefect of Nanyang, and later transferred to Henan, Shao Xinchen consistently ranked first in governance. He treated the people as his own children, delighted in promoting their welfare, personally encouraged agriculture, and opened irrigation channels. The population of his commandery doubled. Officials and commoners alike cherished him and called him “Father Shao.”
In the same month, the tombs and gardens of Emperor Hui (Liu Ying), Empress Dowager Wen (Empress Dou), and Empress Dowager Xiaozhao (Zhao Jieyu, Consort Gouyi of Emperor Wu) were restored.
The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Jingning Era (33 B.C. continued)
The Chanyu rejoiced greatly and submitted a letter, saying: “I am willing to guard the frontier from Shanggu to Dunhuang and transmit this charge to my descendants without end. I beg that the border defenses and garrisons be withdrawn, so that the people of the Son of Heaven may have rest.”
The Emperor referred the matter to his ministers for deliberation, and all deemed it advantageous. Only the Court Attendant Hou Ying, well versed in frontier affairs, spoke in opposition.
The Emperor asked for an explanation. Hou Ying replied:
“Since the time of the Zhou and Qin, the Xiongnu have been violent and aggressive, constantly raiding the frontiers. Since the rise of the Han, we have suffered especially from their incursions. I have heard that the northern frontier stretches east to Liaodong and west beyond the Yin Mountains, extending for more than a thousand li, rich in grass, forests, and game. In former times, Modu Chanyu used this land as his hunting ground, fashioning bows and arrows there and launching his raids.
“In the reign of Emperor Wu, when armies were dispatched on campaign, this territory was recovered and the Xiongnu were driven beyond the desert. Fortified barriers were erected, beacon towers and subterranean passes were established, outer walls were constructed, and garrisons were stationed to defend them. Only then did the borderlands attain a measure of peace.
“North of the desert, the land is flat and barren, with little grass or timber and vast stretches of sand; when the Xiongnu come to raid, they have nowhere to conceal themselves. South of the barriers lie deep mountains and ravines, difficult to traverse. The elders of the frontier say: ‘Since the Xiongnu lost the Yin Mountains, they have never crossed them without weeping.’ If now the garrisons are withdrawn and the defenses abandoned, it would be to hand the eastern and northern tribes a single, immense advantage. This is the first reason it must not be done.
“Now, under Your Majesty’s virtuous rule, Heaven shelters the Xiongnu, and they enjoy preservation and peace, bowing their heads in submission. Yet the nature of these tribes is such that when pressed they are humble and compliant, but when strong they grow arrogant and rebellious—such is Heaven’s design. Previously, the outer walls were already dismantled and the watchtowers reduced, leaving only what was needed to observe and signal. The ancients, even in times of peace, never forgot the possibility of danger; such defenses must not again be abolished. This is the second reason.”
“Since antiquity, the Central State has established passes and bridges in order to restrain the feudal lords, thereby cutting off any thought of ambition among the people. The construction of frontier barriers and the stationing of garrisons were not undertaken solely because of the Xiongnu, but also on account of the various dependent states and surrendered peoples who had once belonged to them—lest they recall former ties and flee back. This is the fourth reason.
“Recently, the Western Qiang have dwelt near the frontier posts and come into contact with the Han populace. Officials and commoners, driven by greed, have encroached upon them, seizing their livestock and taking their wives and children. For this they harbored resentment and rose in rebellion. Now, if the mounted frontier posts are abolished, arrogance and contempt will arise, disputes will multiply—this is the fifth reason.
“In former times, many soldiers went to war and never returned; their sons and grandsons were left in poverty. If one day they should flee, they would surely seek refuge among their kin among the Xiongnu—this is the sixth reason.
“Moreover, the bondservants and slaves of the border people live in hardship. Many long to flee, saying, ‘We hear that life among the Xiongnu is easy; only the strict watch and guard restrain us.’ Even now, some slip away beyond the frontier—this is the seventh reason.
“Furthermore, bandits and violent men, when pressed by the law, often flee northward beyond the borders, beyond our ability to pursue or restrain them—this is the eighth reason.
“Since the establishment of the frontier defenses, more than a hundred years have passed. Not all were built of rammed earth alone: some relied upon mountain cliffs, stone and timber, river valleys, and water-gates, which were gradually leveled and joined together. Soldiers and laborers toiled to construct and repair them; the hardship and expense accumulated through generations are beyond reckoning. I fear that those who now deliberate have not examined the matter from beginning to end, and wish to abolish at once all corvée service and garrison duties. Yet within ten years—or within a hundred—should circumstances change, and should the barriers collapse and the watch-posts and subterranean passes disappear, new garrisons would again have to be raised and the works rebuilt. The accumulated labor of generations cannot be restored in a single day. This is the ninth reason.
“If the garrisons are withdrawn and the watch-posts reduced, the Chanyu, relying upon his own frontier defenses, will surely feel deep gratitude toward Han and will make incessant requests. Should we then displease him even slightly, the consequences would be beyond all calculation. To open a breach for the tribes and diminish the strength of the Central State—this is the tenth reason.
“Withdrawing garrisons is not the long-term strategy by which lasting peace is preserved and the hundred tribes are held in awe.”
After hearing this, the Emperor issued a decree: “Let there be no further discussion of dismountling the frontier defenses.”
He then dispatched Xu Jia, General of Chariots and Cavalry, to convey this message to Huhanye Chanyu, saying:
“The Chanyu has written, requesting that the northern frontier officials and garrisons be withdrawn, pledging that his descendants will guard the border for generations to come. The Chanyu’s admiration for propriety and his concern for the welfare of the people reveal a far-sighted intention, which We greatly commend.
“The Central Realm, however, maintains barriers and defenses in all four directions—not solely to guard against external threats, but also to restrain disorder within. Clear laws and firm institutions are the means by which order is preserved. We fully understand and appreciate the Chanyu’s intent and harbor no suspicion. Yet, lest the Chanyu be perplexed by the continued maintenance of these defenses, we have therefore dispatched Xu Jia to explain the matter in person.”
“I did not comprehend this far-reaching design. I am deeply grateful that the Son of Heaven has sent a high minister to instruct me. I receive this with reverence and gratitude.”
The 3rd year of Emperor Yuan’s Jianzhao Era (36 B.C.)
In the summer, on June 19, Wei Xuancheng, Marquis of Fuyang, passed away.
In July of autumn, Kuang Heng was appointed Chancellor. On July 14, Li Yanshou, Commandant of the Palace Guards, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
In winter, the envoys sent to the Protector-General of the Western Regions—Cavalry Commandant Gan Yanshou of Beidi and Lieutenant Colonel Chen Tang of Shanyang—acted jointly and slew Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu in Kangju.
Earlier, Zhizhi Chanyu, relying on the strength of his people and boasting of his might, regarded himself as a great power and grew arrogant. Having gained victories, he became increasingly insolent and failed to treat the King of Kangju with due respect. In a rage, he slew the king’s daughter along with several hundred nobles and commoners, some of whom he dismembered and cast into the Dulai River. He compelled the people of Kangju to build a fortified city, forcing five hundred men to labor each day; the work continued for two years before completion. He also sent envoys to demand annual tribute from the kingdoms of Yancai and Dayuan, which dared not refuse.
The Han court dispatched three envoys to Kangju and Zhizhi Chanyu to recover the bodies of Gu Ji and the others who had been killed by them. Zhizhi Chanyu humiliated and tormented the envoys, refused to receive the imperial edict, and instead sent a letter to the Protector-General of the West, feigning submission and claiming that he was in distress and wished to rely upon the mighty Han, even offering to send his son as a hostage. Such was his disdain and duplicity.
Chen Tang was a man of courage and composure, adept at deep calculation and bold in devising quirky stratagems. He delighted in extraordinary achievements. He said to Gan Yanshou:
“The barbarians are by nature awed by great gens. The Western Regions once belonged to the Xiongnu. Now Zhizhi Chanyu’s reputation has spread far and wide; he oppresses Wusun and Dayuan, and frequently conspires with Kangju, intending to subdue them. If he gains control of these two states, within a few years all the cities and kingdoms will be endangered. Moreover, his people are fierce and warlike, often victorious in battle. If they are left unchecked for long, they will surely become a great calamity to the Western Regions.
“Though they dwell in remote lands, they have no strong cities nor effective crossbows. If we draw troops from the agricultural garrisons and combine them with the forces of Wusun, advancing directly upon their camps, they will have nowhere to go if they flee; if they stand and fight, they will not be able to endure. An achievement of a thousand years may be accomplished in a single day.”
Gan Yanshou approved of this reasoning and wished to present it to the court. Chen Tang, however, said, “The Son of Heaven would summon the Three Excellencies and the Nine Ministers to deliberate on such a matter. Our far-reaching design is not something mediocre officials can comprehend, and it will certainly not be approved.” Gan Yanshou still hesitated.
At that time, Gan Yanshou had long been ill and confined to his bed. Chen Tang thereupon took matters into his own hands, mobilizing troops from the commanderies and garrisons under a forged imperial decree. When Gan Yanshou learned of this, he was startled into rising from his bed and attempted to stop him. Chen Tang, enraged, drew his sword and rebuked him, saying, “The army has already been set in motion—would a mere fellow like you dare to obstruct it?” Thereupon Gan Yanshou yielded.
They assembled the host, numbering more than forty thousand men, Han troops together with allied aliens. Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang submitted a memorial acknowledging their unauthorized action, explaining the military situation, and then divided the army into six columns. Three columns advanced by the southern route, crossing the Congling (Pamir) Mountains and proceeding directly toward Dayuan. The other three, led by the Protector-General Gan Yanshou himself, set out from the kingdom of Wensu, entered Chigu(Yshtyk, the capital of Wusun) by the northern route, passed through Wusun territory, crossed into Kangju lands, and advanced westward to the vicinity of Lake Tianchi (Issyk-Kul).
Meanwhile, Baotian, the deputy king of Kangju, led several thousand cavalry eastward to raid near Chigu(Yshtyk). He killed and captured more than a thousand of the people of the Great Kunmi of Wusun and seized large numbers of livestock. He then pursued the Han army from the rear and plundered its supplies. Chen Tang released the auxiliary alien troops to counterattack. They slew four hundred and sixty of the enemy, recaptured four hundred and seventy captives taken from Wusun, and returned them to the Great Kunmi. The horses, cattle, and sheep were taken to provision the army. They also captured a Kangju noble named Inudu.
Upon entering the eastern border of Kangju, Chen Tang ordered that the army should not plunder. He secretly summoned the Kangju noble Tumo and met with him, explaining the authority and trustworthiness of the Han dynasty. They drank together and concluded an alliance, after which Tumo was allowed to depart. The army then advanced and encamped sixty li from the city of Zhizhi Chanyu.
They captured another Kangju noble, Jusezi Nankaimou, and compelled him to serve as guide. Jusezi, being the maternal younger brother of Tumo, harbored resentment toward Zhizhi Chanyu and therefore disclosed all information concerning him. On the following day, the army advanced again and encamped thirty li from the city.
The Chanyu then sent an envoy to Chen Tang, asking, “Why have the Han troops come?”
The answer was: “The Chanyu once wrote, ‘I am in distress and wish to submit to the mighty Han, and to come in person to attend the court.’ The Son of Heaven, taking pity on your abandonment of your former realm and your submission to Kangju, has therefore dispatched the Protector-General to welcome the Chanyu’s wives and children. Fearing to alarm those nearby, he has not yet dared to approach the city walls.”
The envoy went back and forth several times with replies. Thereupon Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang rebuked him:
“We have come from afar on the Chanyu’s behalf, yet to this day not a single noble or chief has come forth to meet the General and receive his commands. Why does the Chanyu neglect this great undertaking, failing in the proper duties between host and guest? Our troops have traveled far; men and cattle alike are exhausted, and our provisions are nearly spent. We fear that we shall have no means of return. We ask the Chanyu to deliberate carefully on this matter with his ministers.”
The following day, they advanced to the banks of the Dulai River near the city of Zhizhi Chanyu and encamped three li away. They saw five-colored banners and pennants raised upon the city walls, with several hundred armored men stationed atop them. More than a hundred cavalry rode back and forth below the walls, while over a hundred infantrymen were drawn up in fish-scale formation at the gates, drilling in martial display.
Those on the walls beckoned toward the Han army, shouting, “Come and fight!” More than a hundred cavalry charged toward the Han camp, but the camp was already prepared, crossbows drawn and aimed. The cavalry withdrew at once. Some officers and soldiers shot at the cavalry and infantry at the gates, forcing them to retreat back within the city.
Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang issued orders to the army, saying: “When the drums are sounded, press forward from all sides, encircle the city, and hold your positions. Dig trenches, block the gates, set large shields in front, and array spearmen and crossbowmen behind to strike those upon the walls.”
The defenders on the towers fled. Outside the earthen walls stood a wooden palisade, from which arrows were shot, inflicting some casualties upon the Han troops. The Han soldiers set fire to the palisade. During the night, several hundred cavalry attempted to break out, but were met by arrows and slain.
Earlier, when the Chanyu heard that the Han army had arrived, he wished to flee, but suspected that Kangju harbored resentment against him and would collude from within. Moreover, hearing that the Wusun and other states had also mobilized their forces, he found no place to escape. At first he departed, but then returned, saying, “It is better to hold our ground. The Han army has come from afar and cannot long sustain itself.”
Thereupon the Chanyu donned armor and ascended the tower. Several dozen of his wives(yanzhi) and concubines also mounted the walls and shot arrows at the attackers. A Han soldier shot Zhizhi Chanyu in the nose, and several of his consorts were killed. The Chanyu then withdrew from the tower.
After midnight, the wooden palisade was breached. The defenders withdrew into the earthen city, climbing the walls and crying out. Kangju then sent more than ten thousand cavalry, divided into over ten detachments, to encircle the city and join with the defenders. Throughout the night they repeatedly assaulted the Han camp, but each attack was repelled.
At dawn, fires rose on all sides. The Han officers and soldiers advanced with loud shouts, drums and gongs resounding and shaking the ground. The Kangju troops withdrew, and the Han forces advanced with large shields, entering the earthen city.
The Chanyu, together with more than one hundred men and women, fled into the inner quarters. The Han soldiers set fires and stormed in, wounding and killing the Chanyu. Deputy Commander Du Xun beheaded Zhizhi Chanyu. They recovered the two Han scepters and the silk documents carried by Gu Ji and the other envoys. The spoils were distributed to those who had captured them.
In total, one thousand five hundred and eighteen heads were taken, including those of wives(yanzhi), crown princes, nobles, and others. One hundred and forty-five persons were captured alive, and more than a thousand surrendered. These captives were distributed among the various city-states and the fifteen kings who had joined the Han coalition forces.
The 4th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (45 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and offered sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.
In March, he traveled to Hedong and made offerings to the Mother Earth deity; a pardon was granted to the convicts of Fenyin.
The 5th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (44 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Lord Zinan of Zhou, was appointed Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou.
In March, the Emperor traveled to Yong and offered sacrifice at the Altar of the Five Deities.
In April of summer, a comet appeared near the constellation Orion.
The Emperor, following the counsel of Confucian scholars such as Gong Yu, issued a decree stating that the Imperial Kitchen should not slaughter animals daily and should reduce its prepared provisions by half. Horses were to be kept only for the imperial carriage and essential official duties. The practices of wrestling; the seldom-used palace maids in the inner gardens; the offices overseeing the Three-Season Garment Works in Qi; the officials of the northern hunting grounds; the salt-and-iron administration; and the Fair-Price Granaries were all to be abolished.
Disciples of the Imperial Academy were no longer limited in number, so that learning might be encouraged. Any commoner proficient in one of the Confucian classics was exempted from corvée. More than seventy categories of punishment were abolished.
The Grand Master of the Censorate, Chen Wannian, passed away.
On June 20, Gong Yu, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. Gong Yu had long submitted many memorials discussing the successes and failures of state affairs. The Emperor esteemed his honesty and integrity and frequently adopted his proposals.
Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu, resenting that the Han favored Huhanye and did not aid him, and believing himself far removed from the Middle Kingdom, mistreated the Han envoys Jiang Naishi and others. He sent an envoy with tribute, requesting the return of his hostage son. The court deliberated on sending Court Guard Marshal Gu Ji to escort the prince. Imperial Counselor Gong Yu and the Erudite Kuang Heng of Donghai argued against it, saying: “Zhizhi Chanyu’s acceptance of the ways of the Central States is but superficial, and his territory lies at an extreme distance. It is fitting that the envoy delivers his son only to the frontier and there turn back.”
Gu Ji submitted a memorial, saying: “Between the Central States and the tribes, a bond has long endured without interruption. Now, having raised and nurtured his son for ten years with great kindness, if we abruptly cease and escort him no farther than the frontier border, returning without completing our purpose, it will appear as abandonment—causing him to feel discarded and bereft of allegiance, thereby nullifying past kindness and sowing future resentment. This is unwise.
“Those who advise against this, having seen the humiliations suffered earlier by Jiang Naishi and the others, imagine such dangers beforehand. I, fortunate to uphold the strength of Han and to receive the enlightened command, will proclaim our profound benevolence; they will not dare to rebel. If they harbor a beast-like heart and behave immorally toward me, then the Chanyu will incur a grave crime and must flee far away, not daring to approach our borders. To sacrifice one envoy so that the people may dwell in peace is strategy for the state and the wish of Your servant. I request permission to deliver him to the court.”
The Emperor approved his counsel.
Upon Gu Ji’s arrival, Zhizhi Chanyu flew into rage and in the end slew Gu Ji and his retinue. Knowing that he had wronged the Han, and hearing that Huhanye was growing stronger daily, he feared attack and sought to flee to a distant region.
The King of Kangju(Sogdiana), long harassed by the Wusun, conferred with his chieftains, saying: “The Xiongnu are a great nation, and the Wusun have long been subject to them. Now Zhizhi Chanyu wanders outside his domain. We may invite him to our eastern marches, join forces to conquer the Wusun, and establish him there, thereby eliminating the Xiongnu threat once for all.” They sent an envoy to Jiankun, where Zhizhi Chanyu then resided, to convey this plan.
Zhizhi Chanyu, already fearing and resenting the Wusun, was greatly delighted by Kangju’s proposal. They formed an alliance, and Zhizhi Chanyu led his forces westward. Many among his followers perished from the cold along the way, leaving but three thousand men. When they reached Kangju, the King of Kangju gave his daughter in marriage to Zhizhi Chanyu, and Zhizhi Chanyu likewise gave his daughter to the King of Kangju. The King of Kangju revered Zhizhi Chanyu greatly, intending to use his strength to overawe the neighboring states.
Zhizhi Chanyu repeatedly borrowed troops to strike the Wusun, penetrating deeply into Chigu[Red Valley, near Lake Issyk-Kul] city, killing and capturing many and driving off livestock. The Wusun did not dare to pursue. An area of five thousand square miles of western land lay desolate and uninhabited.
In winter, on December 9, Grand Master of the Censorate Gong Yu died. On December 19, Xue Guangde, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Gong Yu’s successor.
Zhucheng, Gong Yu’s hometown, Shandong Province. Photo by Rolfmueller
The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (48 B.C.)
In the spring, on January 4, Emperor Xuan was buried at Duling, and a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
On March 10, Empress Wang Zhengjun was established; her father, Wang Jin, was ennobled as Marquis of Yangping.
The surplus yield from the public lands of the Three Metropolitan Districts(Jingzhao, Pingyi, Fufeng), the office of the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, and the public fields of the commanderies and principalities was allocated to aid the impoverished; those whose assets were worth less than a thousand coins were granted seed and grain loans.
Attendant-in-Ordinary Xu Jia, nephew of the Emperor’s maternal grandfather, Marquis Dai of Ping’en Xu Guanghan, succeeded to the marquisate of Ping’en.
In June of summer, as epidemic afflicted the people, the Emperor ordered the Imperial Kitchen to reduce meals, diminished the number of performers in the Music Bureau, and curtailed the horses of the imperial stables, saving expenditure to relieve those in distress and want.
In September of autumn, eleven commanderies and principalities east of Hangu Pass suffered great inundation, leading to famine, and some among the people turned to cannibalism. Funds and grain were dispatched from neighboring commanderies to provide relief.
The Emperor had long heard that Wang Ji and Gong Yu of Langya were learned in the classics and of upright conduct; he therefore sent envoys to summon them. Wang Ji died of illness on the road. When Gong Yu arrived, he was appointed Grandee of Remonstration. The Emperor frequently humbled himself to inquire of him regarding affairs of state.
Gong Yu presented his counsel, saying: “In antiquity, rulers were frugal, taking but a tenth of the people’s produce, and imposing no other levies; thus households were well supplied and the people had abundance. Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wen, and Emperor Jing of Han kept no more than a dozen palace women and only a hundred horses in their stables. In later generations extravagance increased, and ministers followed in its wake. In my humble view, though it is difficult to return wholly to ancient ways, one should strive to emulate them in part for the sake of self-restraint. The palaces now stand completed and cannot be altered, yet other expenditures may certainly be reduced.”
He continued: “In former times, the Three-Season Garment Officer of Qi produced no more than ten hampers of apparel. Now, the Three-Season Officer commands several thousand artisans, expending vast sums each year to fashion garments for the three seasons of spring, summer, and winter; and the nearly ten thousand horses in the royal stables consume enormous stores of grain. In the reign of Emperor Wu, countless beauties, numbering in the thousands, were taken to fill the harem. At his death, much gold, treasure, and rare curios—birds, beasts, fish, turtles, in all one hundred and ninety items—were sealed away; moreover, palace women were confined to garden lodges and tomb precincts. When Emperor Xuan was buried, the same was done. Your Majesty dislikes being reproached for altering precedent, and thus ministers cleave to this practice. This is deeply lamentable.
“Moreover, to reform the realm and foster a new way of life, taking so many women into the palace is exceedingly excessive. The princes keep several hundred wives and concubines, and wealthy officials and commoners maintain dozens of female entertainers, so that resentful women crowd the inner chambers, while celibate men fill the outer quarters. Further, at their burials, the wealthy and renowned hollow the earth above to fill below, exhausting the land for their tombs. These excesses all arise from the upper ranks and are the ministers’ fault for clinging to outworn customs.
“May Your Majesty diligently examine the ways of antiquity and adopt their frugality. Greatly reduce imperial carriages, personal garments, and luxurious goods by two-thirds; choose twenty worthy women to remain in the harem and dismiss the rest, including the childless women kept in mausoleum gardens. Let the stables maintain no more than several dozen horses, and preserve only the hunting park south of Chang’an. In this time of famine, it is fitting sharply to cut and diminish expenditures, to save the people and accord with Heaven’s intent. Heaven raises sages for the benefit of the people, not for their private pleasure.”
The Emperor approved his counsel, issued an edict halting repairs on palaces rarely used, reduced the grain-fed horses of the imperial stables, and curtailed the meat-fed beasts kept by the Water Management Bureau, which oversaw the royal menagerie.
Sima Guang’s commentary: When a loyal minister serves his sovereign, he must first address matters that are difficult, that the easier may thereafter be corrected without exertion; he must remedy what is lacking, that what is strong may proceed without further admonition. At the beginning of Emperor Yuan’s reign, His Majesty humbly sought counsel from Gong Yu. Gong Yu ought to have placed what was urgent before what was secondary. Yet Emperor Yuan lacked firmness and resolve in rectifying governance, allowing slanderous and deceitful officials to grasp authority—this was the great peril of the age—yet Gong Yu spoke not of it. Reverence, caution, and frugality were ever Emperor Yuan’s forte, yet Gong Yu again and again urged him only in these—why so? If Gong Yu’s insight was insufficient to perceive the greater matters, how could he be deemed worthy? And if he knew them yet failed to speak, then his fault is all the heavier.
The Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye again submitted a memorial, declaring that his people suffered hardship and want. An edict ordered the transport of twenty thousand bushels of grain from Yunzhong and Wuyuan Commanderies to supply their needs.
In that year, for the first time, the office of Wuji Colonel was established, assigned to garrison the former territory of the Jushi kingdom and in charge of military farming.
Duling Tomb of Emperor Xuan of Han, Shaanxi Province
The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Ganlu Era (50 B.C.)
In summer, the Prince of Guangchuan, Liu Haiyang, was deposed and exiled to Fangling for engaging in lascivious and incestuous behavior and the unjust killing of innocent people.
In October of winter, a fire broke out in the Xuanshi Hall of the Weiyang Palace.
In this year, Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xiao was relocated and became the Prince of Chu.
Both Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye and Zhizhi sent envoys to the Han court with tributes. The Han treated the envoys of Huhanye with extra respect.
The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Huanglong Era (49 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor went on a journey to Ganquan and performed a suburban sacrifice at the Taizhi altar.
Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye came to the Han court; in February, he returned to his country.
Zhizhi Chanyu thought that Huhanye‘s forces were weak and, subjugated by the Han, would not return to his territory. He then led his people westward, intending to annex the west region. Additionally, the younger brother of Tuqi Chanyu, who originally served Huhanye Chanyu, also fled to the west territory, gathered the remaining troops of his two brothers, and with several thousand men, declared himself Yilimu Chanyu. On the way, he encountered Zhizhi Chanyu, and they fought; Zhizhi Chanyu killed him and consolidated his forces, gaining more than fifty thousand men.
Zhizhi Chanyu heard that the Han had sent troops through the valley to assist Huhanye and decided to remain in the west territory. Realizing that he could not establish control over all the Xiongnu, he moved further west, closer to Wusun, intending to form an alliance. He sent envoys to the Junior Kunmi, Wujiutu, but Wujiutu killed his envoys and dispatched eight thousand cavalry to confront Zhizhi Chanyu. Zhizhi Chanyu detected their plan, mobilized his troops, and attacked Wusun, defeating them. He then moved north to attack Wujie, Jiankun, and Dingling, conquering the three nations. He repeatedly sent troops to attack Wusun and always emerged victorious. Jiankun was seven thousand li east of the Chanyu court and five thousand li south of Jushi. Zhizhi Chanyu established his capital at Jiankun.
In March, a comet appeared in the constellations of Wangliang(Beta Cassiopeia) and Gedao(Epsilon Cassiopeiae), entering the constellation of Purple Forbidden Enclosure.
The Emperor fell gravely ill and assembled his trusted senior ministers. He summoned his maternal relative and Privy Counselor, the Marquis of Leling Shi Gao, the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince Xiao Wangzhi, and the Junior Tutor Zhou Kan to the forbidden inner palace. He appointed Shi Gao as Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry, Xiao Wangzhi as General of the Van and Chamberlain, and Zhou Kan as Grandee of Merit. They all received the Emperor’s posthumous edict to assist in governance and oversee the State Secretariat.
In winter, on December 7, the Emperor Xuan passed away in Weiyang Palace.
Ban Gu’s praising commentary: During Emperor Xuan’s reign, rewards and punishments were delivered with certainty, reputation and performance were meticulously examined. Those involved in administration, literature, and law enforcement were all highly competent. In terms of technical skills, craftsmanship, and tools, few subsequent reigns such as Emperor Yuan and Emperor Cheng’s could match the standards set during the eras of Emperor Xuan, which demonstrated what may look like when officials fulfilled their duties and the people lived in peace.
Encountering the time when the Xiongnu were riven by discord, He pressed down the one with lost moral compass and secured the one with moral standing, and with trusted might overawed the northern barbarians. The Chanyus, admiring his virtue, bowed their heads and declared themselves vassals.
His merit illumined the ancestors, his enterprise descended to his heirs; he may be said to have wrought a mid-renaissance era comparable in virtue to that of King Gaozong of Shang and King Xuan of the Zhou.
On December 26, the Crown Prince(Liu Shi) ascended to the throne. He paid worship at the Emperor Gaozu Temple, honoring the Empress Dowager as the Grand Empress Dowager and the former Empress as the Empress Dowager.
Chigu[Red Valley](Issyk-Kul Lake), Kyrgyzstan. Photo by Dan Lundberg
The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Ganlu Era (53 B.C. continued)
When the Xiongnu‘s Chanyu Huhanye was defeated, the Left Yizhizi King advised Huhanye, suggesting that he should submit to the Han court, seek their assistance, and thus stabilize the Xiongnu. Huhanye Chanyu consulted his ministers, who all opposed the idea. They said, “This is impossible. The customs of the Xiongnu have always valued strength and despised being subjugated. We are a nation that fights on horseback, which has earned us our fame among all the aliens. To die in battle is the destiny of a warrior. Now, in the struggle for the throne, it will either go to an elder brother or to a younger brother. Even in death, we would still have our might, and our descendants would continue to rule over the other nations. Though the Han are strong, they still cannot annex Xiongnu. Why should we abandon our ancient customs, submit to the Han, disgrace the previous Chanyu, and become a laughing stock among the nations? Even if it brings peace, how can we continue to lead all the nomads?”
Left Yizhizi King countered, “This is not true. The balance of power changes over time. Now, the Han are at their peak, and the states of Wusun and other fortified cities have all become their subjects. Since Qiedihou Chanyu time, the Xiongnu have been declining day by day, unable to recover. Even if we struggle mightily here, we have not had a single day of peace. Now, submitting to the Han will ensure our survival; otherwise, we face downfall and destruction. What better plan is there?”
After a prolonged debate when other leaders challenged the Left Yizhizi King, Huhanye Chanyu accepted his advice. He moved his people south closer to the Han border and sent his son, the Right Tuqi King Shulouqutang, to serve at the Han court. Zhizhi Chanyu also sent his son, the Right General Juyulishou, to serve at the Han court.
On February 21, Marquis Xucheng, Xu Yanshou, passed away.
In April of summer, a yellow dragon was seen in Xinfeng.
On April 1, Emperor Gaozu‘s shrine caught fire; on April 9, the Emperor Wen‘s temple caught fire; the Emperor wore plain clothes and mourned for five days.
The king of Wusun, known as the “Mad King,” married Princess Liu Jieyou of the Han, and they had a son named Chimi. However, he did not get along with the princess and was violent and cruel, losing the support of his people. The Han envoys, Guard Marshal Wei Heyi and his assistant, Ren Chang, arrived in Wusun. The princess said, “The Mad King is a disaster to Wusun and killing him should be easy..”
They then plotted to kill him during a banquet by having a soldier draw his sword and strike him. The sword struck off target, slipping to his side, only wounding the Mad King, who then mounted his horse and fled. His son Xishenshou gathered troops and surrounded Wei Heyi and Ren Chang, along with the princess, in Chigu(Yshtyk) City. After several months, Protector-General Zheng Ji led allied forces to rescue them, and the siege was lifted. The Han sent General of Household Zhang Zun with medicine to treat the Mad King and bestowed him gold and silk. Subsequently, Wei Heyi and Ren Chang were arrested, shackled, brought back to Chang’an in a wooden cage cart, and executed.
Earlier the Fat King Wengguimi‘s son by a Xiongnu woman, Wujiutu, was frightened when the Mad King was injured. He fled with other Wusun chiefs(Yabghu) to live in the northern mountains, spreading rumors that the Xiongnu forces of his mother’s family were coming, thus regaining people’s support. Later, he attacked and killed the Mad King and established himself as Kunmi (King of Wusun). That same year, the Han sent General of Smashing Qiang, Xin Wuxian with an army of 15,000 to Dunhuang, to open canals and stockpile grain in preparation for an expedition against Wujiutu.
Princess Liu Jieyou‘s former maid, Feng Liao, was skilled in document processing and familiar with state affairs of the Han. She had previously carried the Han envoy’s scepter for the princess, earning the respect and trust of the walled cities and states, who called her Madame Feng. She became the wife of the Right Grand General of Wusun. The Right Grand General and Wujiutu were close. Protector-General Zheng Ji sent Madame Feng to persuade Wujiutu that the Han army was advancing and would surely annihilate them, urging him to surrender. Terrified, Wujiutu said, “I wish to receive a junior title to settle myself!”
The Emperor summoned Madame Feng to personally inquire about the situation. He sent Madame Feng as the envoy, Court Usher Zhu Ci and Court Guard Gan Yanshou as deputies, escorting Madame Feng. Madame Feng, in a brocade carriage with the envoy’s scepter, issued an imperial edict to Wujiutu, ordering him to meet Marquis Changluo, Chang Hui, in Chigu(Yshtyk) City. The Emperor then appointed Yuanguimi as the Great Kunmi and Wujiutu as the Junior Kunmi, bestowing upon them seals and ribbons. The General of Smashing Qiang(Xin Wuxian), without crossing the border, returned. Later, Wujiutu did not fully return with all the chiefs (Yabghu), so the Han court sent Marquis Changluo Chang Hui with three battalions to garrison Chigu and reassign the territories and populations. The Great Kunmi was assigned over 60,000 households, while the Junior Kunmi had over 40,000 households. However, the people’s allegiance remained with the Junior Kunmi.
The 2nd year of Emperor Xuan’s Ganlu Era (52 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor established his son Liu Xiao as the Prince of Dingtao.
A general amnesty was declared across the empire, and the head tax on the people was reduced by a quarter(30 out of 120).
The Zhuya Commandery rebelled. In April of summer, Protector Commandant Zhang Lu led troops to suppress the rebellion.
Du Yannian was relieved of his duties due to old age and illness. On May 1, Yu Dingguo was appointed as the Grand Master of Censorate.
In September of autumn, the Emperor established his son Liu Yu as the Prince of Dongping.
In December of winter, the Emperor traveled to Fuyang Palace and Shuyu Tower.
Zhao Chongguo, the Marquis of Yingping and Marquis Zhuangwu, passed away this year. Previously, Zhao Chongguo had requested to retire due to old age, and he was granted a seated carriage drawn by four horses, and gold, and he was allowed to retire to his home. Whenever the court faced major issues involving the border tribes, he was often consulted for military strategies and planning.
The Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye approached the Wuyuan border, offering tribute, and the willingness of paying homage in January of next year. The Emperor ordered officials to discuss the appropriate rituals. The Chancellor and the Imperial Censor said, “According to the ancient system of the sage kings, the central court is prioritized over the principalities, and the principalities are above the barbarian tribes. When the Xiongnu Chanyu pays homage, his ceremonial rites should be equal to those of the princes and vassal kings, with his rank positioned just below them.”
The Crown Prince’s Grand Tutor, Xiao Wangzhi, argued, “The Chanyu is not subject to our court system, and is thus considered a foreign power. We should treat him as a foreign guest, placing his rank above the princes and vassal kings. When foreign tribes bow and acknowledge their vassal status, and the Han accepts their submission without treating them as subjects, this embodies the principles of reining in cattle through kindness and enjoying the blessings of modesty. The ‘Book of Documents’ states: ‘The Rong and Di barbarians are untameable;’ indicating that their allegiance is fickle. If a future Xiongnu ruler hides and avoids appearing at court, they won’t be treated as rebellions. This would be a long-term strategy for lasting peace.”
The Emperor adopted this advice and issued an edict: “The Xiongnu Chanyu, referred to himself as the Northern Vassal, pays homage on January 1st of our calendar. Due to my lack of virtue, We cannot fully accept this enormous honor. Thus, he shall be treated with the respect due to a guest of the nation, with his rank above the princes and vassal kings. He will address himself as a subject but does not have to mention his name.”
Xun Yue‘s commentary: The principle expressed in “Spring and Autumn Annals” is that the king has no external enemies, desiring to unify all under Heaven. The Rong and Di tribes are situated far away, and human contact is limited, so they are not influenced by our calendar system or ceremonial education. This is not out of respect, but due to the circumstances. The “Book of Songs” says, “From those Di and Rong tribes, none dare not come to see the king.” Therefore, the rulers of distant lands must present tribute to the king. If they do not fulfill their duties, then reprimands and commands are issued to them. They are not on equal footing with our nation.
Xiao Wangzhi wanted to treat them with respect due to foreign guests, placing them above princes and dukes, which is an overstep of authority, disrupting the natural order, and violation of propriety. If it were a temporary expedient, that would be a different matter.
The Emperor issued an edict to send the Commandant of Chariots and Cavalry, Han Chang, to welcome the Chanyu. He dispatched 2,000 cavalrymen from the seven commanderies to line the road which Huhanye Chanyu passed through.
Confucius Temple in Linyi(Donghai), Shandong Province
The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Shenjue Era (58 B.C.)
In February of spring, phoenixes and sweet dew descended upon the capital; in celebration of these auspicious omens, the Emperor proclaimed a general amnesty throughout the empire.
Huang Ba, Prefect of Yingchuan, had governed for eight years, during which time his administration brought remarkable improvement. Throughout the realm, phoenixes and other auspicious birds appeared frequently in the commanderies and counties; Yingchuan was especially blessed with these manifestations.
In April of summer, an edict declared:
“Prefect Huang Ba of Yingchuan has diligently carried out imperial commands, and the people have been transformed by his virtue. Filial sons, loyal brothers, virtuous wives, and obedient grandchildren have greatly increased. Farmers yield their fields to one another; no one takes lost property along the roads. Widows and orphans are cared for; the poor receive support. For eight years there have been no death-row criminals nor vicious offenders confined. He is hereby appointed Marquis Within the Passes, granted one hundred cattie of gold, and awarded a stipend of two thousand piculs of grain.”
Village educators (Three-Elders), those known for filial piety, fraternal devotion, and righteous conduct, as well as exemplary farmers, were likewise granted ranks and silk. Several months later, Huang Ba was elevated to Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince.
In May, Xiongnu Chanyu sent his younger brother, Huliuruo King Shengzhi, to pay tribute to the Han court.
In October of winter, eleven phoenixes appeared at the imperial mausoleum at Duling.
The Prefect of Henan, Yan Yannian of Donghai, governed with extreme severity and caprice. Heinous criminals fated for death were sometimes released without cause, while petty offenders were sometimes executed senselessly. None could discern his intentions; the people trembled in fear, not daring to transgress. In winter, when prisoners from subordinate counties were brought for sentencing, blood was said to run for several miles. The people of Henan called him the “Butcher Chief.”
Yan Yannian had long despised Huang Ba. When the two served as prefects of neighboring commanderies, Huang Ba received honors far surpassing him, leaving Yan Yannian jealous and uneasy. During a locust infestation, his Associate Yi went out to combat the plague. Upon returning, he spoke to Yan Yannian, who remarked coldly, “Are these locusts a feast for the phoenix birds?” Yi, aged and timid, feared being harmed.
Yi and Yan Yannian had both served in the Chancellor’s office, and Yan Yannian had once treated him generously with lavish gifts. But Yi’s fear deepened. Casting a divination, he received an omen of death, which left him in despair. He went to Chang’an and submitted a memorial listing ten crimes committed by Yan Yannian. After delivering it, he swallowed poison, killing himself to show he did not speak falsely.
The case was investigated by the Associate Imperial Censor, who found evidence of grievances, slander, and political impropriety in Yan Yannian’s words and conduct. In November, Yan Yannian was convicted of malfeasance and sacrilege, and executed in the marketplace.
Earlier, Yan Yannian’s mother had traveled from Donghai hoping to spend the New Year’s Day with him and worship their ancestors. Arriving in Luoyang, she witnessed prisoners being executed and was horrified. She refused to enter the commandery guest house, staying instead at a travelers’ lodge. Yan Yannian came to greet her, but she shut the door, refusing to see him. Hat in hand, he bowed repeatedly to the ground outside her door.
After a long while, his mother admitted him and sternly rebuked: “You are blessed to serve as the prefect over a thousand-li domain, yet I hear of no acts of benevolence or moral instruction that bring peace to the people. Instead, you rely on punishments, constantly taking lives to assert authority. Is this the conduct of a parent of the people?”
Yan Yannian confessed his wrongdoing and repeatedly prostrated himself in apology. He escorted his mother to the prefect residence. After the New Year’s Day, she told him: “Heaven’s Way is clear and impartial; one must not kill recklessly. Never did I imagine that in my old age I would witness my own grown son face punishment and death! I return east now, to watch over the family graves and await the arrival of your body.”
She departed and told her other sons and relatives what had transpired. A little more than a year later, Yan Yannian indeed met his downfall, and throughout Donghai all praised the mother’s prescience.
The Xiongnu Chanyu Woyanqudi was violent and fond of war, stirring widespread resentment throughout the nation. The Crown Prince and the Left Tuqi King frequently defamed the nobles of the Eastern Division, deepening their anger. When the Wuhuan attacked Guxi King on the Xiongnu eastern frontier and captured many people, the Chanyu flew into a rage. Fearing for his life, Guxi King allied with Wuchanmu and the nobles of the Eastern Division to enthrone Jihoushan as Huhanye Chanyu. They mobilized forty to fifty thousand troops from the Eastern Division and marched west to attack Woyanqudi, advancing to the region north of the Guqieshui River. Before battle was joined, the forces of Woyanqudi collapsed and fled.
Woyanqudi sent a message to his brother, the Right Tuqi King, saying: “The Xiongnu are united against me. Will you send troops to aid me?”
The Right Tuqi King replied: “You have no regard for your kin, murdering brothers and nobles. Meet your fate yourself—do not come to pollute me!”
In fury and despair, Woyanqudi Chanyu took his own life.
The Left Grand Juqu, Dulongqi, fled to the Right Tuqi King, and their followers all surrendered to Huhanye Chanyu. Huhanye returned to the central court and, after several months, disbanded the troops, sending them back to their original territories. He then summoned his brother Hutu’wusi, who had been living among the common people, and appointed him Left Luli King. At the same time, he dispatched agents to sow dissension among the nobles under the Right Tuqi King, attempting to incite them to kill him.
That winter, however, Dulongqi and the Right Tuqi King jointly established Rizhu King Boxutang as Tuqi Chanyu, and mobilized tens of thousands of troops to strike eastward against Huhanye Chanyu. Huhanye’s forces were defeated and scattered. Tuqi Chanyu returned to the central court and appointed his eldest son Dutu’wuxi as the Left Luli King and his younger son Gumou’loutou as the Right Luli King, establishing both in the Xiongnu’s court.
The 2nd year of Emperor Xuan’s Shen’jue Era (60 B.C.)
In February of spring, phoenixes alighted and sweet dew descended upon the capital. The Emperor proclaimed a general amnesty across the realm.
In May of summer, Zhao Chongguo memorialized: “At the outset, the Qiang possessed fifty thousand troops. In total, seven thousand six hundred heads have been taken; thirty-one thousand two hundred have surrendered; five to six thousand drowned in the Yellow River and the Huangshui River or died of hunger. According to careful reckoning, those who escaped with the chieftains Jian Gong and Huang Di number no more than four thousand. Chieftain Miwang who has submitted to us is confident that they may deal with them in due time. I request that the stationed troops be withdrawn.”
The memorial was approved. Zhao Chongguo then disbanded his forces and returned to Chang’an.
Zhao Chongguo’s close friend, Haoxing Ci, upon meeting him, offered counsel, saying: “Many credit the success against the Qiang and the capture of prisoners to the assaults of the Generals of Strong-Bows and Smashing Qiang. Yet those of insight believe the enemy, though weakened, would have surrendered in any case even without further battle. In your upcoming meeting with the Emperor, General Zhao should attribute the victory to the two who led the attacks, saying their achievement far exceeds your modest claim. You would not have lost anything by saying that.”
Zhao Chongguo replied: “I am old, and rank has already been granted me in full measure. How could I deceive the enlightened lord by diminishing myself with fraud? Matters of war and state must be weighed with utmost care. As an aged servant, I must speak truthfully of the gains and losses of these military actions, even at the cost of my life. If I do not speak now, who will dare to do so after I am gone?”
He then submitted his strategy to the Emperor. The Emperor approved, dismissed General of Smashing Qiang, Xin Wuxian, restored him to his former post as Prefect of Jiuquan, and reinstated Zhao Chongguo as General of the Rear.
In autumn, the Qiang leaders Ruoling, Liliu, Zuzhong, and Erku killed the former chiefs of the Xianling—Youfei and Yang Yu. Qiang chieftains such as Dize, Yangdiao, Lianger, and Miwang made more than four thousand followers of Jian Gong and Huang Di surrender. The Emperor appointed Ruoling and his younger brother Dize as tribal kings; the remaining chiefs were each ennobled as marquises or lords. A new vassal state under Jincheng Commandery was established to receive and settle the surrendered Qiang.
An edict was issued for the recommendation of a capable Colonel to serve as Protector of the Qiang. At that time Zhao Chongguo was ill, and the Four Offices—the Chancellery, Censorate, General of Chariots and Cavalry, and General of the Van—nominated Xin Wuxian’s younger brother, Xin Tang. Zhao Chongguo rose from his sickbed and memorialized urgently, saying:
“Xin Tang is a drunkard and unfit to command the tribes. His elder brother, Xin Linzhong, is the more capable leader.”
Although Xin Tang had already received the seal of office, a new edict was issued replacing him with Xin Linzhong. Later, when Xin Linzhong fell ill and retired from his post, the Five Offices nominated Xin Tang a second time.
As Zhao Chongguo had forewarned, Xin Tang indulged habitually in drink among the Qiang, who soon rose again in rebellion. Xin Wuxian harbored deep resentment toward Zhao Chongguo, and submitted a memorial accusing Zhao Chongguo’s son, General of the Household Zhao Ang, of leaking confidential matters of state. Zhao Ang was imprisoned, and later took his own life.
The Inspector Colonel of the Capital Metropolitan, Gai Kuanrao of Weijun, was lenient in manner, upright in conduct, and generous in disposition. He often spoke and acted contrary to the Emperor’s inclinations. At that time, the Emperor emphasized strict application of law, granting great authority to the Palace Secretariat, dominated by eunuchs. Gai Kuanrao submitted a memorial saying:
“Now the sacred Way has declined, Confucian doctrine is neglected, and the survivors of castration (i.e. eunuchs) stand as though equal to Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao. Statutes are treated as though they were the Book of Odes and the Book of Documents.”
He also quoted from the Book of Changes, stating: “The Five Emperors ruled the realm as public domain, while the Three Kings governed it as private estate. A private estate passes to descendants; public office is entrusted to the worthy.”
Upon reading the memorial, the Emperor deemed his words slanderous and forwarded it to the ministers of two-thousand-picul rank for prosecution. The Bearer of the Mace (Chief of Capital Security) accused Gai Kuanrao of urging the Emperor to abdicate to him—an act of great treason.
The Grandee of Remonstration, Zheng Chang, sympathized with Gai Kuanrao’s loyalty and concern for the state, lamenting that his earnest counsel had been vilified by bureaucrats and misconstrued. He submitted a memorial defending him:
“It is said that mountains breed fierce beasts because their brambles go unchecked; likewise, a nation holds loyal ministers only when traitors and sycophants do not thrive. Inspector Colonel Gai Kuanrao seeks neither ease of life nor the comfort of fine meals. When appointed, he bears the weight of the realm; when dismissed, he defends righteousness even at the risk of death. He has no powerful kin like Uncle Xu Guanghan or Shi Gao to rely on, nor patrons such as Jin Midi or Zhang Anshi to shelter him. His charge is to supervise government; he walks the straight path—thus he offends many and pleases few. He dared to speak of state affairs, and for this he faces charges of treason and a sentence of death. I am fortunate to follow the steps of worthy officials, and my duty requires speaking in remonstrance. I dare not be silent.”
But the Emperor did not heed his words. In September, Gai Kuanrao was dismissed, imprisoned, and at last drew his sword beneath the northern gate of Weiyang Palace, ending his own life. All who witnessed it were moved to sorrow.
The Xiongnu Chanyu, Xulüquanqu, led more than one hundred thousand cavalry to hunt near the frontier, intending thereafter to invade and raid the border regions. Before he reached his objective, however, his subordinate Tichuqutang defected to the Han and reported the situation. The court enfeoffed Tichuqutang as Marquis of Luxilulu for military advisory, and dispatched General Zhao Chongguo with over forty thousand horsemen to garrison along the border of the nine commanderies in preparation for Xiongnu incursion. After about a month, the Chanyu suffered a severe hemorrhage and dared not advance; he therefore withdrew. Soon after, he sent envoys—Tiwangdulihuci and others—to the Han to seek peace, but no reply was delivered before Chanyu’s death.
When Xulüquanqu first ascended the throne, he had alienated his queen, Zhuanqu Yanzhi. Zhuanqu Yanzhi engaged in secret relations with the Right Tuqi King Tuqitang. When Tuqitang prepared to attend an assembly at Longcheng, Zhuanqu Yanzhi discouraged him, warning that Xulüquanqu Chanyu was gravely ill and urging him not to travel far. Within days the Chanyu died. Seizing the moment, the powerful noble Haosu King Xing’wei’yang sent envoys to summon the princes, but before they arrived Zhuanqu Yanzhi and her brother—the Left Grand Juqu (general) Dulongqi—conspired to enthrone the Right Tuqi King as the next Chanyu, known as Woyanqudi. Woyanqudi Chanyu was the great-great-grandson of Wuwei Chanyu.
Woyanqudi was harsh and violent. Upon taking power, he executed Xing’wei’yang and others, elevated Dulongqi to high office, dismissed all the sons and relatives of Xulüquanqu, and replaced them with his own kin.
Xulüquanqu’s son, Jihoushan, unable to succeed to the chanyu-ship, fled to his father-in-law Wuchanmu. Wuchanmu had governed a small state between Kangju and Wusun, long harried by attacks. He led several thousand of his people to surrender to the Xiongnu. Hulugu Chanyu had previously given Wuchanmu in marriage to the elder sister of his nephew King Rizhu, and entrusted him with command of his followers, assigning him to rule the Western Division.
The King Rizhu, Xianxianchan, was the son of the Left Tuqi King and originally destined to inherit the chanyu-ship. Yet he yielded it to Hulugu Chanyu, who promised to return the throne to him in time. Many among the people therefore believed Xianxianchan ought to be Chanyu instead. However, he bore deep resentment toward Woyanqudi, and thus led his followers in an attempt to defect to the Han. He sent envoys to Quli and secretly communicated with the Cavalry Commandant Zheng Ji.
Zheng Ji summoned fifty thousand allied troops from the tribes of Quli and Qiuci (Kucha) to receive King Rizhu, along with twelve thousand of his followers and twelve minor princes. They followed Zheng Ji to the great bend of the Yellow River, where several defectors were apprehended and executed by Zheng Ji. Thereafter they advanced to the capital. The Han court enfeoffed Xianxianchan as Marquis of Gui’de.
Having subdued Jushi and secured the surrender of the King Rizhu, Zheng Ji exercised authority throughout the Western Regions. He thereafter maintained the security of the routes northwest of Jushi and was appointed Viceroy Protector-General. Thus, the office of Viceroy originated with Zheng Ji. He was ennobled as Marquis of An’yuan. Establishing his headquarters in the central Western Regions, he stationed himself at the city of Wulei, more than 2,700 li beyond Yangguan. With the Xiongnu greatly weakened and no longer daring to contend for the Western Regions, the former office of Commandant of Servants was abolished. The Viceroy thereafter supervised the affairs of the thirty six states—such as Wusun and Kangju—reporting disturbances and pacifying them. Matters that could not be settled peacefully were suppressed by force. Thus the authority of the Han extended firmly into the Western Regions.
Woyanqudi Chanyu appointed his cousin Boxutang as the new King Rizhu.
The King of Wusun, Kunmi Wong Guimi, submitted a memorial through the Marquis of Changluo, Chang Hui, stating: “I wish to appoint Yuan Guimi, my grandson of Han descent, as my heir. I further request a new marriage alliance with a Han princess, to strengthen kinship and sever all ties with the Xiongnu.”
The Emperor referred the matter to the court for deliberation. The Grand Herald Xiao Wangzhi opposed it, saying: “Wusun lies far on the frontier, its situation unstable. Such a request should not be granted.”
However, the Emperor, acknowledging Wusun’s recent merits and its break from Xiongnu allegiance, approved the proposal. The younger sister of the Queen of Wusun, Liu Jieyou—whose name was Liu Xiangfu—was selected as princess. She was prepared with lavish gifts and escorted by Chang Hui to Dunhuang. Before they crossed the frontier, news arrived of Kunmi Wong Guimi’s death. The nobles of Wusun, acting collectively and according to a prior agreement, installed Cenqu’s son Nimi as Kunmi, styling him the “Mad King.”
Chang Hui then submitted a new memorial requesting that the young princess remain in Dunhuang. He hurried ahead to Wusun, rebuked the nobles for failing to enthrone Yuan Guimi, and declared he would return the princess to the Han. The matter was once again brought to the court for deliberation. Xiao Wangzhi opposed granting Chang Hui’s request, “Wusun is duplicitous and difficult to rely upon. Now that we return the princess simply because Yuan Guimi was not made as Chanyu, we have not betrayed the Wusun—indeed, it benefits the Han. Should the princess be wed, future corvée and burdens would only grow.”
The Emperor agreed, and ordered the young princess to be returned.
Jiaohe Ruin, the Capital of Jushi, Turpan, Xinjiang. Photo by Hiroooooo
The 3rd year of Emperor Xuan’s Di’jie Era (67 B.C. continued)
During the reign of Emperor Wu, conscription was onerous, and the people were burdened with toil and impoverishment. The destitute, driven by hardship, often transgressed the law, and corruption spread throughout the realm. To restore order, Zhang Tang, Zhao Yu, and others were appointed to establish stringent laws and ordinances. They enacted measures that imposed heavy penalties upon those who concealed offenses, and laws that held the superiors accountable, while implicating all their subordinates. They rewarded those who applied excessive severity or lodged wrongful accusations, while punishing those who showed leniency or doubt toward the accused.
As cunning and deceit grew among the people, prohibitions multiplied in response; thus, the legal codes became ever more intricate. The system of justice turned oppressive, with countless documents and statutes filling the archives—so voluminous that no one could read them all. The application of law came to differ by region, and similar crimes were judged with dissimilar sentences. Corrupt officials exploited the confusion, bending laws to serve their own ends. Those who sought mercy were compelled to bribe, that lighter statutes might be invoked; those falsely accused were condemned to death. The cries of injustice resounded throughout the empire, and resentment filled the hearts of the people.
A staff officer of the Justice Ministry, Lu Wenshu of Julu, presented a memorial:
“I have heard that in the state of Qi, the calamities caused by Prince Wuzhi were turned into prosperity by Duke Huan; and in the state of Jin, the disorders brought about by Concubine Li were transformed into hegemony by Duke Wen. In more recent times, the Prince of Zhao, Liu Ruyi, perished untimely, and the Lü clan rose in rebellion; yet from that turmoil emerged Emperor Wen, venerated as Emperor Taizong. Thus it may be seen that chaos and misfortune often precede the rise of a sagacious ruler. When a new age succeeds one of disorder, there must arise extraordinary virtue to distinguish the present from the past, thereby manifesting Heaven’s Mandate. Formerly, when Emperor Zhao died without an heir, and the Prince of Changyi sank into debauchery, it was indeed Heaven’s will, opening the way for the most enlightened to ascend the throne.
“I have heard that the Spring and Autumn Annals place great weight upon the rectification of succession and the unity of the realm. At the beginning of a reign, utmost caution must be observed to establish orthodoxy. Your Majesty, upon ascending to the throne, has aligned with the rightful order. It is now fitting to correct the faults of former times, to affirm the transmission of the Mandate, to cleanse the laws of their excesses, to relieve the people of their grievances, and to respond to the will of Heaven.
“It is recorded that the Qin dynasty had ten wrongdoings, one of which still remains: the officers of the penal law. The handling of judicial affairs is the lifeblood of the empire. The dead cannot be restored to life, and the mutilated cannot be made whole again. The Book of Documents says, ‘Better to spare the guilty than to slay the innocent.’ Yet the law officials of today are contrary to this: they pursue harshness to gain merit, regarding cruelty as justice. Those who punish with severity win praise, while those who judge with equity fall into peril. Thus the magistrates of law desire the death of the accused, not from hatred, but to secure their own safety. Hence blood flows in the markets, and the condemned stand side by side; the yearly toll of executions numbers in the tens of thousands. This rips the heart out of the humane and the wise, and delays the coming of great peace—this is the root of the disorder.
“Human nature is such that in comfort one cherishes life, and in agony one seeks death. Under the lash and the torture, what confession cannot be extracted? Prisoners, unable to endure the pain, take hints from their interrogators; and the officials, eager to conclude the case, guide them toward the desired confession. Fearing later reversal, they forge and embellish evidence to make it irrefutable. Even if a fair judge like Gao Yao were to review it, he would have deemed that a thousand deaths could not atone for such crimes. Why so? Because the records, filled with forced confessions and falsified testimony, stand before him as proof. Thus has it been said: ‘Draw a circle upon the ground as a prison, and none dare step within; carve wood into a prosecutor, and all fear to behold him.’ These are laments for the cruelty of officials and the cries of victims who perish unjustly. Only Your Majesty, by reforming the laws and tempering punishments, can restore harmony to the people and bring forth the tranquil winds of Great Peace throughout the realm.”
The Emperor approved his words.
In December, an imperial edict was issued, declaring:
“In recent times, the officials of justice have grown adept at twisting the law, and the use of fabricated charges has become ever more severe. This is the fault of My governance. False judgments have led to wrongful convictions, the innocent have suffered punishment, and fathers and sons have been left in grief and despair. We are deeply pained by this! Now, We appoint staff of the Justice Ministry to help resolve doubtful cases of the commanderies. Their authority is limited, their emoluments modest. Furthermore, an Appeal Panel shall be established within the Ministry of Justice, with a stipend of six hundred piculs, composed of four members. Their duty shall be to ensure impartiality and uphold My intent toward fairness.”
From that time forth, whenever the autumn reviews of appeals were held, the Emperor would frequently reside in the Hall of Proclamation, abstaining from food, deliberating upon the cases himself. Thus the judgments of criminal matters grew increasingly equitable, and justice was more faithfully rendered throughout the realm.
Zheng Chang, the Prefect of Zhuojun Commandery, submitted a memorial, stating: “Under the current enlightened Sovereign, even without establishing the Appeal Panel, the legal system will naturally rectify itself. However, for the sake of future generations, it is advisable to revise and simplify laws and regulations. Once the laws are clearly defined, the foolish common people will know what to avoid, and corrupt officials will have no room for manipulation. Failing to correct the fundamental issues while setting up appeal panels is tantamount to address the trees while losing sight of the forest. Once a new ruler enthroned leading to decline and negligence in governance, it would allow the appeal panels rooms to manipulate the laws and become a source of disorder again.”
During the reign of Emperor Zhao, the Xiongnu sent four thousand cavalry to hunt near the kingdom of Jushi. When the Five Generals of Han mounted their campaign against the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu horsemen who were hunting there fled in terror. Thereafter, Jushi restored its communication with the Han. The Xiongnu, enraged, summoned the Jushi crown prince, Junsu, intending to hold him as a hostage. But Junsu, being grandson of the king of Yanqi and unwilling to become a captive of the Xiongnu, fled to Yanqi. The king of Jushi then appointed his younger son, Wugui, as crown prince. When Wugui succeeded to the throne, he forged marriage ties with the Xiongnu and caused them to block the passage between Wusun and the Han.
In that same year, vice minister Zheng Ji of Kuaiji, together with Colonel Sima Xi, led pardoned convicts to establish military farms in the Quli kingdom. They amassed grain, raised an army of more than ten thousand from various tribes, and, together with the recruited peasants, attacked Jushi and defeated it. The king of Jushi sued for surrender. The Xiongnu, angered, sent troops to strike Jushi. Zheng Ji and Sima Xi advanced northward to confront them, and the Xiongnu dared not proceed. Leaving one captain and twenty soldiers to guard the king, Zheng Ji returned to Quli. The Jushi king, fearing that the Xiongnu might return and kill him, fled on horseback to Wusun. Zheng Ji then received the king’s wife and children and escorted them to Chang’an.
The Xiongnu appointed Dou Mo, the king’s younger brother, as the new king of Jushi, moved the remaining people eastward, and forbade them from dwelling in their former lands. Zheng Ji then sent three hundred officers and soldiers to settle in the reclaimed Jushi territory.
Since his accession, the Emperor had dispatched envoys repeatedly to search for his maternal kin. For a long time none of those found proved to be the true relatives. In this year, however, the Emperor at last discovered his maternal grandmother, Lady Wang, and her sons, Wang Wugu and Wang Wu. He bestowed upon Wang Wugu and Wang Wu the rank of Inner Marquis. Within a few months, generous rewards and gifts were lavished upon them, amounting to a vast sum.
Reflection by Rio Grande 