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Tag: Xiongnu

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 267): Cronies Ascending to Heaven

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 27 Scroll 35 (continued)

    Chinese proverb 人得道，鸡犬升天 with immortal, family, chickens, and dogs
    A joyful Taoist immortal rises among family, animals, clouds, and a heavenly palace.

    The 1st year of Emperor Ai’s Yuanshou Era (2 B.C. continued)

    On January 17, Empress Dowager Fu died. She was buried together with Emperor Yuan at Weiling and was posthumously styled Empress Dowager Fu of Emperor Yuan.

    The Chancellor and the Imperial Censor memorialized the throne concerning the sins of Xifu Gong, Sun Chong, and others. Consequently, the Emperor dismissed Xifu Gong and Sun Chong from office and sent them back to their respective states. In addition, several dozen court attendants, officials of the various offices, and eunuch attendants were removed from their posts.

    Bao Xuan submitted a memorial stating: “Your Majesty takes Heaven as father, Earth as mother, and nourishes the people as your children. Since ascending the throne, the ‘father’ has been obscured”—referring to the solar eclipse—“the ‘mother’ has been shaken”—referring to the earthquakes—“and the ‘children’ have been alarmed by false rumors. Today’s eclipse, occurring at the beginning of the three cycles of year, month, and day, is truly something to be feared. Even common people, on the first day of the new moon, are careful not to break their household utensils; how much more so when the sun itself is eclipsed? Your Majesty has deeply reproached yourself inwardly, withdrawn from the main hall, invited frank remonstrance, sought criticism, dismissed and sent away the imperial affines, and other sycophants who consumed without contributing, summoned Kong Guang to serve as Grand Master of Merit, exposed the wrongdoing of Sun Chong and Xifu Gong, dismissed them from office, and sent them back to their fiefs. The people are all pleased and joyful. When Heaven and the people are of one mind, the satisfaction of the people reflects the intent of Heaven.

    “However, on February 16, a white rainbow crossed the sun, and continuous clouds gathered without yielding rain. This shows that the anxieties and resentments of the people have not yet been resolved. Dong Xian, Privy Counselor and Commandant of the Cavalry, is not related to Your Majesty by blood, yet he has risen through his good look, flattery, and sycophancy. The rewards bestowed upon him have been excessive, exhausting the state treasury. He has combined three residences into one and still finds them too small, even demolishing a court infirmary to enlarge his estate. Imperial envoys and laborers serve the residences of Dong Xian and his father, and even officials and soldiers on night duty are rewarded for serving his household. Whenever there is a sacrificial gathering at their ancestral tomb, the Imperial Kitchen is ordered to provide the food. The revenues of all under Heaven, which ought to sustain one sovereign, are instead exhausted upon the household of Dong Xian. Is this the will of Heaven, or the will of the people?

    “Heaven cannot be deceived for long; when favor is carried to such an extreme, it becomes a means of harming the one so favored. If Your Majesty truly wishes to show compassion to Dong Xian, then you should apologize to Heaven and Earth, reconcile yourself with the people of the empire, dismiss Dong Xian, and send him back to his fief. Confiscate his carriages and household goods and return them to the state treasury. In this way, Dong Xian and his father may preserve their lives; otherwise, those hated by all under Heaven have never been able to enjoy lasting peace. Sun Chong and Xifu Gong as well are unfit to remain in their fiefs and should be removed as a gesture of repentance before the world. Recall He Wu, Shi Dan, Peng Xuan, and Fu Xi, so that the people may see clearly what accords with the will of Heaven, and establish great policies to inaugurate an era of great peace.”

    The Emperor, moved by these extraordinary words, accepted Bao Xuan’s recommendations and recalled He Wu and Peng Xuan. Bao Xuan was appointed Inspector Colonel of the Capital Region.

    The Emperor, under the pretext of a parting edict left by Empress Dowager Fu, ordered the Grand Empress Dowager to instruct the Chancellor and the Censorate to increase Dong Xian’s fief by 2,000 households and to grant him three additional marquisates: Marquis of Kongxiang, Marquis of Ruchang, and Marquis of Yangxin. Wang Jia, however, returned the imperial edict and submitted a sealed memorial of remonstrance, stating:

    “I have heard that titles, rewards, and land allocations are bestowed by Heaven. As it says in the Book of Documents: ‘Heaven mandates virtue, giving five garments to men of different rank, each with its proper form and color.’ A ruler who confers titles on Heaven’s behalf must therefore be especially cautious. If land is granted improperly, the people will not be convinced, and the harmony of yin and yang will be disturbed, bringing deep and swift harm to Your Majesty’s health. That Your Majesty’s health has long been unsettled has caused me profound inward anxiety.

    “As for Dong Xian, Marquis of Gao’an, he is a flattering favorite. Your Majesty has exhausted titles and ranks in honoring him, depleted the treasury in enriching him, and diminished the dignity of the sovereign in indulging him. Your authority has already been impaired, and the imperial treasury exhausted, yet you still fear that it is not enough. Wealth comes from the labor of the people. Emperor Wen once wished to build a terraced pavilion, but abandoned the project because it would have cost only a few hundred catties of gold, thus displaying his restraint. Now, by contrast, Dong Xian squanders public resources for private gain, and his household has received as much as a thousand catties of gold. Never in history has there been such favor shown to an eminent subject, and word of it has spread to every quarter, provoking universal resentment. A local saying has it: ‘When a thousand men point at someone, he will die though he is not ill.’ This has always been a matter of deep concern to me.

    “Now the Empress Dowager, invoking the alleged final command of Empress Dowager Fu of Yongxin, instructs the Chancellor and the Censorate to increase Dong Xian’s fief and grant him three marquisates. I, Wang Jia, am profoundly perplexed by this. The collapse of mountains, the earthquakes, and the solar eclipse occurring on the first day of the first month are all warnings of yin encroaching upon yang. Dong Xian has already been enfeoffed twice; Fu Yan and Fu Shang have twice exchanged fiefs; Zheng Ye sought rewards through private favor. They have already received favor beyond all measure, yet they continue to demand without end, utterly ignorant of restraint. This gravely undermines the intention of honoring Empress Dowager Fu. It cannot be proclaimed to the realm; great harm has already been done.

    “Excessive indulgence and deceit throw yin and yang out of harmony, and their mutual disturbances in turn affect the body. Your Majesty has long been unwell, and the heir has not yet been established. It is fitting that all affairs now be rectified, bringing them into accord with the hearts of Heaven and the people, so as to seek blessings and protection. Why should Your Majesty disregard your own safety and indulge private whims, forgetting the hardships endured by Emperor Gaozu in establishing these institutions and intending them to be transmitted for all eternity?

    “I have sealed and returned this edict and do not dare allow it to be made public. It is not that I begrudge death or do not dare impeach myself for acting contrary to the decree; rather, I fear that news of this will spread throughout the land.”

    The Minister of Justice, Liang Xiang, was handling the case of Liu Yun, Prince of Dongping. At the time, fewer than twenty days remained in the winter month, and Liang Xiang suspected that Liu Yun had been falsely accused and that the charges had been exaggerated. He proposed that the case be transferred to Chang’an and reviewed by the ministers and officials. The Director of the State Secretariat, Ju Tan, and the Deputy Director, Zongbo Feng, agreed that this should be permitted. The Emperor, however, believed that Liang Xiang and the others were merely acting with excessive caution while waiting to see how his illness would develop, maintaining a two-faced posture and hoping to let the winter pass without taking decisive action against evil and punishing wrongdoing. Consequently he dismissed Liang Xiang and the others from office and reduced them to commoner status.

    A few months later, a general amnesty was proclaimed. Wang Jia submitted a memorial recommending that “Liang Xiang and the others are men of talent and good conduct. A wise ruler commends his ministers for their achievements and forgives their past faults. I privately feel regret on behalf of the court for these three men.”

    When this memorial was presented, the Emperor was displeased. More than twenty days later, Wang Jia submitted the sealed memorial quoted above opposing the addition of further households to Dong Xian’s fief, which further angered the Emperor. The Emperor summoned Wang Jia to the State Secretariat and rebuked him, saying, “Liang Xiang and the others had previously been charged with disloyalty, and their crimes were already well established. You yourself had already impeached yourself on this matter. Why, then, are you now praising them and saying that you ‘regret this on behalf of the court’?” Wang Jia removed his cap and apologized for his offense.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 265): Treading Lightly with Neighbors

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 26 Scroll 34 (continued)

    Mounted warrior in fur armor facing a robed official holding a scroll on a dirt path
    A mounted Xiongnu warrior met a robed official delivering a scroll

    The 4th Year of Emperor Ai’s Jianping Era (3 B.C. continued)

    Xiongnu Chanyu submitted a letter expressing his desire to visit the Han court once every five years. At that time, the Emperor was ill, and some argued: “The Xiongnu come from the upper reaches and bring ill fortune. In the Huanglong(49 B.C.) and Jingning(33 B.C.) eras, when the Chanyu came to the Middle Kingdom, great misfortunes followed.” For this reason, the Emperor hesitated and consulted the ministers, who likewise believed that facilitating the Chanyu’s visit at such a time would only burden the state treasury. Accordingly, the Chanyu’s envoy made preparations to depart. Before he left, however, Yang Xiong, Attendant at the Yellow Gate, submitted a memorial advising against this decision:

    “I have heard that the governance taught in the Six Classics values preventing disorder before it arises, and that the art of war values securing victory before battle is joined. These principles may appear subtle and ineffable, yet they are the foundation of great affairs and cannot be neglected. Now the Chanyu has written to request an audience, but the state has refused him and turned his envoy away. In my foolishness, I believe that from this moment a breach will open between Han and Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were a people whom the Five Emperors(Yellow Emperor, Emperor Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun) could not make their subjects, nor could the Three Sovereigns(Yu, the Great, King Tang of Shang, King Wu of Zhou) bring them fully under control. That they have now been brought to submission is therefore most manifest.

    “I dare not range too far into remote antiquity, but shall instead take examples from the Qin onward to make the matter clear. Despite the might of the First Emperor of Qin and the power of General Meng Tian, they still did not dare press beyond the Western River, and so they built the Great Wall to mark the boundary. Then, when the Han dynasty first rose, despite the majesty and martial authority of Emperor Gaozu, an army of three hundred thousand men was besieged at Pingcheng. At that time, though there were many able strategists and wise ministers, the means by which they escaped remain unknown to this day. Later, during the reign of Empress Lü, the Xiongnu behaved with arrogance and insolence, and were appeased only through secret letters sent by powerful ministers.

    “During the reign of Emperor Wen, the Xiongnu invaded and plundered the northern frontier, and their scouts reached Yong and Ganquan. The capital was thrown into alarm, and three generals were dispatched to garrison Xiliu, Jimen, and Bashang as a precaution, remaining there for several months before being withdrawn. When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he attempted to entice the Xiongnu into the trap at Mayi, but the effort ended in vain, wasting resources and exhausting the troops without even catching sight of a single Xiongnu, much less the Chanyu himself. Only after he had deeply considered the strategy necessary for the survival of the state and laid plans for generations to come did he mobilize several hundred thousand troops and send Wei Qing and Huo Qubing to command them. Over the course of more than ten years, they crossed the western reaches of the Yellow River, traversed the Gobi Desert, broke through Mount Tianyan, struck the Chanyu’s royal court, reached the furthest limits of Xiongnu territory, pursued the fleeing enemy, and offered sacrifice to Heaven on the Khentii Mountains and to Earth at Mount Guyan. They reached Lake Baikal and captured hundreds of Xiongnu nobles. From that time onward, the Xiongnu were filled with fear and sought peace through marriage alliances, yet even then they did not submit as vassals.

    “Did our predecessors willingly bear such immense expense and mobilize innocent people merely to satisfy ambitions to explore the northern wilderness? Certainly not. They understood that without a single great exertion, there could be no long-lasting peace, and that without temporary expense, there could be no enduring tranquility. Therefore they were willing to endure the mobilization of hundreds of thousands of troops in order to crush the jaws of those ravenous tigers, and to pour out the resources of the state treasury until they filled the ravines of Mount Lu(Mount Dianyan), without regret. At the beginning of the Benshi era(73 B.C.), the Xiongnu, harboring malicious intent, sought to seize Wusun and harassed the princess there. In response, we dispatched five generals leading one hundred and fifty thousand cavalry to attack them, yet gained little. The campaign served only to display our military might like thunder and wind. Although they returned empty-handed, two generals were nevertheless punished, which shows that the northern barbarians had not yet been subdued and that the Middle Kingdom still could not rest securely.

    “By the Yuankang(65 B.C.-) through Shenjue(61 B.C.) eras, however, great virtue and divine enlightenment had spread abroad, and the Xiongnu fell into internal strife, with five Chanyus contending for supremacy. The Rizhu King and Huhanye Chanyu came over to us and bowed in submission as vassals. Yet even then we held them only loosely and did not exercise full control as if over a maid. Since that time, we have not refused those who wished to come for an audience, nor have we compelled those who did not wish to come. Why is this so? Foreign peoples are by nature fierce and belligerent, formidable in appearance and strong in body. They rely upon strength and courage; they are difficult to transform through benevolence, yet easy to provoke through hostility. Their power is hard to subdue, and their goodwill hard to preserve. Therefore, before they have submitted, we labor our armies in distant campaigns, exhaust the resources of the state, heap up corpses, and shed blood in order to break their strength and overcome them, and even then it is achieved only with difficulty. But once they have submitted, we must appease and comfort them, maintain relations through gifts and ceremony, and observe bows and salutations with meticulous care, with every detail prepared and attended to.

    “In former times we sacked the cities of Dayuan, trampled the stockades of the Wuhuan, breached the walls of Guzeng, swept through the lands of Dangzi of the Western Qiang, cut down the banners of Joseon, and seized the standards of the Two Yues, Nanyue and Minyue. In nearby campaigns, no more than ten days or a month were required; in distant ones, the toil did not exceed that of two seasons. Thus we ploughed up their courts, swept clean their hamlets, turned them into commanderies and counties, and set officials over them. Like clouds dispersed and mats rolled up, they left behind no lingering calamity. Only the northern Xiongnu were not so easily dealt with. They are truly the great enemy of the Middle Kingdom. In this they far surpass those of the other frontiers. For this reason, the men of former ages esteemed the threat they posed all the more and never dared to take them lightly.

    “Now the Chanyu seeks with a sincere heart to return to allegiance, wishing to leave his court and present himself before Your Majesty. This accords with an ancient strategy long anticipated by the divine spirits. Even if it should entail expense to the state, it is an expense that must be borne. How can we refuse him on the grounds that he brings ill fortune from upstream of the Yellow River, keep him at a distance with vague promises of some uncertain future date, erase past favor, and open the way to future estrangement? Once we arouse suspicion and distance them, causing them to harbor resentment in their hearts, then if they repudiate their former pledges, seize upon past words, and lay their grievances upon Han, thereby cutting themselves off, in the end they will have no intention to face northward in submission. They will be beyond intimidation and beyond persuasion. How could this not become a great cause for anxiety?

    “A wise ruler perceives what has not yet taken form; a keen listener hears what has not yet made a sound. If we truly act before matters arise, there will be no need for arms and no cause for worries. Otherwise, once a breach has opened, then no matter how wise the advisers within or how eloquent the envoys without, it will still be inferior to preventing it beforehand. Moreover, our former efforts to control the Western Regions and establish commanderies, garrisons, and protectorates over the thirty-six states cost millions each year. Was this because we feared Kangju or Wusun might cross Bailongdui and invade our western frontier? No—it was done in order to control the Xiongnu. To labor for a hundred years and lose it in a single day, to spend ten in order to save one—this is what I find troubling for the state. I hope Your Majesty will consider how to prevent disorder and war before they arise, and thereby avert disaster on the frontier.”

    Upon reading the memorial, the Emperor was brought to his senses. He recalled the Xiongnu envoy and sent another letter to the Chanyu granting his request. Yang Xiong was rewarded with fifty bolts of silk and ten cattie of gold. The Chanyu, however, fell ill and sent another envoy to request permission to visit in the following year, and this too was granted by the Emperor.

    As Dong Xian’s intimacy with the Emperor grew ever more excessive, the Ding and Fu clans began to feel threatened by his influence. Meanwhile, Fu Yan, Marquis of Kongxiang, and Xifu Gong schemed to obtain positions of power from which they might direct the government. At this time, the Chanyu, because of illness, still had not come to court. Seizing upon the opportunity, Xifu Gong submitted a proposal, suggesting:

    “The Chanyu was supposed to cross the frontier in November, but later excused himself on grounds of illness and did not come, which raises suspicion that some other scheme is afoot. The two Kunmis of Wusun are weak, whereas Beiyuanzhi is strong and has allied himself with the Chanyu, even sending his son to attend at his side. There is reason to fear that they may join forces and overwhelm Wusun. If Wusun falls, the Xiongnu will grow stronger, and the Western Regions will be endangered. We may make use of a defector from the barbarians, have him impersonate an envoy of Beiyuanzhi, and send a letter to the Emperor petitioning that, by imperial authority, the Chanyu be ordered to return Beiyuanzhi’s hostage sons. This message can then be passed along so that the Xiongnu envoys will also hear of it. This is what is meant by the saying: ‘The highest form of warfare is to thwart the enemy’s strategy; next to that is to break his alliances.’”

    After the memorial was presented, the Emperor summoned Xifu Gong and convened the ministers and generals for discussion. Gongsun Lu, General of the Left, argued:

    “The Central Empire has always pacified the barbarians through authority and trust. Xifu Gong’s plan, which relies on deception and advances a strategy rooted in mistrust, is unacceptable. Moreover, the Xiongnu have long depended upon the virtue of the former emperors, guarding the frontier and maintaining their status as vassals. Now the Chanyu, because of illness, is unable to come to court to pay tribute, but he has sent an envoy to explain the matter and has not failed in his duty as a vassal. I, Gongsun Lu, believe that in my lifetime I shall never see the Xiongnu bring trouble to our borders.”

    Xifu Gong pulled at Gongsun Lu from behind and said, “I am making plans for the state, hoping to anticipate future developments and prepare for matters before they take shape, considering what may arise over generations to come. But Gongsun Lu would make his plans according to his old age and short span of life, looking only at what lies immediately before him. My views are not on the same plane as Gongsun Lu’s; we cannot even speak of them on the same day.”

    The Emperor said, “Well spoken!” He then dismissed the ministers and continued the discussion privately with Xifu Gong.

    Taking this opportunity, Xifu Gong further proposed: “Disasters and anomalies have been appearing with increasing frequency. I fear that some extraordinary event must be brewing. We should send the Grand General to inspect the frontier troops, strengthen our defenses, and execute a prefect in order to establish authority and overawe the barbarians on every side. In this way we would respond to these strange portents and anomalies.

    “Those who deliberate on government are troubled by men who are fawning, obsequious, and treacherous; who are glib and cunning in argument; and who are harsh and severe. In the past, Duke Mu of Qin did not follow the advice of Baili Xi and Jian Shu, and thus brought ruin upon his army. He afterward repented and blamed himself, loathed the ministers who had led him astray, and longed for the counsel of gray-haired elders; thus his name was passed down to later ages. I wish that Your Majesty would examine the warnings of antiquity, turning them over again and again for comparison, and not let the first words that enter your ears become fixed preconceptions.”

    The Emperor, however, did not listen.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 252): Imperial Adoption

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    A Jade Disk Excavated from the Tomb of Prince of Dingtao

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (8 B.C.)

    In the first month of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    The Emperor summoned the Chancellor Zhai Fangjin, Grand Master of the Censorate Kong Guang, General of the Right Lian Bao, and General of the Rear Zhu Bo to the inner court to deliberate on the selection of an heir between the Prince of Zhongshan and the Prince of Dingtao. Zhai Fangjin, Wang Gen, Lian Bao, and Zhu Bo all held that “the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, is the son of the Emperor’s younger brother. The Book of Rites states: ‘The son of a brother is as one’s own son; when established as heir, he becomes imperial son.’ Therefore, the Prince of Dingtao ought to be named heir.”

    Kong Guang alone dissented, arguing: “The Rites give precedence to closeness of kinship in establishing an heir. The Book of Documents, in the chapter Pan Geng, records that during the Shang dynasty succession passed from elder brother to younger brother. The Prince of Zhongshan is the son of the late Emperor and the Emperor’s own younger brother; he should therefore be the heir.”

    The Emperor rejected Kong Guang’s view, stating that “the Prince of Zhongshan lacks capability; moreover, according to the Rites, brothers may not enter the same ancestral temple.” Accordingly, on February 9, an edict was issued appointing the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, as Crown Prince. Feng Shen, the affinal uncle and Grand Master of Remonstration of the Prince of Zhongshan, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yixiang, and the Zhongshan princedom was augmented by thirty thousand households as compensation.

    The Bearer of the Mace, Ren Hong, was appointed Grand Herald and dispatched to summon the Prince of Dingtao. Liu Xin submitted a memorial expressing reluctance, saying: “I lack the competency and virtue required for the position of Crown Prince. I wish to remain in the residence of the Prince of Dingtao in the capital, attending daily upon the court and awaiting the birth of a worthy heir, after which I may return to my princedom and serve as a vassal.” The memorial was presented to the Emperor, who took note of it.

    On February 14, Kong Guang was demoted to Minister of Justice for opposing the decision on the heir, and He Wu was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Earlier, an edict had sought descendants of the Yin (Shang) dynasty, but those descendants were found to have split into more than ten surnames, and the direct line of succession could not be determined. Kuang Heng and Mei Fu both proposed that the descendants of Confucius be appointed as successors to the Yin dynasty. The Emperor approved and granted Kong Ji the title of Marquis Shaojia of Yin. In March, Kong Ji and the Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou, were both elevated to the rank of duke, each receiving a fief one hundred li in extent.

    The Emperor visited Yong and performed sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altar.

    While serving as Minister of Justice, He Wu submitted a proposal, stating: “The decline of customs and the increasing complexity of government affairs mean that present-day chancellors cannot compare with those of antiquity. The Chancellor alone now manages the affairs of the three highest offices, which is why state business has long been neglected and left unresolved. The Three Excellencies should be reestablished.” The Emperor agreed.

    In April of summer, the Emperor bestowed the seal of the Grand Marshal upon Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang, and established a public office for him, while abolishing the post of General of Agile Cavalry. He appointed He Wu, Grand Master of the Censorate, as Grand Excellency of Works and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Fanxiang. These offices were accorded honors equivalent to those of the chancellery, thus constituting the three highest offices.

    In autumn, on August 8, Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan, died.

    Xiongnu Juya Chanyu also died. His younger brother Nangzhiyasi succeeded him as Wuzhuliu Ruodi Chanyu. Wuzhuliu Chanyu appointed his younger brother Yue as Left Tuqi King and Yu as Right Tuqi King. The Han dispatched General of the Household Xiahou Fan and Lieutenant Colonel Han Rong as envoys to the Xiongnu.

    Someone informed Wang Gen: “There is a tract of Xiongnu land wedged deep into Han territory, extending as far as Zhangye Commandery. It produces distinctive resources, such as timber suitable for arrows and eagle feathers. If this land were obtained, it would greatly benefit the frontier: the state would gain abundant resources, expand its territory, and the general’s reputation would be enhanced without limit.”

    Wang Gen relayed this proposal to the Emperor, who was inclined to request the land directly from the Chanyu. However, fearing that a refusal might undermine imperial authority and damage the Emperor’s prestige, Wang Gen disclosed the Emperor’s intention to Xiahou Fan and instructed him to present the request as his own initiative. When Xiahou Fan reached the Xiongnu court, he addressed Wuzhuliu Chanyu, saying: “I have observed that the Xiongnu possess land that intrudes into Han territory as far as Zhangye Commandery. The Han maintain three commandant posts along the frontier, with hundreds of soldiers enduring cold and hardship and suffering prolonged exhaustion. The Chanyu should submit a letter offering this land, straightening the boundary. This would reduce the burden on the commandants and troops, repay the Emperor’s favor, and the recompense from Han would surely be generous.”

    Wuzhuliu Chanyu asked, “Is this an imperial edict, or merely a request from the ambassador?”

    Xiahou Fan replied, “It reflects the intent of an edict, though I am also presenting it here as a proposal for the Chanyu’s consideration.”

    The Chanyu said, “This land is occupied by King Wenyutu. We are not fully aware of its extent or resources. Let me dispatch a man to inquire into it.”

    Xiahou Fan and Han Rong returned to Han. Later, they were again sent as envoys to the Xiongnu and renewed the request for the land.

    The Chanyu responded: “Our ancestors have held this land for five generations. The Han never sought it before—why do they do so now? I have already consulted King Wenyutu. The western vassals of the Xiongnu built their yurts and carts from the timber of this mountain, and it was also land of my late father, which we dare not relinquish.”

    Xiahou Fan returned and was demoted to Prefect of Taiyuan. Wuzhuliu Chanyu sent a letter to the Han detailing Xiahou Fan’s request for the land. An imperial edict replied to the Chanyu: “Xiahou Fan falsely claimed the intent of an edict in requesting land from the Chanyu, an offense punishable by death. However, in light of two recent general amnesties, he has been reassigned as Prefect of Jinan and is henceforth forbidden from ever going to the Xiongnu.”

    In winter, on October 14, Wang Gen fell ill and was relieved of his duties.

    Since the Crown Prince, Liu Xin, had already been adopted as the Emperor’s heir, he could no longer attend to the sacrifices of his own forefathers. In November, the Emperor therefore appointed Liu Jing, grandson of the Prince of Chu, as Prince of Dingtao, to continue the lineage of Liu Kang, Prince Gong of Dingtao. The Crown Prince wished to present his gratitude by genuflection. The Junior Tutor, Yan Chong, argued: “According to the rites, one who has been adopted as heir may not attend to private kinship, nor is it proper for him to offer genuflection.” The Grand Tutor, Zhao Xuan, held that genuflection to one’s father should be allowed, and the Crown Prince agreed with him. An edict was issued to inquire into the grounds for this open expression of gratitude. The Minister of the State Secretariat submitted a memorial impeaching Zhao Xuan, and the Emperor demoted him to Privy Treasurer; the Chamberlain Shi Dan was appointed Grand Tutor in his place.

    When the Crown Prince was young, his grandmother, Queen Dowager Fu, personally raised and cared for him. After he was established as Crown Prince, an edict directed that Queen Dowager Fu and the Crown Prince’s mother, Consort Ding, should reside separately at the Dingtao official lodge in the capital and not see him regularly. After some time, Empress Dowager Wang proposed that Queen Dowager Fu and Consort Ding be allowed to visit the Crown Prince’s palace once every ten days. The Emperor replied: “The Crown Prince is the heir to the throne and should serve Your Majesty together with us; he should not attend to private relatives.”

    Empress Dowager Wang said: “The Crown Prince was small, and Queen Dowager Fu raised him. Now, visiting the Crown Prince’s residence is merely an expression of affection from his nurse and does not constitute impropriety.” Accordingly, Queen Dowager Fu was permitted to visit the Crown Prince’s palace, while Consort Ding, who had not raised him, was not allowed to do so.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 251): Shady Succession

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    Jetisu, Kazakhstan, which traced back to Wusun, Photo by Mheidegger

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (11 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor traveled to Ganquan and performed the rites at the Taiyi Altar. In March, he went to Hedong to offer sacrifices to Deity Earth. After completing the sacrifices, he proceeded to Mount Longmen, ascended the Daoist Temple at Mount Li(Li Guan), and climbed Mount Xiyue (Mount Hua, the western peak), before returning.

    In April of summer, he established Liu Shou, son of the Prince Xiao of Guangling Liu Ba, as the new Prince of Guangling.

    Earlier, the Wusun Minor Kunmi Anri had been killed by surrendered captives, plunging the Wusun chieftaincy into chaos. An edict summoned Duan Huizong, former Prefect of Jincheng, appointing him Left Bureau Manager, General of the Household, and Grand Master of Merit, and dispatching him to pacify the Wusun. Duan Huizong installed Anri’s brother Mozhenjiang as Minor Kunmi, restored stability to the state, and returned. 

    At that time, the Great Kunmi Cilimi was brave and powerful, and Mozhenjiang feared being absorbed by him. He therefore sent the nobleman Wu’riling to feign surrender and then assassinated Cilimi. The Han court intended to punish this with troops but was unable to do so, and instead sent General of the Household Duan Huizong to establish Yizhimi, grandson of Princess Liu Jieyou, as Great Kunmi.

    After some time, the Great Kunmi Yizhimi and the chieftain Nanqi killed Mozhenjiang, and Anri’s son Anlimi succeeded as Minor Kunmi. The Han regretted not having executed Mozhenjiang earlier and again sent Duan Huizong to mobilize the forces of the various states under the Wuji Colonel in order to put Mozhenjiang’s son Fanqiu to death. Duan Huizong feared that deploying a large army into Wusun territory would alarm Fanqiu and cause him to flee beyond reach. He therefore stationed the assembled troops at Dianlou, selected thirty elite crossbowmen, proceeded directly to the Kunmi’s camp, summoned Fanqiu, charged him with Mozhenjiang’s crimes, and personally executed him with his sword. The officials and attendants were struck with terror and hastened back.

    The Minor Kunmi Anlimi then surrounded Duan Huizong with several thousand cavalry. Duan Huizong explained the grounds for punishing Mozhenjiang, saying: “To surround and kill me now would be like plucking a single hair from a Han ox. The heads of the king of Dayuan and of Zhizhi Chanyu were hung in the marketplace—this is well known among the Wusun.”

    The Minor Kunmi and the others submitted, saying: “Mozhenjiang betrayed the Han, and the execution of his son was justified. But why were we not informed beforehand, so that we might have treated him to food and drink as a farewell?”

    Duan Huizong replied: “Had I informed Kunmi in advance, he would have fled and hidden himself, committing an even greater offense. Had he been treated to food and drink before being handed over, it would have wounded your family bonds. For these reasons, I did not give prior notice.” The Minor Kunmi and the others wept and withdrew.

    Duan Huizong returned and reported on his mission. The Emperor granted him the title of Marquis of the Inner Pass and awarded him one hundred catties of gold. Because Nanqi had killed Mozhenjiang, Duan Huizong appointed him Commandant of Solid Defense. He reprimanded the Dalu and the Dajian (Wusun officers) for their role in the assassination of Cilimi, stripped them of their golden seals and purple ribbons, and replaced these with copper seals and inked ribbons.

    Mozhenjiang’s brother, Beiyuanzhi, conspired to kill the Great Kunmi and led more than eighty thousand people north to Kangju, intending to borrow troops to annex the territories of the two Kunmies. The Han court again dispatched Duan Huizong, together with Protector-General Sun Jian, to guard against them.

    After the division of the Wusun into two Kunmies, the Han was beset by anxiety and unrest, and there were no years of peace. At this time, Kangju once more sent its prince to serve the Han and presented tributes. The Protector-General, Guo Shun, submitted a proposal, stating:

    “In the past, the Xiongnu were powerful not because they controlled both Wusun and Kangju; nor did they submit as vassals because they had lost these two states. Although the Han accepted hostages from all three countries, the states continued to exchange gifts and interact as before. They watched one another closely and seized opportunities to act aggressively. United, they could not trust one another; divided, none could dominate or control the rest.

    “At present, our alliance with Wusun has brought little benefit and instead caused trouble for the central regions. Yet since the alliance with Wusun was established earlier, and now both they and the Xiongnu acknowledge allegiance, it would be inappropriate to reject them. Kangju, however, is arrogant and deceitful, refusing to bow to our envoys. When the Protector-General’s officials arrive in their country, they are seated below the Wusun envoys, and the king and nobles finish eating and drinking before serving our representatives. This is done to display contempt and to boast before neighboring states. Given this, why would they send their son to serve us? It is a fraudulent gesture, feigning goodwill in order to facilitate trade and profit.

    “The Xiongnu, a great nation among the barbarians, now serve the Han with great respect. If the Chanyu hears that Kangju refuses to bow, he may regret having humbled himself. We should send Kangju’s prince back and sever all further exchanges, to demonstrate that the Han does not tolerate disrespectful states.”

    Despite this, as the relationship was newly established and the Han valued contact with distant lands and their envoys, the court did not completely sever ties with Kangju and maintained a relationship.

    The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (10 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 10, a landslide occurred on Min Mountains in Shu Commandery, blocking the river for three days and causing it to run dry. Liu Xiang deeply lamented this, saying: “In the Zhou dynasty of antiquity, when Mount Qi collapsed, the Three Rivers(Jingshi, Weishui, Luoshui river) dried up, and King You of Zhou perished. Mount Qi was the place from which the Zhou arose. The Han dynasty originated in Shu and Hanzhong, and now, in the land of its origin, a mountain has collapsed, the rivers have dried up, and a comet has appeared in the constellation of Scorpius, stretching from Orion to Sagittarius. This is a most dire omen, and the dynasty is likely to fall!”

    On February 20, Chunyu Chang was granted the title of Marquis of Dingling.

    In March, the Emperor went to Yong and performed sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altars.

    The Emperor intended to overawe the nomadic peoples with a grand display of animals. In autumn, he ordered the Intendant of Fufeng to mobilize the populace to enter the southern mountains (Zhongnan Mountains), ranging from Bao Valley and Xie Valley in the west to Hongnong in the east, and south as far as Hanzhong, to set nets and traps and capture bears, wild beasts, and birds. These were loaded into caged carts and transported to the Animal House of Changyang Palace, where they were released into an enclosed ground for the nomadic visitors to engage in hand-to-hand combat. The Emperor personally watched the spectacle.

    The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (9 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor visited Ganquan Palace and performed sacrifices at the Taiyi Altar.

    The Emperor’s younger brother, Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan, and his nephew, Liu Xin, Prince of Dingtao, came to court. Prince Liu Xing brought only his tutor, whereas Prince Liu Xin was accompanied by his Grand Tutor, Prime Minister, and Central Commandant. Finding this curious, the Emperor questioned the Prince of Dingtao about it. Liu Xin replied: “According to Han laws and regulations, princes coming to court may bring officials from their state holding ranks of two thousand piculs. In my princedom, the Grand Tutor, Prime Minister, and Central Commandant all hold ranks of two thousand piculs; therefore, I brought them all.” The Emperor then ordered Liu Xin to recite from the Book of Songs. Liu Xin recited fluently and was able to explain the text.

    On another day, the Emperor asked the Prince of Zhongshan, “Why did you bring only your tutor? Which law or regulation permits this?” Liu Xing was unable to reply. The Emperor then ordered him to recite from the Book of Documents, but he failed. Moreover, when the Emperor granted meals to eat together, Liu Xing continued eating after the Emperor had finished, until he himself was full, which was deemed impolite. When he rose and departed, his socks came loose. The Emperor therefore judged him to be lacking in ability and increasingly favored the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, often praising his talents.

    At that time, only these two princes were closely related to the Emperor. The grandmother of the Prince of Dingtao, Queen Dowager Fu, accompanied him to court. She secretly bribed Empress Zhao, Consort[Zhaoyi] Zhao, and Wang Gen, General of Agile Cavalry. Seeing that the Emperor had no sons, they sought to form alliances for the future and jointly recommended the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, as heir. The Emperor himself admired Liu Xin’s abilities, granted him the rites of adulthood, and sent him back to his state. He was seventeen years old at the time.

    In March, the Emperor visited Hedong and performed sacrifices to the deity of the Earth.

    Two meteorites fell in Duguan county.

    Wang Gen recommended Gu Yong, who was summoned and appointed Grand Minister of Agriculture. Gu Yong submitted more than forty proposals, many of them repetitive and largely focused on personal criticism of the Emperor and his harem. He aligned himself with the Wang clan, which the Emperor was aware of, and thus did not fully trust him. After serving as Grand Minister of Agriculture for more than a year, Gu Yong fell ill. When his sick leave exceeded three months, he was dismissed without extension. He died several months later.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 230): Appearance of Nepotism

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 21 Scroll 29 (continued)

    Changzhi (Shangdang), the Hometown of Feng clan, Shanxi Province

    The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Jingning Era (33 B.C. continued)

    At first, the Left Yizhizi King had proposed the strategy by which Huhanye Chanyu submitted to the Han, thereby bringing peace and stability. Later, however, slander arose against him, alleging that he boasted of his own merit. Huhanye Chanyu therefore grew suspicious and resentful. Fearing execution, the Left Yizhizi King fled to the Han with more than a thousand followers. The Han court granted him the title of Marquis Within the Passes, allotted him a fief of three hundred households, and permitted him to retain the seal and ribbon of a Xiongnu king.

    When Huhanye Chanyu later came to court, he met with the Left Yizhizi King and said, “Your counsel greatly benefited me, bringing peace to the Xiongnu. This merit is yours and cannot be forgotten. I failed to trust you and allowed you to depart without seeking to detain you—this was my fault. I now wish to report this to the Son of Heaven and request your return to the Xiongnu court.”

    The Left Yizhizi King replied, “The Chanyu relied upon Heaven’s mandate in submitting to the Han and thereby attained peace. This was due to the divine favor of the Chanyu and the blessing of the Son of Heaven—how could I claim such merit? Having already surrendered to the Han, to return again to the Xiongnu would be to serve two masters. I wish to serve the Chanyu by remaining as an envoy of the Han, and I dare not obey your command.”

    Though Huhanye Chanyu repeatedly urged him, he could not persuade the Left Yizhizi King to return, and thus departed alone.

    The Chanyu then conferred upon Wang Zhaojun the title of Ninghu Yanzhi (“Queen of Pacifying the Nomad”), and she bore him a son named Yituzhiyashi, who later became the Right Rizhu King.

    The Crown Prince underwent his capping ceremony.

    In February, the Grand Master of the Censorate, Li Yanshou, passed away.

    Earlier, Shi Xian had observed that Feng Fengshi and his sons were men of reputation and influence, and that Feng Fengshi’s daughter, Feng Yuan—known as Feng Zhaoyi[Lady of Bright Deportment]—served as a favored consort within the inner palace. Desiring to attach himself to their power, Shi Xian recommended Feng Qun, the older brother of Feng Yuan, saying: “The Feng Zhaoyi’s elder brother, Herald Feng, is deferential and punctilious in carrying out commands; he is fit to attend within the inner quarters.”  The Emperor summoned Feng Qun, intending to appoint him as Privy Counselor. Feng Qun, however, seized the occasion to speak openly against Shi Xian’s monopolization of authority. The Emperor was greatly annoyed and dismissed him back to a Palace Gentleman.

    When the office of Grand Master of the Censorate fell vacant, many officials recommended Feng Qun’s elder brother, the Grand Herald Feng Yewang. The Emperor ordered the Minister of State Secretariat to select the most worthy candidate among officials with 2000-picul rank, and Feng Yewang was judged to be best in conduct and ability. The Emperor then consulted Shi Xian, who replied: “Among the Nine Ministers, none surpasses Feng Yewang. Yet because he is the elder brother of Consort(Zhaoyi) Feng, I fear that later generations may say Your Majesty elevated him out of partiality toward your consort.”

    The Emperor agreed, saying, “Well spoken—I had not considered this.” He then told the officials, “If I were to appoint Feng Yewang among the Three Excellencies, future generations would surely say that I favored my consort’s kin, and would cite Feng Yewang as their example.”

    In March, the Emperor issued an edict, saying:

    “Firm and unyielding, steadfast and resolute, indeed without personal desire—such is Feng Yewang, Grand Herald. Clear of mind and skillful in speech, fit to be dispatched to the four quarters—such is Wulu Chongzong, Privy Treasurer. Upright and incorrupt, frugal and disciplined—such is Zhang Tan, Junior Tutor to the Heir Apparent. Let the Junior Tutor be appointed Grand Minister of Justice.”

    The Prefect of Henan, Shao Xinchen of Jiujiang, was appointed Privy Treasurer. Formerly Prefect of Nanyang, and later transferred to Henan, Shao Xinchen consistently ranked first in governance. He treated the people as his own children, delighted in promoting their welfare, personally encouraged agriculture, and opened irrigation channels. The population of his commandery doubled. Officials and commoners alike cherished him and called him “Father Shao.”

    In the same month, the tombs and gardens of Emperor Hui (Liu Ying), Empress Dowager Wen (Empress Dou), and Empress Dowager Xiaozhao (Zhao Jieyu, Consort Gouyi of Emperor Wu) were restored.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 229): Ten Reasons for Securing Border

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 21 Scroll 29 (continued)

    Yin Mountains

    The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Jingning Era (33 B.C. continued)

    The Chanyu rejoiced greatly and submitted a letter, saying: “I am willing to guard the frontier from Shanggu to Dunhuang and transmit this charge to my descendants without end. I beg that the border defenses and garrisons be withdrawn, so that the people of the Son of Heaven may have rest.”

    The Emperor referred the matter to his ministers for deliberation, and all deemed it advantageous. Only the Court Attendant Hou Ying, well versed in frontier affairs, spoke in opposition.

    The Emperor asked for an explanation. Hou Ying replied:

    “Since the time of the Zhou and Qin, the Xiongnu have been violent and aggressive, constantly raiding the frontiers. Since the rise of the Han, we have suffered especially from their incursions. I have heard that the northern frontier stretches east to Liaodong and west beyond the Yin Mountains, extending for more than a thousand li, rich in grass, forests, and game. In former times, Modu Chanyu used this land as his hunting ground, fashioning bows and arrows there and launching his raids.

    “In the reign of Emperor Wu, when armies were dispatched on campaign, this territory was recovered and the Xiongnu were driven beyond the desert. Fortified barriers were erected, beacon towers and subterranean passes were established, outer walls were constructed, and garrisons were stationed to defend them. Only then did the borderlands attain a measure of peace.

    “North of the desert, the land is flat and barren, with little grass or timber and vast stretches of sand; when the Xiongnu come to raid, they have nowhere to conceal themselves. South of the barriers lie deep mountains and ravines, difficult to traverse. The elders of the frontier say: ‘Since the Xiongnu lost the Yin Mountains, they have never crossed them without weeping.’ If now the garrisons are withdrawn and the defenses abandoned, it would be to hand the eastern and northern tribes a single, immense advantage. This is the first reason it must not be done.

    “Now, under Your Majesty’s virtuous rule, Heaven shelters the Xiongnu, and they enjoy preservation and peace, bowing their heads in submission. Yet the nature of these tribes is such that when pressed they are humble and compliant, but when strong they grow arrogant and rebellious—such is Heaven’s design. Previously, the outer walls were already dismantled and the watchtowers reduced, leaving only what was needed to observe and signal. The ancients, even in times of peace, never forgot the possibility of danger; such defenses must not again be abolished. This is the second reason.”

    “Since antiquity, the Central State has established passes and bridges in order to restrain the feudal lords, thereby cutting off any thought of ambition among the people. The construction of frontier barriers and the stationing of garrisons were not undertaken solely because of the Xiongnu, but also on account of the various dependent states and surrendered peoples who had once belonged to them—lest they recall former ties and flee back. This is the fourth reason.

    “Recently, the Western Qiang have dwelt near the frontier posts and come into contact with the Han populace. Officials and commoners, driven by greed, have encroached upon them, seizing their livestock and taking their wives and children. For this they harbored resentment and rose in rebellion. Now, if the mounted frontier posts are abolished, arrogance and contempt will arise, disputes will multiply—this is the fifth reason.

    “In former times, many soldiers went to war and never returned; their sons and grandsons were left in poverty. If one day they should flee, they would surely seek refuge among their kin among the Xiongnu—this is the sixth reason.

    “Moreover, the bondservants and slaves of the border people live in hardship. Many long to flee, saying, ‘We hear that life among the Xiongnu is easy; only the strict watch and guard restrain us.’ Even now, some slip away beyond the frontier—this is the seventh reason.

    “Furthermore, bandits and violent men, when pressed by the law, often flee northward beyond the borders, beyond our ability to pursue or restrain them—this is the eighth reason.

    “Since the establishment of the frontier defenses, more than a hundred years have passed. Not all were built of rammed earth alone: some relied upon mountain cliffs, stone and timber, river valleys, and water-gates, which were gradually leveled and joined together. Soldiers and laborers toiled to construct and repair them; the hardship and expense accumulated through generations are beyond reckoning. I fear that those who now deliberate have not examined the matter from beginning to end, and wish to abolish at once all corvée service and garrison duties. Yet within ten years—or within a hundred—should circumstances change, and should the barriers collapse and the watch-posts and subterranean passes disappear, new garrisons would again have to be raised and the works rebuilt. The accumulated labor of generations cannot be restored in a single day. This is the ninth reason.

    “If the garrisons are withdrawn and the watch-posts reduced, the Chanyu, relying upon his own frontier defenses, will surely feel deep gratitude toward Han and will make incessant requests. Should we then displease him even slightly, the consequences would be beyond all calculation. To open a breach for the tribes and diminish the strength of the Central State—this is the tenth reason.

    “Withdrawing garrisons is not the long-term strategy by which lasting peace is preserved and the hundred tribes are held in awe.”

    After hearing this, the Emperor issued a decree: “Let there be no further discussion of dismountling the frontier defenses.”

    He then dispatched Xu Jia, General of Chariots and Cavalry, to convey this message to Huhanye Chanyu, saying:

    “The Chanyu has written, requesting that the northern frontier officials and garrisons be withdrawn, pledging that his descendants will guard the border for generations to come. The Chanyu’s admiration for propriety and his concern for the welfare of the people reveal a far-sighted intention, which We greatly commend.

    “The Central Realm, however, maintains barriers and defenses in all four directions—not solely to guard against external threats, but also to restrain disorder within. Clear laws and firm institutions are the means by which order is preserved. We fully understand and appreciate the Chanyu’s intent and harbor no suspicion. Yet, lest the Chanyu be perplexed by the continued maintenance of these defenses, we have therefore dispatched Xu Jia to explain the matter in person.”

    Huhanye Chanyu replied:

    “I did not comprehend this far-reaching design. I am deeply grateful that the Son of Heaven has sent a high minister to instruct me. I receive this with reverence and gratitude.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 227): Alpha Male Chen Tang’s Daring Stunt

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 21 Scroll 29 (continued)

    Pamir Mountain(Congling)

    The 3rd year of Emperor Yuan’s Jianzhao Era (36 B.C.)

    In the summer, on June 19, Wei Xuancheng, Marquis of Fuyang, passed away.

    In July of autumn, Kuang Heng was appointed Chancellor. On July 14, Li Yanshou, Commandant of the Palace Guards, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.

    In winter, the envoys sent to the Protector-General of the Western Regions—Cavalry Commandant Gan Yanshou of Beidi and Lieutenant Colonel Chen Tang of Shanyang—acted jointly and slew Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu in Kangju.

    Earlier, Zhizhi Chanyu, relying on the strength of his people and boasting of his might, regarded himself as a great power and grew arrogant. Having gained victories, he became increasingly insolent and failed to treat the King of Kangju with due respect. In a rage, he slew the king’s daughter along with several hundred nobles and commoners, some of whom he dismembered and cast into the Dulai River. He compelled the people of Kangju to build a fortified city, forcing five hundred men to labor each day; the work continued for two years before completion. He also sent envoys to demand annual tribute from the kingdoms of Yancai and Dayuan, which dared not refuse.

    The Han court dispatched three envoys to Kangju and Zhizhi Chanyu to recover the bodies of Gu Ji and the others who had been killed by them. Zhizhi Chanyu humiliated and tormented the envoys, refused to receive the imperial edict, and instead sent a letter to the Protector-General of the West, feigning submission and claiming that he was in distress and wished to rely upon the mighty Han, even offering to send his son as a hostage. Such was his disdain and duplicity.

    Chen Tang was a man of courage and composure, adept at deep calculation and bold in devising quirky stratagems. He delighted in extraordinary achievements. He said to Gan Yanshou:

    “The barbarians are by nature awed by great gens. The Western Regions once belonged to the Xiongnu. Now Zhizhi Chanyu’s reputation has spread far and wide; he oppresses Wusun and Dayuan, and frequently conspires with Kangju, intending to subdue them. If he gains control of these two states, within a few years all the cities and kingdoms will be endangered. Moreover, his people are fierce and warlike, often victorious in battle. If they are left unchecked for long, they will surely become a great calamity to the Western Regions.

    “Though they dwell in remote lands, they have no strong cities nor effective crossbows. If we draw troops from the agricultural garrisons and combine them with the forces of Wusun, advancing directly upon their camps, they will have nowhere to go if they flee; if they stand and fight, they will not be able to endure. An achievement of a thousand years may be accomplished in a single day.”

    Gan Yanshou approved of this reasoning and wished to present it to the court. Chen Tang, however, said, “The Son of Heaven would summon the Three Excellencies and the Nine Ministers to deliberate on such a matter. Our far-reaching design is not something mediocre officials can comprehend, and it will certainly not be approved.” Gan Yanshou still hesitated.

    At that time, Gan Yanshou had long been ill and confined to his bed. Chen Tang thereupon took matters into his own hands, mobilizing troops from the commanderies and garrisons under a forged imperial decree. When Gan Yanshou learned of this, he was startled into rising from his bed and attempted to stop him. Chen Tang, enraged, drew his sword and rebuked him, saying, “The army has already been set in motion—would a mere fellow like you dare to obstruct it?” Thereupon Gan Yanshou yielded.

    They assembled the host, numbering more than forty thousand men, Han troops together with allied aliens. Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang submitted a memorial acknowledging their unauthorized action, explaining the military situation, and then divided the army into six columns. Three columns advanced by the southern route, crossing the Congling (Pamir) Mountains and proceeding directly toward Dayuan. The other three, led by the Protector-General Gan Yanshou himself, set out from the kingdom of Wensu, entered Chigu(Yshtyk, the capital of Wusun) by the northern route, passed through Wusun territory, crossed into Kangju lands, and advanced westward to the vicinity of Lake Tianchi (Issyk-Kul).

    Meanwhile, Baotian, the deputy king of Kangju, led several thousand cavalry eastward to raid near Chigu(Yshtyk). He killed and captured more than a thousand of the people of the Great Kunmi of Wusun and seized large numbers of livestock. He then pursued the Han army from the rear and plundered its supplies. Chen Tang released the auxiliary alien troops to counterattack. They slew four hundred and sixty of the enemy, recaptured four hundred and seventy captives taken from Wusun, and returned them to the Great Kunmi. The horses, cattle, and sheep were taken to provision the army. They also captured a Kangju noble named Inudu.

    Upon entering the eastern border of Kangju, Chen Tang ordered that the army should not plunder. He secretly summoned the Kangju noble Tumo and met with him, explaining the authority and trustworthiness of the Han dynasty. They drank together and concluded an alliance, after which Tumo was allowed to depart. The army then advanced and encamped sixty li from the city of Zhizhi Chanyu.

    They captured another Kangju noble, Jusezi Nankaimou, and compelled him to serve as guide. Jusezi, being the maternal younger brother of Tumo, harbored resentment toward Zhizhi Chanyu and therefore disclosed all information concerning him. On the following day, the army advanced again and encamped thirty li from the city.

    The Chanyu then sent an envoy to Chen Tang, asking, “Why have the Han troops come?”

    The answer was: “The Chanyu once wrote, ‘I am in distress and wish to submit to the mighty Han, and to come in person to attend the court.’ The Son of Heaven, taking pity on your abandonment of your former realm and your submission to Kangju, has therefore dispatched the Protector-General to welcome the Chanyu’s wives and children. Fearing to alarm those nearby, he has not yet dared to approach the city walls.”

    The envoy went back and forth several times with replies. Thereupon Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang rebuked him:

    “We have come from afar on the Chanyu’s behalf, yet to this day not a single noble or chief has come forth to meet the General and receive his commands. Why does the Chanyu neglect this great undertaking, failing in the proper duties between host and guest? Our troops have traveled far; men and cattle alike are exhausted, and our provisions are nearly spent. We fear that we shall have no means of return. We ask the Chanyu to deliberate carefully on this matter with his ministers.”

    The following day, they advanced to the banks of the Dulai River near the city of Zhizhi Chanyu and encamped three li away. They saw five-colored banners and pennants raised upon the city walls, with several hundred armored men stationed atop them. More than a hundred cavalry rode back and forth below the walls, while over a hundred infantrymen were drawn up in fish-scale formation at the gates, drilling in martial display.

    Those on the walls beckoned toward the Han army, shouting, “Come and fight!” More than a hundred cavalry charged toward the Han camp, but the camp was already prepared, crossbows drawn and aimed. The cavalry withdrew at once. Some officers and soldiers shot at the cavalry and infantry at the gates, forcing them to retreat back within the city.

    Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang issued orders to the army, saying: “When the drums are sounded, press forward from all sides, encircle the city, and hold your positions. Dig trenches, block the gates, set large shields in front, and array spearmen and crossbowmen behind to strike those upon the walls.”

    The defenders on the towers fled. Outside the earthen walls stood a wooden palisade, from which arrows were shot, inflicting some casualties upon the Han troops. The Han soldiers set fire to the palisade. During the night, several hundred cavalry attempted to break out, but were met by arrows and slain.

    Earlier, when the Chanyu heard that the Han army had arrived, he wished to flee, but suspected that Kangju harbored resentment against him and would collude from within. Moreover, hearing that the Wusun and other states had also mobilized their forces, he found no place to escape. At first he departed, but then returned, saying, “It is better to hold our ground. The Han army has come from afar and cannot long sustain itself.”

    Thereupon the Chanyu donned armor and ascended the tower. Several dozen of his wives(yanzhi) and concubines also mounted the walls and shot arrows at the attackers. A Han soldier shot Zhizhi Chanyu in the nose, and several of his consorts were killed. The Chanyu then withdrew from the tower.

    After midnight, the wooden palisade was breached. The defenders withdrew into the earthen city, climbing the walls and crying out. Kangju then sent more than ten thousand cavalry, divided into over ten detachments, to encircle the city and join with the defenders. Throughout the night they repeatedly assaulted the Han camp, but each attack was repelled.

    At dawn, fires rose on all sides. The Han officers and soldiers advanced with loud shouts, drums and gongs resounding and shaking the ground. The Kangju troops withdrew, and the Han forces advanced with large shields, entering the earthen city.

    The Chanyu, together with more than one hundred men and women, fled into the inner quarters. The Han soldiers set fires and stormed in, wounding and killing the Chanyu. Deputy Commander Du Xun beheaded Zhizhi Chanyu. They recovered the two Han scepters and the silk documents carried by Gu Ji and the other envoys. The spoils were distributed to those who had captured them.

    In total, one thousand five hundred and eighteen heads were taken, including those of wives(yanzhi), crown princes, nobles, and others. One hundred and forty-five persons were captured alive, and more than a thousand surrendered. These captives were distributed among the various city-states and the fifteen kings who had joined the Han coalition forces.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 220): Gu Ji’s Mission

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 20 Scroll 28 (continued)

    Samarkand(Kangju), Uzbekistan. Photo by: Patrickringgenberg

    The 4th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (45 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and offered sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.

    In March, he traveled to Hedong and made offerings to the Mother Earth deity; a pardon was granted to the convicts of Fenyin.

    The 5th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (44 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Lord Zinan of Zhou, was appointed Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou.

    In March, the Emperor traveled to Yong and offered sacrifice at the Altar of the Five Deities.

    In April of summer, a comet appeared near the constellation Orion.

    The Emperor, following the counsel of Confucian scholars such as Gong Yu, issued a decree stating that the Imperial Kitchen should not slaughter animals daily and should reduce its prepared provisions by half. Horses were to be kept only for the imperial carriage and essential official duties. The practices of wrestling; the seldom-used palace maids in the inner gardens; the offices overseeing the Three-Season Garment Works in Qi; the officials of the northern hunting grounds; the salt-and-iron administration; and the Fair-Price Granaries were all to be abolished.

    Disciples of the Imperial Academy were no longer limited in number, so that learning might be encouraged. Any commoner proficient in one of the Confucian classics was exempted from corvée. More than seventy categories of punishment were abolished.

    The Grand Master of the Censorate, Chen Wannian, passed away.

    On June 20, Gong Yu, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. Gong Yu had long submitted many memorials discussing the successes and failures of state affairs. The Emperor esteemed his honesty and integrity and frequently adopted his proposals.

    Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu, resenting that the Han favored Huhanye and did not aid him, and believing himself far removed from the Middle Kingdom, mistreated the Han envoys Jiang Naishi and others. He sent an envoy with tribute, requesting the return of his hostage son. The court deliberated on sending Court Guard Marshal Gu Ji to escort the prince. Imperial Counselor Gong Yu and the Erudite Kuang Heng of Donghai argued against it, saying: “Zhizhi Chanyu’s acceptance of the ways of the Central States is but superficial, and his territory lies at an extreme distance. It is fitting that the envoy delivers his son only to the frontier and there turn back.”

    Gu Ji submitted a memorial, saying: “Between the Central States and the tribes, a bond has long endured without interruption. Now, having raised and nurtured his son for ten years with great kindness, if we abruptly cease and escort him no farther than the frontier border, returning without completing our purpose, it will appear as abandonment—causing him to feel discarded and bereft of allegiance, thereby nullifying past kindness and sowing future resentment. This is unwise.

    “Those who advise against this, having seen the humiliations suffered earlier by Jiang Naishi and the others, imagine such dangers beforehand. I, fortunate to uphold the strength of Han and to receive the enlightened command, will proclaim our profound benevolence; they will not dare to rebel. If they harbor a beast-like heart and behave immorally toward me, then the Chanyu will incur a grave crime and must flee far away, not daring to approach our borders. To sacrifice one envoy so that the people may dwell in peace is strategy for the state and the wish of Your servant. I request permission to deliver him to the court.”

    The Emperor approved his counsel.

    Upon Gu Ji’s arrival, Zhizhi Chanyu flew into rage and in the end slew Gu Ji and his retinue. Knowing that he had wronged the Han, and hearing that Huhanye was growing stronger daily, he feared attack and sought to flee to a distant region.

    The King of Kangju(Sogdiana), long harassed by the Wusun, conferred with his chieftains, saying: “The Xiongnu are a great nation, and the Wusun have long been subject to them. Now Zhizhi Chanyu wanders outside his domain. We may invite him to our eastern marches, join forces to conquer the Wusun, and establish him there, thereby eliminating the Xiongnu threat once for all.” They sent an envoy to Jiankun, where Zhizhi Chanyu then resided, to convey this plan.

    Zhizhi Chanyu, already fearing and resenting the Wusun, was greatly delighted by Kangju’s proposal. They formed an alliance, and Zhizhi Chanyu led his forces westward. Many among his followers perished from the cold along the way, leaving but three thousand men. When they reached Kangju, the King of Kangju gave his daughter in marriage to Zhizhi Chanyu, and Zhizhi Chanyu likewise gave his daughter to the King of Kangju. The King of Kangju revered Zhizhi Chanyu greatly, intending to use his strength to overawe the neighboring states.

    Zhizhi Chanyu repeatedly borrowed troops to strike the Wusun, penetrating deeply into Chigu[Red Valley, near Lake Issyk-Kul] city, killing and capturing many and driving off livestock. The Wusun did not dare to pursue. An area of five thousand square miles of western land lay desolate and uninhabited.

    In winter, on December 9, Grand Master of the Censorate Gong Yu died. On December 19, Xue Guangde, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Gong Yu’s successor.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 216): Gong Yu Dusting His Cap

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 20 Scroll 28

    Duration of 7 years

    Zhucheng, Gong Yu’s hometown, Shandong Province. Photo by Rolfmueller

    The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (48 B.C.)

    In the spring, on January 4, Emperor Xuan was buried at Duling, and a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    On March 10, Empress Wang Zhengjun was established; her father, Wang Jin, was ennobled as Marquis of Yangping.

    The surplus yield from the public lands of the Three Metropolitan Districts(Jingzhao, Pingyi, Fufeng), the office of the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, and the public fields of the commanderies and principalities was allocated to aid the impoverished; those whose assets were worth less than a thousand coins were granted seed and grain loans.

    Attendant-in-Ordinary Xu Jia, nephew of the Emperor’s maternal grandfather, Marquis Dai of Ping’en Xu Guanghan, succeeded to the marquisate of Ping’en.

    In June of summer, as epidemic afflicted the people, the Emperor ordered the Imperial Kitchen to reduce meals, diminished the number of performers in the Music Bureau, and curtailed the horses of the imperial stables, saving expenditure to relieve those in distress and want.

    In September of autumn, eleven commanderies and principalities east of Hangu Pass suffered great inundation, leading to famine, and some among the people turned to cannibalism. Funds and grain were dispatched from neighboring commanderies to provide relief.

    The Emperor had long heard that Wang Ji and Gong Yu of Langya were learned in the classics and of upright conduct; he therefore sent envoys to summon them. Wang Ji died of illness on the road. When Gong Yu arrived, he was appointed Grandee of Remonstration. The Emperor frequently humbled himself to inquire of him regarding affairs of state.

    Gong Yu presented his counsel, saying: “In antiquity, rulers were frugal, taking but a tenth of the people’s produce, and imposing no other levies; thus households were well supplied and the people had abundance. Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wen, and Emperor Jing of Han kept no more than a dozen palace women and only a hundred horses in their stables. In later generations extravagance increased, and ministers followed in its wake. In my humble view, though it is difficult to return wholly to ancient ways, one should strive to emulate them in part for the sake of self-restraint. The palaces now stand completed and cannot be altered, yet other expenditures may certainly be reduced.”

    He continued: “In former times, the Three-Season Garment Officer of Qi produced no more than ten hampers of apparel. Now, the Three-Season Officer commands several thousand artisans, expending vast sums each year to fashion garments for the three seasons of spring, summer, and winter; and the nearly ten thousand horses in the royal stables consume enormous stores of grain. In the reign of Emperor Wu, countless beauties, numbering in the thousands, were taken to fill the harem. At his death, much gold, treasure, and rare curios—birds, beasts, fish, turtles, in all one hundred and ninety items—were sealed away; moreover, palace women were confined to garden lodges and tomb precincts. When Emperor Xuan was buried, the same was done. Your Majesty dislikes being reproached for altering precedent, and thus ministers cleave to this practice. This is deeply lamentable.

    “Moreover, to reform the realm and foster a new way of life, taking so many women into the palace is exceedingly excessive. The princes keep several hundred wives and concubines, and wealthy officials and commoners maintain dozens of female entertainers, so that resentful women crowd the inner chambers, while celibate men fill the outer quarters. Further, at their burials, the wealthy and renowned hollow the earth above to fill below, exhausting the land for their tombs. These excesses all arise from the upper ranks and are the ministers’ fault for clinging to outworn customs.

    “May Your Majesty diligently examine the ways of antiquity and adopt their frugality. Greatly reduce imperial carriages, personal garments, and luxurious goods by two-thirds; choose twenty worthy women to remain in the harem and dismiss the rest, including the childless women kept in mausoleum gardens. Let the stables maintain no more than several dozen horses, and preserve only the hunting park south of Chang’an. In this time of famine, it is fitting sharply to cut and diminish expenditures, to save the people and accord with Heaven’s intent. Heaven raises sages for the benefit of the people, not for their private pleasure.”

    The Emperor approved his counsel, issued an edict halting repairs on palaces rarely used, reduced the grain-fed horses of the imperial stables, and curtailed the meat-fed beasts kept by the Water Management Bureau, which oversaw the royal menagerie.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: When a loyal minister serves his sovereign, he must first address matters that are difficult, that the easier may thereafter be corrected without exertion; he must remedy what is lacking, that what is strong may proceed without further admonition. At the beginning of Emperor Yuan’s reign, His Majesty humbly sought counsel from Gong Yu. Gong Yu ought to have placed what was urgent before what was secondary. Yet Emperor Yuan lacked firmness and resolve in rectifying governance, allowing slanderous and deceitful officials to grasp authority—this was the great peril of the age—yet Gong Yu spoke not of it. Reverence, caution, and frugality were ever Emperor Yuan’s forte, yet Gong Yu again and again urged him only in these—why so? If Gong Yu’s insight was insufficient to perceive the greater matters, how could he be deemed worthy? And if he knew them yet failed to speak, then his fault is all the heavier.

    The Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye again submitted a memorial, declaring that his people suffered hardship and want. An edict ordered the transport of twenty thousand bushels of grain from Yunzhong and Wuyuan Commanderies to supply their needs.

    In that year, for the first time, the office of Wuji Colonel was established, assigned to garrison the former territory of the Jushi kingdom and in charge of military farming.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 215): The Emperor from Plebs

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 19 Scroll 27 (continued)

    Duling Tomb of Emperor Xuan of Han, Shaanxi Province

    The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Ganlu Era (50 B.C.)

    In summer, the Prince of Guangchuan, Liu Haiyang, was deposed and exiled to Fangling for engaging in lascivious and incestuous behavior and the unjust killing of innocent people.

    In October of winter, a fire broke out in the Xuanshi Hall of the Weiyang Palace.

    In this year, Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xiao was relocated and became the Prince of Chu.

    Both Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye and Zhizhi sent envoys to the Han court with tributes. The Han treated the envoys of Huhanye with extra respect.

    The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Huanglong Era (49 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor went on a journey to Ganquan and performed a suburban sacrifice at the Taizhi altar.

    Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye came to the Han court; in February, he returned to his country. 

    Zhizhi Chanyu thought that Huhanye‘s forces were weak and, subjugated by the Han, would not return to his territory. He then led his people westward, intending to annex the west region. Additionally, the younger brother of Tuqi Chanyu, who originally served Huhanye Chanyu, also fled to the west territory, gathered the remaining troops of his two brothers, and with several thousand men, declared himself Yilimu Chanyu. On the way, he encountered Zhizhi Chanyu, and they fought; Zhizhi Chanyu killed him and consolidated his forces, gaining more than fifty thousand men.

    Zhizhi Chanyu heard that the Han had sent troops through the valley to assist Huhanye and decided to remain in the west territory. Realizing that he could not establish control over all the Xiongnu, he moved further west, closer to Wusun, intending to form an alliance. He sent envoys to the Junior Kunmi, Wujiutu, but Wujiutu killed his envoys and dispatched eight thousand cavalry to confront Zhizhi Chanyu. Zhizhi Chanyu detected their plan, mobilized his troops, and attacked Wusun, defeating them. He then moved north to attack Wujie, Jiankun, and Dingling, conquering the three nations. He repeatedly sent troops to attack Wusun and always emerged victorious. Jiankun was seven thousand li east of the Chanyu court and five thousand li south of Jushi.  Zhizhi Chanyu established his capital at Jiankun.

    In March, a comet appeared in the constellations of Wangliang(Beta Cassiopeia) and Gedao(Epsilon Cassiopeiae), entering the constellation of Purple Forbidden Enclosure.

    The Emperor fell gravely ill and assembled his trusted senior ministers. He summoned his maternal relative and Privy Counselor, the Marquis of Leling Shi Gao, the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince Xiao Wangzhi, and the Junior Tutor Zhou Kan to the forbidden inner palace. He appointed Shi Gao as Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry, Xiao Wangzhi as General of the Van and Chamberlain, and Zhou Kan as Grandee of Merit. They all received the Emperor’s posthumous edict to assist in governance and oversee the State Secretariat. 

    In winter, on December 7, the Emperor Xuan passed away in Weiyang Palace.

    Ban Gu’s praising commentary: During Emperor Xuan’s reign, rewards and punishments were delivered with certainty, reputation and performance were meticulously examined. Those involved in administration, literature, and law enforcement were all highly competent. In terms of technical skills, craftsmanship, and tools, few subsequent reigns such as Emperor Yuan and Emperor Cheng’s could match the standards set during the eras of Emperor Xuan, which demonstrated what may look like when officials fulfilled their duties and the people lived in peace. 

    Encountering the time when the Xiongnu were riven by discord, He pressed down the one with lost moral compass and secured the one with moral standing, and with trusted might overawed the northern barbarians. The Chanyus, admiring his virtue, bowed their heads and declared themselves vassals. 

    His merit illumined the ancestors, his enterprise descended to his heirs; he may be said to have wrought a mid-renaissance era comparable in virtue to that of King Gaozong of Shang and King Xuan of the Zhou.

    On December 26, the Crown Prince(Liu Shi) ascended to the throne. He paid worship at the Emperor Gaozu Temple, honoring the Empress Dowager as the Grand Empress Dowager and the former Empress as the Empress Dowager.