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  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 203): Old Horse Knows The Way

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 18 Scroll 26 (continued)

    General Zhao Chongguo

    The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Shen’jue Era (61 B.C. continued)

    The Grandee of Merit, Yiqu Anguo, advanced into Qiangzhong. More than thirty influential Xianling leaders were summoned, and those deemed especially cunning and treacherous were executed. Troops were then released to strike the Xianling tribes, taking over a thousand heads. As a result, the surrendered Qiang and those who had submitted to the Han—such as the Qiang Marquis of Guiyi, Yang Yu—grew resentful and distrustful. They began raiding small settlements, rebelling against the frontier, assaulting towns and cities, and killing local officials. Yiqu Anguo, serving as Cavalry Commandant with three thousand horsemen under his command, was ordered to guard against the Qiang. But upon reaching Gaomen, he fell into an ambush, losing many chariots and weapons. He withdrew to Lingju county and reported the matter to the court.

    At that time, Zhao Chongguo was over seventy years of age. Believing him perhaps too old, the Emperor sent Bing Ji to inquire whom he thought capable of leading the army. Zhao Chongguo replied, “There is no one more seasoned for this task than this old officer.”

    The Emperor summoned him and asked, “General, how do you judge the Qiang barbarians? How many troops are required?”

    Zhao Chongguo responded, “To hear a hundred second-hand tales is not equal to seeing once with your own eyes. It is difficult to grasp the situation from afar. I request permission to hurry to Jincheng and devise the strategy in person. The Qiang and Rong, and the lesser tribes among them, are rebellious and shifting—surely near collapse. I ask Your Majesty to entrust this old servant and harbor no doubt.”

    The Emperor laughed, saying, “So be it.” He then mobilized a great army to advance on Jincheng commandery.

    In April of summer, Zhao Chongguo was appointed to command the campaign against the Western Qiang.

    In June, a comet appeared in the eastern sky.

    When Zhao Chongguo reached Jincheng, he planned to cross the Yellow River only after ten thousand cavalry had assembled. However, fearing interception by the enemy, he dispatched three detachments bearing torches to cross first under cover of night, ordering them to establish fortifications immediately upon landing. By dawn the crossing was complete, and several dozen to a few hundred enemy horsemen appeared, circling around the army.

    Zhao Chongguo said, “Our men and horses are weary from the journey—we must not pursue lightly. These riders are elite, and difficult to command against. Moreover, this is likely a stratagem to lure us into battle. Our purpose is to crush the enemy; trifling victories are not worth the risk.” He then forbade his troops to give chase.

    He sent equestrian scouts ahead toward Siwang Gulch. When they reported no enemy presence, he led the army through the gulch by night and proceeded to Mount Luodu. Summoning his lieutenants, Zhao Chongguo said, “I am certain the Qiang cannot inflict real harm. Had they stationed even a few thousand to guard Siwang Gulch and bar our passage, how could we have come through so easily?”

    Zhao Chongguo regularly sent scouts far ahead to reconnoiter, prepared for battle even while marching, and fortified his camps whenever he halted. He was cautious in all things, valued the lives of his soldiers, and calculated before committing to combat. From Mount Luodu he advanced westward to the headquarters of the Western Commandant, where he held feasts daily for his troops, whose morale surged and who all longed for action. Though the enemy repeatedly provoked him, Zhao Chongguo remained resolute and would not engage.

    After several prisoners were captured alive, they confessed that the Qiang chieftains chastised one another, saying: “I told you we should not rebel! Now the Emperor has sent General Zhao—eighty or ninety years of age, yet unmatched in the art of war. Even if we wished to fight to the death, would we even have the chance?”

    Earlier, the chieftain of the Han and Jian tribes, Midanger, had sent his younger brother Diaoku to report to the Commandant that the Xianling tribe were preparing to rebel. Several days later, they indeed rose in revolt. Since many of Diaoku’s kinsmen were aligned with the Xianling, the Commandant held him as a hostage. Zhao Chongguo, judging him blameless, released him and sent him back with a message for the Xianling chieftains, declaring: “The imperial army punishes only the guilty, sparing the innocent. The Emperor proclaims to all Qiang people: whoever captures lawbreakers shall be rewarded in proportion to the gravity of their captives’ crimes, with gold bestowed accordingly, and the wives, children, and property of the captured awarded as well.” Zhao Chongguo’s design was to employ imperial authority to win over the Han and Jian tribes and those among the raiders who might submit, thereby unsettling the enemy’s plans, exploiting their fatigue, and then striking once their strength faltered.

    At this time the Emperor had already dispatched sixty thousand troops from the inner commanderies to strengthen the border garrisons. The Prefect of Jiuquan, Xin Wuxian, submitted a memorial stating:

    “The commandery garrisons all sit defensively in the southern mountains, leaving the northern frontier exposed—this cannot sustain. If we wait until autumn or winter to advance, such a plan suits only when the enemy is far away. Now they raid us day and night, and the land is bitterly cold. Han horses cannot endure the winter. It would be better to provision our troops in early July with thirty days’ supplies, divide them into two columns, and attack from Zhangye and Jiuquan, converging upon Han and Jian tribes along the Xianshui River. Even if we cannot exterminate them entirely, we may seize their livestock, take their wives and children, and then withdraw. In winter we may strike again, and when the main force advances thereafter, the enemy will surely be thrown into turmoil.”

    The Emperor forwarded Xin Wuxian’s letter to Zhao Chongguo for feedback. Zhao Chongguo replied:

    “Each horse can carry no more than thirty days of grain—two and a half bushels of rice or eight bushels of wheat—besides clothing and arms. Pursuit would be difficult. The enemy will doubtlessly rely on shifting maneuvers, withdrawing gradually, following water and pasture, scattering into mountains and forests. If we chase deeply, they will seize the heights and sever our supply lines, placing us in extreme peril. We would become a joke to the barbarians, and the humiliation would not be washed away for a thousand years. As for Xin Wuxian’s proposal that we seize their livestock and capture their wives and children, this is more hope than strategy, not something that can be relied upon. The Xianling tribe rose first in rebellion, and the other tribes only followed them in raiding and kidnapping. Therefore, this old officer proposes that we acknowledge the excesses committed by the Han and Jian tribes, conceal their offenses, and refrain from exposing them. We should first suppress the Xianling to inspire fear, after which they will seek to correct themselves. Then we may pardon their crimes, appoint capable officials familiar with their customs, and gently guide them toward reconciliation. This is the only plan that protects the whole army and truly secures the frontier.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 202): When Talent Meets Patron

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 18 Scroll 26

    Duration of 3 years

    Statue of Lu Ban, in Weifang, Shandong. Photo by Rolfmueller

    The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Shen’jue Era (61 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor set out for Ganquan Palace and performed the suburban sacrifice to Heaven at the Taizhi Altar. In March, he went to the east bank of the Yellow River and made offerings to the Goddess of Earth. The Emperor was inclined to emulate the customs of Emperor Wu and strictly observed the rites of fasting and sacrifice. He also heeded the advice of occultists to establish additional shrines for various deities. When he heard that in Yizhou there were mountain gods known as the Golden Horse and the Jade Rooster, it was proposed that they, too, should be invoked through sacrificial rites. Thus he dispatched the Grandee of Remonstration, Wang Bao of Shu, on a special mission to seek them out.

    Earlier, the Emperor had heard of Wang Bao’s literary talent and summoned him to court. He instructed him to compose the “Ode to the Wise Minister Serving the Holy Lord.” The verse reads:

    “The wise are the instruments of the state. When capable officials are employed, they enter office, accomplish their tasks swiftly, and earn the esteem of all. When tools are sharp, they require little effort to produce great results. If craftsmen use blunt tools, they toil and sweat the entire day; yet when the master smiths forged the blades of Ganjiang(a legendary sword), when Lílou(a legendary sharp eyes) oversaw the measuring cords, and when Master Gongshu(a.k.a. Lu Ban, a legendary carpenter) carved by the marks of ink, then even if a tower rose five stories high and stretched a hundred zhang(1 zhang ~3 meter) in length, not an inch would be amiss—for the artisans’ skill was in perfect accord with the tools they wielded.

    “Ordinary men may drive slow horses, but even if they tear their reins and break their whips, they make no progress. When they ride legendary swift steeds, however—when bridles and saddles are in perfect condition, with Wang Liang(a legendary driver) holding the reins and Han Ai(a legendary chariot inventor) gripping the carriage—they traverse the eight corners of the earth, ten thousand li in a single breath. Why can they go so far? Because of the harmony between man and horse. Likewise, those who wear silk and linen in summer do not suffer from torrid heat; those who wear otter or fox furs in winter do not fear the bitter cold. Why? Because they are well-equipped. So too do wise men and gentlemen make it easy for the Holy Lord to govern the realm.”

    “In the past, the Duke of Zhou would pause his meals three times, or bind up his hair three times in the midst of washing, to receive visiting guests; thus, under his great governance, the prisons stood empty. Duke Huan of Qi lit torches in his courtyard to welcome guests at night; thus he convened the monarchs of the nine states and claimed hegemony over the realm. From this it is clear: when lords diligently seek the worthy, they naturally reap the service of the virtuous.

    “Ministers’ experiences are much the same. Before the wise encounter their true patrons, they may plan and strategize, yet the lord does not heed their counsel; they may present heartfelt advice, yet the monarch does not trust their sincerity; they may strive to serve, yet their efforts go unrecognized—dismissed or exiled, through no fault of their own. Thus Yi Yin attended the cauldron and sacrificial vessels as a cook, and Grand Lord Jiang Ziya labored with cleavers as a butcher. Baili Xi sold himself into servitude; Ning Qi fed oxen as a herdsman. These were the trials they endured.

    “But when they met a discerning ruler or served an enlightened sovereign, their strategies aligned with the ruler’s intentions; their remonstrations were heard and accepted. Advancing or retreating, their loyalty was acknowledged; fulfilling their duties, their abilities were recognized. They received carved seals and were granted fiefs, bringing glory to their ancestral lines. Thus, in the world, sagacious and wise rulers must exist before there can be enlightened and worthy ministers. When the tiger roars, the winds turn chill; when the dragon rises, clouds gather. Crickets sing in anticipation of autumn; mayflies emerge after the rains. As the Book of Changes says: ‘The flying dragon is in the sky; it is auspicious to meet the great man.’ As the Book of Songs says: ‘How magnificent are these many worthy men, by whom this kingdom is established.’ Therefore, when the age is tranquil and the ruler enlightened, men of talent and virtue naturally assemble. Bright and resplendent are those at court, solemn and harmonious in their ranks; they concentrate their minds and spirits, each enhancing the brilliance of the other. Even when Bo Ya(a legendary musician) played the zither Dizhong(a legendary zither in Zhou dynasty) or when Feng Meng(a legendary archer) drew the bow Wuhao(a legendary longbow), their congruency could not match up the accord between the ruler and his ministers.

    “Therefore, the Holy King must await wise ministers to accomplish great endeavors, just as men of talent await an enlightened ruler to manifest their virtue. When both desire such accord—taking joy in one another, united in harmony but once in a millennium—communication flows with no trace of doubt or reservation. They soar like goose feathers borne upon a favorable wind, they surge like a great fish leaping in the mighty river. If such joy is attained, what command would not be obeyed? What ordinance would not be carried out? The sacred mandate will overflow beyond the borders, spreading on without end.

    “Hence, the Holy King need not scrutinize every detail to understand, for his discernment is already clear. He need not strain his ears to listen, for he is already perceptive. The charge of peace is fulfilled, the expectation of repose attained; rest comes naturally, life extends without bound. There is no need to twist and stretch like Peng Zu(a man who allegedly lived past 400 years old) to pursue longevity, nor to practice the breathing arts of Prince Ziqiao or Chi Songzi(both are wizards) to seek immortality. For they transcend the ordinary and evanesce from this mundane world.”

    At that time, the Emperor had great interest in immortals and divinities, and thus Wang Bao’s poetry made reference to them. 

    The Intendant of Jingzhao, Zhang Chang, also submitted a remonstrance, saying: “May the wise ruler put aside his fondness for chariots and horses, reject the empty words of distant occultists, and devote himself to the arts of imperial governance, that peace may be restored.” As a result, the Emperor dismissed the occultists who had served at court as palace attendants in their entirety.

    After the death of Zhao Guanghan, none appointed as Intendants of Jingzhao proved capable, apart from Zhang Chang, who was able to continue his legacy. Though Zhang Chang’s strategies and insight were not as far-reaching as Zhao Guanghan’s, he was well-versed in the Confucian classics and refined in literary accomplishment.

    The Emperor placed great importance on outward display, adorning palaces and carriages in splendor surpassing that of Emperor Zhao’s reign. The affinal clans of Xu, Shi, and Wang enjoyed exceptional favor and honor. The Grandee of Remonstration, Wang Ji, submitted a memorial stating:

    “Your Majesty, endowed with sagacity and entrusted with myriad affairs, devotes himself wholly to the governance of the realm, seeking to bring enduring peace. Your decrees delight the people as if granting them new life. Your servant has pondered deeply: though this may be praised as boundless grace, the fundamental duty is yet unfulfilled. A ruler with intent to govern is rare; ministers who encounter such a time, whose words are heard and heeded, are fortunate indeed. Yet they have not devised measures for lasting stability nor elevated a wise ruler to the height of the Three Dynasties(Xia, Shang, Zhou). The matters handled each day—convening councils, managing records, adjudicating disputes, hearing appeals—are not the foundation of true tranquility.

    “Your servant has heard that, though the people are meek, they cannot be oppressed; though simple, they cannot be deceived. When a sage ruler governs from within the inner palace, success brings the praise of the realm, yet failure brings censure from all quarters. Therefore it is imperative to choose those near Your Majesty with utmost care, discerning whom to employ. Those who stand beside you rectify your conduct; those who serve beyond the hall extend your virtue. This is the essence of good government. Confucius said, ‘Nothing excels rites in governing the people and securing the ruler.’ This is no idle remark. Before later kings established their rites, they modeled themselves upon the rites of former ages and applied them to the present.

    “Your servant earnestly hopes that Your Majesty, bearing the mandate of Heaven, will undertake great works, extend favor to officials and scholars, restore ancient ritual and clarify royal commands, and lead the people of this generation toward benevolence and longevity. Then, why should the customs of our age not flourish like those under King Cheng and King Kang of Zhou? Why should life not endure as did that of Gaozong of Shang? What Your servant observes now is a hasty pursuit of worldly concerns, departing from the Great Way. Thus I have offered these words for Your Majesty’s consideration, trusting in Your enlightened judgment.”

    Wang Ji reflected: “The lack of restraint in marriage customs and wedding expenses has made it difficult for the poor to marry off their children, and thus they are unwilling to bear many sons and daughters. Moreover, in the Han dynasty, marquises take princesses as wives, and among the feudal lords, even commoners marry daughters of their lords. Thus men serve women, and husbands bow beneath their wives, reversing the proper order of Yin and Yang, from which many disorders arise through women.

    “In ancient times, distinctions in dress, carriages, and horses clearly separated noble from base; but now rank and station are confused, and each fashions his appearance according to his own desire. Therefore men clutch at wealth and chase after profit, fearing not even death. In the Zhou age, punishments could be set aside and left unused because wrongdoing was restrained before it appeared, and wickedness was nipped in the bud.”

    Wang Ji further said: “Emperor Shun and King Tang of Shang did not rely solely upon hereditary succession for the Three Excellencies and Nine Ministers, but instead raised Gao Yao and Yi Yin, keeping the unrighteous far away. Now, officials of vulgar disposition are permitted to appoint their sons and younger kin; they grow presumptuous and reckless, ignorant of antiquity and the present, offering no benefit to the people. It is fitting to make the selection of the worthy clear and to abolish the ordinance of hereditary appointment. As for the families of consorts and former personal attendants, they may be enriched with wealth but should not hold high office. Abolish the wrestling entertainments, reduce the Music Bureau, and cut back the expense of the Imperial Workshops, so that frugality may be known throughout the realm. In ancient times artisans did not carve elaborate ornaments, and merchants did not trade in luxury goods—not because artisans and merchants alone were virtuous, but because government policy and instruction made them so.”

    But the Emperor judged his proposals lofty and impractical, and did not greatly favor him. Wang Ji later resigned, claiming illness.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 201): Qiang–People Identified with Sheep

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    Modern Qiang Ethnic Group

    The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Yuan’kang Era (62 B.C.)

    In January of spring, a decree was issued: “Those aged eighty and above, unless guilty of false accusation or causing bodily harm to others, shall not be subject to punishment.”

    The former Intendant of Right Fufeng, Yin Wenggui, died leaving no wealth behind. In August of autumn, a decree stated: “Yin Wenggui was honest and upright, governing the people with fairness. It is granted that his son shall receive one hundred catties of gold to conduct sacrifice.”

    The Emperor ordered officials to search for the descendants of meritorious followers of Emperor Gaozu whose peerages had lapsed. They found one hundred thirty-six individuals, including Zhou Guanghan, Gongcheng(a title) of Huaili. All were granted twenty catties of gold and exemption from taxation and corvée for their households, with instructions to continue their ancestral sacrifices without interruption for generations.

    On August 11, the Marquis of Fuping, Zhang Anshi, passed away.

    Earlier, when Wei Xian, Marquis Jie of Fuyang, died, his eldest son, Wei Hong, had been imprisoned for a crime. The family altered Wei Xian’s will and falsely named his next son in line, Wei Xuancheng, Commandant of Dahe Commandery, as his heir. Wei Xuancheng, fully aware of his father’s true intentions, feigned madness—lying in his own filth(excretion), laughing and babbling incoherently, behaving confused and deranged. After the funeral, when he was summoned to inherit the title, he pretended to be too insane to answer. The Grand Herald submitted a report, and the Chancellor together with the Imperial Censor conducted an investigation.

    The assigned investigator, the Chancellor’s staff wrote to Wei Xuancheng, saying: “In ancient times, when one declined and yielded a position, one composed a written statement expressing dignified intent, thereby leaving honor to future generations. But you have disfigured yourself and brought shame upon your name by pretending to be mad and witless, hiding your brilliance and sharing none of it with others. It is lamentable that you seek reputation through petty tricks! I am but a simple man, serving in the Chancellor’s office through my meager abilities. I wish only that you hear a little of public opinion; otherwise, you may damage your lofty standing, while I become a petty man for informing against you.”

    Wei Xuancheng’s friend, the Palace Gentleman Zhang, also submitted a memorial, stating: “The sage kings esteemed conciliation and humility in governance. It is fitting to treat Wei Xuancheng with care, and not to force his compliance, so that he may find peace and safety within the simplicity of his home.”

    However, the Chancellor and the Imperial Censor determined that Wei Xuancheng was not truly sick and indicted him. An imperial decree forbade punishment, and he was summoned and granted the title. Reluctantly, Wei Xuancheng accepted it. The Emperor praised his humility and appointed him Prefect of Henan.

    When the king of Jushi, Wugui, fled to the Wusun, the Wusun detained him. The Han court dispatched envoys to demand his release, and the Wusun sent Wugui to the imperial court.

    Emperor Wu had established four commanderies west of the Yellow River, cutting off communication between the Qiang and the Xiongnu and driving out various Qiang tribes, forbidding them to settle in the region of Huangshui River basin. After the Emperor’s accession, the Grandee of Merit, Yiqu Anguo, was sent to deal with the Qiang tribes. The Xianling tribal leaders said, “We wish to cross the northern part of the Huangshui River and occupy the land where people do not farm, but only raise livestock.” Yiqu Anguo acquiesced and reported this. Later, General Zhao Chongguo accused Yiqu Anguo of exceeding his authority and did not perform his duty. Other Qiang tribes, inspired by this earlier statement, crossed the Huangshui River, and the local jurisdictions were unable to restrain them.

    The Xianling and other Qiang tribes reconciled with one another, exchanged hostages, and swore oaths of alliance and enmity. When the Emperor learned of this, he asked Zhao Chongguo for his assessment. Zhao Chongguo replied: “The reason the Qiang are difficult to control is that each tribe has its own leader. They constantly quarrel among themselves and lack unity. Some thirty years ago, when the Western Qiang rebelled, they likewise reconciled with the tribes among them and resisted the Han for five or six years before being subdued. The Xiongnu have long sought to entice the Qiang, wishing to strike Zhangye and Jiuquan and settle the Qiang there. Recently the Xiongnu have been stirring up trouble in the west. I suspect they may have already sent envoys to form alliances with the Qiang. I fear that this unrest will not end here; they may ally with still other tribes. We must prepare before the danger arrives.”

    A month later, the Qiang leader Lang He sent envoys to the Xiongnu requesting troops, intending to attack Shanshan and Dunhuang to sever the Han route. Zhao Chongguo said: “Lang He alone does not have the power to devise this plan. It is likely that Xiongnu envoys have already reached out to the Qiang. The Xianling, Han(Qiang), and Jian(Qiang) tribes have reconciled, and when autumn comes and the horses are fat, the rebellion will surely break out. We must send envoys to patrol the border and make advance preparations, instructing the Qiang tribes not to reconcile, so that their plot may be exposed.” Thus, the Chancellor’s Office and the Censorate again proposed sending Yiqu Anguo to inspect the various Qiang tribes and distinguish between the loyal and disloyal.

    At that time, there had been several years of abundant harvests, and grain cost five coins per picul.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 200): What Said to Emperor Stays with the Emperor

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    The Seals excavated from Zhang Anshi’s Tomb

    The 3rd year of Emperor Xuan’s Yuan’kang Era (63 B.C.)

    In March of spring, a decree was issued conferring the title of Marquis of Haihun upon the former Prince of Changyi, Liu He.

    On March 2, another decree was proclaimed:

    “In my humble beginnings, the Grand Minister of Justice Bing Ji; the Generals of the Household Shi Zeng and Shi Xuan; the Guard Commandant of Changle Palace, Xu Shun; and the Privy Counselor and Grand Master of the Chamberlain, Xu Yanshou, all rendered significant assistance to us. In particular, the former Director of the Women’s Quarter, Zhang He, instructed us in literature and the Confucian classics. His exceptional kindness and merit are the most distinguished. As the Book of Songs says: ‘No benevolence should go unrewarded.’ Therefore, Zhang Pengzu, the adopted son of Zhang He and a General of the Household, shall be granted the title of Marquis of Yangdu. Zhang He shall be posthumously honored as Marquis Ai of Yangdu. Bing Ji shall be made Marquis of Boyang, Shi Zeng Marquis of Jiangling, Shi Xuan Marquis of Pingtai, Xu Shun Marquis of Bowang, and Xu Yanshou Marquis of Lecheng.”

    Zhang He had a grandson, Zhang Ba, seven years of age, who was appointed Cavalry Gentleman and General of the Household, bearing the title of Marquis of the Interior. Former acquaintances, down to the women housed in the commandery traveler lodges who had once nursed the Emperor, were all rewarded with offices, land, property, and wealth proportionate to the extent of their beneficence.

    As Bing Ji was about to receive his marquisate, he fell ill. The Emperor, fearing he might not recover, intended to send an envoy to confer the title in person so that the seal could be bestowed while Bing Ji was still alive. Xiahou Sheng, Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince, said, “He will not die. It is said that those with hidden merit will enjoy blessings that extend even to their descendants. Now, Bing Ji has not yet been repaid for his service, and though his illness is grave, it is not one that leads to death.” Later, Bing Ji’s health indeed improved.

    Zhang Anshi felt that the enfeoffment of both his father and himself as marquises was excessive, so he declined the stipend. A decree was then issued to reserve the emolument for the Zhang family in an unnamed account within the Ministry of Finance, and the sum eventually reached one million coins. Zhang Anshi was cautious and meticulous. Whenever major political decisions were settled, he would feign illness and withdraw early. When he later heard of the promulgation of an imperial decree, he acted as though he had never been informed and sent his subordinates to inquire at the Chancellor’s office. None of the senior ministers at court knew that he had conferred with the Emperor on these matters.

    On one occasion, a man he had recommended came to express gratitude, but Zhang Anshi was displeased, saying, “Should the advancement of worthy men warrant personal thanks?” He thereafter severed all contact with him. There was once a young officer of exceptional merit who had not been properly recognized. The officer asked Zhang Anshi to intercede, but Zhang Anshi replied, “Your merit is great, and the enlightened ruler is already aware of it. As a subject, how can you speak of your own achievements?” He firmly refused to make any recommendation. Later, the officer was indeed promoted.

    Still uneasy about the marquisates bestowed upon himself and his son, Zhang Anshi sought an appointment outside the capital for his son Zhang Yanshou. The Emperor appointed Zhang Yanshou as Prefect of Beidi. After a year, mindful of Zhang Anshi’s advanced age, the Emperor summoned Zhang Yanshou back to serve as Grand Coachman and Manager of the Left Office.

    In the summer, on April 14, the Emperor appointed his son, Liu Qin, as Prince of Huaiyang. The Crown Prince, Liu Shi, twelve years of age, had already studied the Analects of Confucius and the Classic of Filial Piety. The Grand Tutor, Shu Guang, advised the Junior Tutor, Shu Shou: “I have heard that ‘those who know contentment will not be humiliated; those who know when to stop will not be imperiled.’ Now that we have attained the rank of Two Thousand Piculs, with established fame and position, if we do not retire now, we may come to regret it later.” That very day, both father and son feigned illness and submitted petitions for retirement. The Emperor granted their requests and awarded each twenty catties of gold. The Crown Prince additionally presented them with fifty catties of gold.

    Former officials and acquaintances arranged a farewell ceremony outside the Eastern Gate, with hundreds of carriages joining the procession. Passersby along the road exclaimed, “Truly, two worthy grandees!” Some were moved to tears.

    Shu Guang and Shu Shou returned to their hometowns and instructed their families to sell the gold bestowed upon them, using the proceeds to prepare a feast for relatives, longtime friends, and guests. Some advised Shu Guang to use the gold to establish property for his descendants, but Shu Guang replied: “Am I so old and forgetful that I fail to think of my descendants? I already have ancestral fields and houses. Let my descendants work diligently in them, sufficient to clothe and feed themselves as ordinary people. Adding more would only spoil them. Wealth in the hands of the virtuous weakens their aspirations; in the hands of the foolish, it multiplies their faults. Moreover, the wealthy are resented by the masses. Since I have no means to educate my descendants well, I do not wish to increment their faults or invite resentment. This gold was bestowed by the enlightened ruler to support these elderly officials. Thus I rejoice in sharing this gift with my kin and fellow villagers, to enjoy the remainder of my years in contentment. Is this not fitting?” His relatives were delighted and deeply moved.

    Huang Ba, Prefect of Yingchuan, instructed relay lodges, postal stations and local offices to raise chickens and pigs to support widows, widowers, the poor, and the destitute. Thereafter, he drafted rules and regulations, appointed elders, teachers, leaders, and supervisors, and organized them to disseminate these ideas among the populace. He encouraged people to guard against evil impulses, cultivate their fields, practice thrift, increase their wealth, plant trees, and raise livestock, while eliminating unnecessary expenses on frivolous indulgences. Though his administrative measures seemed trivial and petty at first glance, Huang Ba was resolute and capable in enforcing them.

    When speaking with officials or commoners, he questioned them closely, following their accounts in detail and probing for any hidden matters to use as reference. Admiring his keen intelligence and understanding, neither officials nor people knew whence his analytical ability came; they all called him divine and dared not deceive him in the slightest. Lawbreakers fled to neighboring counties, and bandits and thieves diminished day by day. Huang Ba prioritized education and moral guidance over punishment, striving for lasting stability and the wellbeing of both officials and the people.

    The Associate Magistrate of Xu County had become deaf from old age, and the Investigator sought to dismiss him. Huang Ba said, “Master Xu is an upright official. Though elderly, he can still rise and greet people properly. What harm is there in impaired hearing? Assist him well, and do not disappoint the hopes placed in the virtuous.”

    When asked for his reasoning, Huang Ba replied: “Frequent changes of officials incur expenses for bidding farewell to the old and welcoming the new, and unscrupulous officials exploit such transitions to embezzle funds and property, causing great losses to both government and people. Replacement officials are not necessarily better than their predecessors; they may even be worse, thereby aggravating disorder. In governing, one need only remove those who are greedy and extreme.”

    With a broad mind and clear judgment, Huang Ba won the hearts of officials and commoners alike, and the population increased year by year. His administration was regarded as the best in the realm, and he was appointed Intendant of Jingzhao. After some time, he was implicated in a crime and demoted. A subsequent decree restored him to his former post as Prefect of Yingchuan, with a stipend of eight hundred piculs of grain.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 199): Giving Credit Where Credit Is Due

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    Mosque in Yanqi(Karasahr), Xinjiang. Photo by Rolf Müller

    The 2nd year of Emperor Xuan’s Yuan’kang Era (64 B.C. continued)

    The ministers of the Xiongnu deliberated: “The land of Jushi is fertile and lies near our borders. If Han secures it, they will possess rich fields and abundant grain, which will surely imperil our nation. We must regain it at once.”

    Thus they repeatedly dispatched troops to attack the Han settlers in Jushi. Zheng Ji led more than seven thousand soldiers from the Qu’li military farm to relieve them, but he was surrounded by the Xiongnu forces. Zheng Ji memorialized: “Jushi lies over a thousand li from Qu’li, and the Han troops stationed there are few. We cannot provide support in time. I request that additional troops be sent to defend the settlers.”

    The Emperor consulted with General of the Rear Zhao Chongguo and other ministers. They resolved to strike while the Xiongnu were weakened and send armies westward into their territory, to prevent them from further disturbing the states of the Western Territory.

    Chancellor Wei Xiang submitted a memorial of remonstrance:

    “It is said: To aid the oppressed and eradicate tyranny is righteous warfare; those who uphold righteous warfare shall reign supreme.
    To take up arms in self-defense, being compelled by assault, is reactive warfare; those who wage reactive warfare shall prevail.
    To go to battle out of anger over trifling slights, being unable to restrain one’s wrath, is irked warfare; those who wage irked warfare shall be defeated.
    To fight for the sake of population control, lands, riches, and treasures is greedy warfare; those who wage greedy warfare shall perish.
    To rely upon the might of a great state and vaunt its multitudes, wishing thereby to overawe the world, is egocentric warfare; those who wage egocentric warfare shall be destroyed.
    These five forms of warfare are not merely matters of men, but accord with the laws of Heaven.

    “Of late, the Xiongnu have shown signs of goodwill. Whenever they capture Han people, they return them, and they have not encroached on our borders. Though they contest the farmlands of Jushi, the matter is not so grave as to demand urgent reprisal. Yet I hear that the generals now wish to mobilize troops and march deep into their territory. In my folly, I do not understand under what principle this campaign shall be justified.

    “Now the borderlands suffer bitter hardship. Fathers and sons chew the hides of dogs and sheep; they survive on wild plants. They live daily in fear and can scarcely be called upon to serve. The Master said: Where armies are raised, years of calamity follow. Laozi explains that when the people’s spirits are anxious and distressed, the harmony of yin and yang is thrown into disorder. Even if the army achieves victory, lingering calamities will remain, and disaster may arise from warfare.

    “At present, many prefects of commanderies and prime ministers of principalities have not been chosen for their worth, and the customs of the people have grown depraved. Natural portents occur out of season. According to the registers of this year, there have been two hundred twenty-two cases of sons murdering fathers and brothers, and wives murdering husbands. I fear these are not trivial signs.

    “Yet instead of rectifying these pressing ills, they would dispatch an army to avenge a slight against distant barbarians. This is as Confucius said: “I fear that the trouble of the Viscount Kang of Jisun lies not in the vassal state of Zhuanyu, but within their own residential walls.”

    The Emperor accepted the Chancellor’s advice and halted the military campaign. He dispatched the Marquis of Changluo, Chang Hui, to lead cavalry from Zhangye and Jiuquan to Jushi, escorting Zheng Ji along with his officials and soldiers back to Qu’li. He then summoned Junsu, the former Prince of Jushi who was residing in Yanqi (Karasahr), and reinstated him as King of Jushi. All the people of Jushi were relocated to Qu’li, and the former territory of Jushi was ceded to the Xiongnu. Zheng Ji was appointed Marshal of the Guard, entrusted with protecting the Silk Road west of Shanshan.

    Chancellor Wei Xiang took great interest in studying the historical records of the Han Dynasty and the proposals of former ministers regarding state affairs. He frequently referenced events from the rise of the Han and the writings of esteemed ministers such as Jia Yi, Chao Cuo, and Dong Zhongshu, advocating for the implementation of their policies. The Chancellor instructed his assistants to investigate and report local affairs whenever they traveled on public duties to commanderies and principalities or when they returned to their hometowns on personal leave. Upon returning to office, they were required to report any news or events from different regions. If there were rebellions, natural disasters, or other unusual circumstances in the provinces that had not been reported to the court, the Chancellor would promptly inform the Emperor. Wei Xiang worked closely with the Grand Master of the Censorate, Bing Ji, in assisting with governance, and their efforts were highly esteemed by the Emperor.

    Bing Ji was a man of profound integrity who never boasted of his virtues. Although he had worked to protect the great-grandson of Emperor Wu—now the reigning Emperor—he remained silent about his past contributions, and thus the court did not fully recognize his merit. Later, a former palace maid, Ze, persuaded her commoner husband to submit petitions claiming that they had rendered meritorious service by raising the Emperor in his infancy. The memorial was sent down, and the magistrate of the Women’s Quarters was ordered to interrogate the matter; in Ze’s testimony she told the investigator that Bing Ji knew about the facts. The Magistrate of the Women’s Quarters then escorted the accused to the Office of the Grand Master of Censorate Bing Ji. Recognizing her, Bing Ji addressed Ze: “You were once punished for failing to properly care for the Emperor’s great grandson. How can you now claim merit? Only Hu Zu of Weicheng and Guo Zhengqing of Huaiyang took part in nurturing the Emperor.”

    Bing Ji then reported separately on the efforts of Hu Zu and Guo Zhengqing, recounting their devoted service. The Emperor issued a decree in their honor; since both were deceased, their descendants received generous rewards. Ze herself was exempted from punishment but stripped of her status and reduced to common rank, though she was granted a reward of one hundred thousand coins. After personally questioning Ze, the Emperor realized that Bing Ji had never spoken of his own past service and admired him all the more for it.

    The Emperor regarded Xiao Wangzhi as a learned and prudent man, well-versed in analyzing matters of state. Believing him suitable for the position of Chancellor, he sought to thoroughly test his administrative ability and reassigned him as Intendant of Left Pingyi. Xiao Wangzhi, fearing that his transfer from Minister of the Treasury constituted a demotion and suspecting he had fallen short of imperial expectations, feigned illness. When the Emperor learned of this, he sent the Privy Counselor, Marquis of Chengdu Jin Anshang, to convey his intentions: “All appointments are made for the sake of governing the people well. You served as Prefect of Pingyuan only briefly, and thus your performance must now be reassessed in the Three Metropolis of the capital. There have been no unfavorable reports about you.” Upon receiving this message, Xiao Wangzhi immediately returned to duty.

    The Magistrate of the Women’s Quarters, Zhang He, often praised the exceptional talent and virtue of Emperor Wu’s great-grandson—the present Emperor—, as well as the auspicious phenomena around him, in front of his younger brother, Zhang Anshi. Yet Zhang Anshi always stopped him, believing it improper to extol the Emperor Wu’s great-grandson while a young sovereign was still alive and well. After the Emperor ascended the throne and Zhang He had passed away, the Emperor said to Zhang Anshi, “The Magistrate of the Women’s Quarters continually praised me in his lifetime, and you always restrained him. That was indeed appropriate.”

    In remembrance of Zhang He’s kindness, the Emperor intended to grant him the posthumous title of Marquis of Ende (Benevolence and Grace) and assign guardians for two hundred households to maintain his tomb. Since Zhang He’s own son had died young, the heir was designated as Zhang Pengzu, the youngest son of Zhang Anshi. Though still a child, Zhang Pengzu sat at the Emperor’s side, studying books and pointing out passages. The Emperor wished to grant him a noble rank and first conferred upon him the title of Marquis of the Interior.

    Zhang Anshi earnestly refused the marquisate on Zhang He’s behalf and further requested that the number of guardian households be reduced, gradually lessening them to thirty. The Emperor replied, “I am honoring the Magistrate of the Women’s Quarters; this is not about you, General.” Zhang Anshi thereupon ceased his objections and did not dare raise the matter again.

    The Emperor harbored suspicions toward the former Prince of Changyi, Liu He, and issued a sealed letter to Zhang Chang, Prefect of Shanyang, instructing him to remain vigilant against thieves and bandits, to monitor the movements of travelers, and not to disclose the contents of the letter. Zhang Chang then submitted a report on Liu He’s whereabouts and his demeanor after being dethroned, stating:

    “The former Prince of Changyi has a dark complexion, small eyes, a sharp and flat nose, sparse eyebrows and beard, a tall frame, and suffers from lameness, which renders his gait unsteady. When I spoke with him, I attempted to observe his reactions. Upon the topic of ominous birds, I remarked, ‘Changyi has many owls.’

    “The former prince replied, ‘Indeed. When I traveled west to Chang’an, I saw no owls; but when I returned east to Jiyang, the hooting of owls could be heard again.’

    “I observed his attire, speech, kneeling, and bearing—all signs of an imbecile. Previously, I proposed dismissing Zhang Xiu and other ten singers and dancers who served Prince Ai of Changyi, Liu Bo, as they were childless. But the former prince objected, saying, ‘Let the mediocre tend the garden, and do not trouble yourselves with the sick. Those who harm or kill one another should not be punished. I want them to die sooner on their own. Why would the Prefect wish to dismiss them?’

    “His nature seemed to revel in disorder and decay, and he never displayed benevolence or righteousness.”

    Upon hearing this report, the Emperor understood that Liu He was not someone worth worrying about.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 198): Asking for Forgiveness Rather Than Permission

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    Shache(Yarkand) in 1870, Xinjiang

    The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Yuan’kang Era (65 B.C. continued)

    In that year, the Privy Treasurer, Song Chou, was demoted to Grand Tutor of the Prince of Sishui Liu Zong, for having once remarked: “When the phoenixes arrived at Pengcheng and had not yet reached the capital, the auspice lacked its full majesty; it might have been more fitting had they alighted upon the imperial precincts.”

    The Emperor appointed erudites and court remonstrators, who had been familiar with the administration of state affairs, to serve as prefects of commanderies and prime ministers of principalities. Xiao Wangzhi was made Prefect of Pingyuan. He submitted a memorial:

    “Your Majesty’s compassion for the people is admirable. Yet if erudites and remonstrators are sent forth to replace established officials, fearing only that Your benevolence might not reach afar, deeper concerns may be neglected. Should differing voices from remonstrators no longer be heard in court, errors may pass unnoticed, and matters of immediate urgency may overshadow the foundations of government.”

    The Emperor summoned Xiao Wangzhi and appointed him as the Privy Treasurer.

    The Prefect of Donghai, Yin Wenggui of Hedong, having excelled in his governance, was promoted to Intendant of Fufeng. Yin Wenggui was renowned for a penetrating insight into the virtues and faults of both officials and commoners under his jurisdiction. He recorded in detail the circumstances of each county and personally conducted oversight. When the magistrates handled the cases too harshly or swiftly, he made them slow down and be more lenient; If the magistrates got sloppy slightly, he reviewed their cases with careful diligence. Arrests were carried out during the autumn and winter assessments or when he visited the counties, ensuring that the accused would not linger long in confinement; those seized served as warnings to the rest. Thus officials and commoners alike held him in reverence and fear, and each strove to amend himself.

    As Prefect of Fufeng, he selected incorruptible and capable subordinates, treated them with respect regardless of his personal preference, yet dealt strictly with those who betrayed his trust. Though his merits were eminent, he remained modest and without pride, and his name became highly esteemed in the court.

    At first, Wannian, younger son of the Princess of Wusun Liu Jieyou, was cherished by the King of Shache. When the King of Shache died without an heir and Wannian was then residing at the Han court, the people of Shache, seeking alliance with Han and favor from Wusun, petitioned that Wannian be established as their king under Han authority. The court agreed and dispatched Xi Chongguo as envoy to escort Wannian back to Shache. Yet when Wannian ascended the throne, he proved cruel and harsh, and the people bitterly resented him.

    The Emperor ordered his ministers to recommend envoys to the Western Regions. The General of Van Han Zeng recommended Feng Fengshi of Shangdang to serve as Captain of the Guard, bearing the imperial scepter and escorting the tribute envoys of Dayuan and other polities to Yixun City. Meanwhile, Hutu Zheng, younger brother of the former King of Shache, conspired with neighboring states to assassinate King Wannian and the Han envoy Xi Chongguo, and then declared himself king. At the same time, the Xiongnu attacked Jushi City, but failed to take it and withdrew. The new king of Shache then sent envoys falsely reporting that the northern states had submitted to the Xiongnu and began raiding the southern route, forming a coalition against Han and cutting off communications west of Shanshan.

    At this time, the Protector-General of the Western Regions, Zheng Ji, and Colonel Sima Xi maintained military farms among the northern states. Feng Fengshi and his lieutenant Yan Chang argued that if they did not act quickly, Shache would grow powerful and threaten the entire Western Regions. Therefore, they issued an order in the Emperor’s name to the kings of the western states, mobilizing 15,000 troops from the northern and southern routes to attack Shache, and they captured its capital. The king committed suicide, and his head was sent to Chang’an. Another younger brother was appointed king in his stead. Peace having returned among the western states, Feng Fengshi disbanded the army and reported the victory to the court. The Emperor summoned Han Zeng and said: “Let congratulations be extended to General Han; you have chosen a worthy man.”

    Feng Fengshi then journeyed farther west to Dayuan. When the people of Dayuan heard that he had slain the King of Shache, they received him with honor surpassing that shown to previous envoys, and presented him with a famed steed called the “Dragon Horse.” The Emperor was greatly delighted and considered granting Feng Fengshi a noble title. The Chancellor and the generals all agreed, but the Privy Treasurer Xiao Wangzhi remonstrated: “Feng Fengshi, though an envoy, acted on his own authority and forged an imperial command to mobilize troops. Though he achieved merit, such conduct must not be made precedent. If he is ennobled, future envoys will seek fame by raising arms, provoking distant tribes and inviting calamities upon the realm. Feng Fengshi should not be granted a noble.”

    The Emperor approved Xiao Wangzhi’s counsel and instead appointed Feng Fengshi Grand Master of Merit.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Xuan’s Yuan’kang Era (64 B.C.)

    In January of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    The Emperor intended to establish an Empress. At that time, the mothers of Princess Guantao, Hua Jieyu[Lady of Handsome Fairness], mother of Prince Xian of Huaiyang, Zhang Jieyu, mother of Prince Xiao of Chu, and Wei Jieyu were all in favor. The Emperor at first wished to install Zhang Jieyu as Empress. Yet wavering for long and taking lessons from the treasonous plot of Huo Chengjun against the Crown Prince, the Emperor resolved instead to choose a palace woman who had no children of her own and was prudent and discreet.

    Accordingly, on February 26, Wang Jieyu[Lady of Handsome Fairness Wang] of Changling was established as Empress, and was commanded to rear the Crown Prince. Her father, Wang Fengguang, was ennobled as Marquis of Qiongcheng. The Empress was not beloved and seldom received imperial audiences.

    In May, an edict was issued:

    “The handling of legal cases concerns the lives of the people. If the living bear no resentment and the dead no grievance, then the officials may be deemed worthy. Yet it is not so today. Some officials manipulate the laws with cunning, twisting statutes to obscure their meaning, and justice fails to be impartial. Their written reports do not accord with the facts, and even We cannot discern the truth. How, then, can the people place their trust in their superiors? Let all officials of two-thousand-picul rank examine their subordinates and dismiss such men.

    “Some officials impose excessive labor, embellish relay hostels, entertain travelers extravagantly, exceeding the law in pursuit of name and reputation. This is like treading thin ice beneath the burning sun—perilous indeed! Now an epidemic spreads widely, and We grieve for the suffering of the people. Wherever calamity has struck most severely, taxation for this year shall be remitted.”

    Another edict declared:

    “The ancient emperors chose personal names seldom encountered, so that prohibition of their use caused no hardship. Therefore, my personal name shall be altered to be Liu Xun, so that it may be easily avoided.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 197): Turning Swords into Plowshares

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    Lüshunkou Harbor, Bohai, Liaoning Province

    The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Di’jie Era (66 B.C. continued)

    In September, an edict was issued to reduce the price of salt throughout the realm. It was further decreed that each year, the authorities of all commanderies and kingdoms should present the records of prisoners who had perished in confinement through torture or illness. Their county, name, rank, and neighborhood were to be reported to the Chancellor and the Imperial Censor, who would investigate and submit the gravest cases for the Emperor’s judgment.

    In December, the Prince of Qinghe was deposed for incest with his sister and removed to Fangling.

    That same year, Zhu Yi, Prefect of Beihai and a native of Lujiang, famed for his governance and conduct, was appointed Grand Minister of Agriculture. Gong Sui, Prefect of Bohai, was appointed Commandant of Waterways and Parks.

    Formerly, during years of famine in the neighboring commanderies of Bohai, theft and banditry had spread unchecked, and local officials of two-thousand-picul rank proved unable to restrain them. The Emperor sought able men, and both the Chancellor and the Imperial Censor recommended Gong Sui, once Commandant of Changyi. 

    When he was summoned, the Emperor asked him: “How will you govern Bohai and suppress theft and banditry?”

    Gong Sui replied:“Bohai lies far away and has not felt the blessings of Your Majesty’s benevolence. The people suffer hunger and cold, and the officials show them no compassion. Thus Your Majesty’s innocent children have taken up Your Majesty’s arms and played with them in the puddles. Does Your Majesty command me to suppress them, or grant me leave to govern them?”

    The Emperor said: “We select and employ those of virtue; We desire indeed that the realm may be brought to peace.”

    Gong Sui said: “I have heard that governing a distressed people is as untangling knotted threads; it cannot be done with haste. One must proceed slowly, and only then can order be restored. I request that the Chancellor and the Imperial Censor do not bind me strictly to legal statutes, but allow me to act according to expedience.”

    The Emperor granted his request and bestowed further rewards upon him.

    Traveling by swift carriage, Gong Sui reached the border of Bohai. When word spread that the new Prefect had arrived, the commanders sent troops to greet him. Gong Sui dismissed them and sent them back. He then wrote to the counties under his charge, ordering that the pursuit and expulsion of thieves and bandits cease. All who carried hoes, sickles, and other tools of husbandry were to be regarded as good and law-abiding people, and officials were forbidden to interrogate them. Those bearing weapons alone would be deemed bandits.

    When the letters arrived, the thieves and bandits immediately dispersed, casting aside their weapons and crossbows. Thus Bohai was wholly pacified, and the people returned to their homes in peace and joy.

    Gong Sui, perceiving that the customs of Qi were luxurious and frivolous, that the people delighted in petty crafts, retail trade and neglected the plough, practiced frugality and moderation himself. He encouraged the people to devote their efforts to farming and sericulture, requiring each household to plant trees and raise livestock in proportion to its strength. Whenever he saw a man carrying a sword or blade, he ordered him to sell the sword and buy a cattle, to sell the knife and buy a calf, saying, “Why not wear cattle and calves at your side instead?”

    By his diligent inspection and guidance, the commandery grew rich in livestock and grain. Litigation ceased, and quarrels diminished.

    In this same year, a daughter of Princess Liu Jieyiu, formerly given in marriage to the King of Wusun, became wife to Jiangbin, King of Qiuci(Kucha). Jiangbin memorialized the throne, saying: “I have been granted the favor of marrying the granddaughter of Han. I wish to escort the daughter of the Princess to the court, so that she may behold the Son of Heaven.”

    The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Yuan’kang Era (65 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the King of Qiuci and his consort came to offer homage. Both were granted seals and ribbons; the queen was styled Princess and received abundant gifts.

    Earlier, the Duling Tomb had been prepared for the Emperor’s burial. Thereafter, the tombs of those who had served as chancellors, generals, marquises, officials of two-thousand-picul rank, and of those whose wealth reached one million, were gradually relocated to the Duling precincts.

    In March, an edict was issued: because phoenixes had gathered upon Mount Tai and in Chenliu, and sweet dew had descended upon Weiyang Palace, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    The officials again urged that the Emperor’s biological father be posthumously honored as Father of the Emperor. In May of summer, a temple was erected for him.

    In winter, the office of Commandant of the Jianzhang Palace Guards was newly established.

    Zhao Guanghan, Intendant of Jingzhao, favored the sons of veteran officials, newly appointed youths, valuing strength and vigor alone, for they were swift in action and without fear, often resorting to harsh measures without hesitation. This tendency, however, led to his ruin. Zhao Guanghan condemned a man named Rong Chu to death out of personal grudge, someone memorialized to authority. The Chancellor, Wei Xiang, and the Imperial Censor took up the matter.

    Zhao Guanghan, suspecting the Chancellor’s wife in the death of a maidservant, sought to coerce and compromise Wei Xiang by accusation. Wei Xiang only intensified the investigation. Zhao Guanghan then marched to the Chancellor’s residence with his guards, forced Wei Xiang’s wife to kneel and confess, and seized more than ten of their servants and maids. Wei Xiang submitted a petition pleading his case. The Minister of Justice investigated and reported that the maid had been beaten and punished, then sent to an outer residence, where she died—contradicting Zhao Guanghan’s claims. The Emperor grew displeased and handed Zhao Guanghan over to the judicial authorities.

    Tens of thousands of officials and commoners gathered before the palace gates, weeping and wailing. Some cried: “Our lives are of no use to His Majesty—let us die in Zhao Guanghan’s place, so that the people may continue to be protected!”

    Zhao Guanghan was finally executed by waist-chopping. As magistrate of the capital, his integrity had suppressed the arrogance of the powerful and allowed the people to live in peace. The common folk cherished his memory and sang songs in his praise.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 196): Legacy of Huo Guang

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    Maoling Museum, Shaanxi Province

    The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Di’jie Era (66 B.C. continued)

    At first, the Huo clan gave themselves over to extravagance. Xu Fu, a scholar of Maoling, said: “The fall of the Huo family is certain. Extravagance breeds immodesty; immodesty leads to disrespect for superiors. Disrespect for superiors is a departure from the Way. When a man stands above others, the multitude will surely resent him. The House of Huo held power long and many there were who bore them ill will. The realm resented them, and yet they further acted in defiance of the Way; if they were not to perish, what would they wait for!”

    He submitted a memorial, saying: “The power of the Huo clan has reached its zenith. Your Majesty, while cherishing them, should restrain them in due time, lest they bring calamity upon themselves.” This memorial was thrice laid before the Emperor, yet it was withheld without reply.

    When the Huo clan was later executed, those who had exposed their crimes were all enfeoffed. Someone then submitted another memorial on behalf of Xu Fu:

    “I have heard that when a guest sees the host’s hearth placed too near the firewood, he advises moving the fuel to prevent disaster. The host remains silent, and before long, a fire indeed breaks out. The neighbors rush to extinguish it, and the blaze is finally put out. The host slaughters cattle and prepares a feast to thank them; those whose faces were scorched by the flames receive foremost honor, and all are rewarded according to their service—save the one who warned them beforehand.

    “The people say to the host: ‘Had you heeded the guest’s counsel, there would have been no fire, no need for cattle or feasts, and no danger to life. Now you reward those burnt by the flames, but the one who urged you to move the fuel receives nothing. Is it right to honor only those who suffered burns, and not the one who would have prevented the blaze?’ The host, realizing his fault, then acknowledges the guest’s merit.

    “So too with Xu Fu of Maoling. He memorialized repeatedly, warning of rising danger within the Huo clan and urging timely restraint. Had his counsel been accepted, there would have been no need for territorial divisions or the expense of new enfeoffments, and the officials would not have suffered rebellion and extermination. Now that the matter has run its course, Xu Fu alone has received no recognition. May Your Majesty consider this, and reward him beyond those who bore the scorch of the flames.”

    The Emperor granted the scholar Xu Fu ten bolts of silk, and later appointed him Court Attendant.

    When the Emperor first ascended the throne, he went to present respects at the temple of Emperor Gaozu. The Grand General Huo Guang rode in the imperial carriage, and the Emperor felt inwardly alarmed, as though thorns pressed upon his back. Later, the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Zhang Anshi, replaced Huo Guang in the carriage. With Zhang Anshi beside him, the Emperor was at ease and no longer afraid, for this Zhang Anshi was one in whom he placed intimate trust. When Huo Guang died, and his house was eventually exterminated, the people said that the downfall of the Huo clan began from that carriage seat. Twelve years later, Empress Dowager Huo was removed to the Yunlin Palace, where she took her own life.

    Ban Gu wrote in praise of Huo Guang: Huo Guang accepted the entrusted charge of aiding a child-sovereign, bearing the weight of the Han realm, rectifying government, securing the Altars of Earth and Grain, sustaining Emperor Zhao, and establishing Emperor Xuan. To compare him with the Duke of Zhou or Ah Heng(Yi Yin) is no exaggeration! Yet Huo Guang did not study the Classics deeply and lacked clarity in the greater Way. He concealed the wickedness of his treacherous wife and raised his daughter to the throne as empress. Lost in excessive desires, he opened the gate to calamity and invited ruin upon his clan. Within three years of his death, his treasures were scattered and his lineage annihilated. How lamentable!

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Huo Guang’s service to the Han may be called loyal. Yet he could not preserve his own house. Why? The instruments of authority are tools of the ruler. When a minister clings to them long and does not return them, he will rarely avoid harming himself.

    Emperor Zhao, at fourteen years of age, already perceived the deceit of Shangguan Jie; assuredly he could have managed affairs of state. Emperor Xuan ascended the throne at nineteen, possessing intelligence, resolution, and knowledge of the people’s suffering. Yet Huo Guang held power unyieldingly, never knowing when to withdraw, and filled the court with his kin, so that resentment accumulated above and discontent spread below. The people gnashed their teeth and cast hidden glances, awaiting their moment. That he did not meet disaster in life was already fortune; how, then, could his descendants—driven by hubris and excess—avoid it?

    Even so, Emperor Xuan rewarded his descendants with noble titles, rich stipends, command of great commanderies, and presence at court. That would have been enough to requite his service. Yet he further entrusted the Huo clan with the governance of state and the power of armies. As grievances piled and penalties increased, fear and suspicion grew, and plots were born. Thus, this calamity was not solely the Huo clan’s doing; Emperor Xuan too nourished its roots.

    In former days, when Dou Jiao rebelled in Chu, King Zhuang exterminated his clan, yet he spared the Remonstration Officer, Dou Kehuang, so that good counsel should not be wholly lost. Though the crimes of Huo Xian, Huo Yu, and Huo Yunwere egregious, the loyal legacy of Huo Guang should not have gone without oblation. To leave the clan with no heir—this was Emperor Xuan’s mercilessness!

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 195): Down with Gang of Huo

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    A Park in Dingtao (Shanyang), Shandong Province

    The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Di’jie Era (66 B.C.)

    In February of spring, the Emperor enfeoffed his maternal grandmother as Lady of Bo’ping. His maternal uncles were likewise ennobled: Wang Wugu was made Marquis of Ping’chang, and Wang Wu was made Marquis of Le’chang.

    In May of summer, hailstones the size of chicken eggs fell in Shanyang and Jiyin. Floodwaters rose to two feet and five inches. More than twenty persons died, and all birds in flight perished.

    An edict was issued: “Henceforth, those who shelter and conceal their parents, wives who shelter and conceal their husbands, and grandchildren who shelter and conceal their grandparents shall not be prosecuted.”

    Liu Wen, grandson of Prince Hui of Guangchuan, was appointed Prince of Guangchuan.

    At this time, Grand Madame Huo Xian, together with Huo Yu, Huo Shan, and Huo Yun, perceived that their authority was declining. They often gathered to lament and reproach themselves. Huo Shan said: “Now the Chancellor holds the reins of power, and the Emperor trusts him. He has overturned the statutes established by the Grand General, constantly exposing the General’s faults. Many Confucian scholars come from poor families, traveling far to the capital and enduring hunger and cold. They delight in haughty and reckless speech, heedless of taboos—such men the Grand General despised. Yet His Majesty takes pleasure in conversing with them, and all compose responses to the Emperor’s inquiries, frequently disparaging our clan.

    “Some even submitted memorials accusing our brothers of arrogance and unrestrained conduct; this wounded me deeply. I suppressed the reports and did not present them to the Emperor. But the informers have grown ever more crafty, submitting sealed memorials without cease. His Majesty commands the Chief of the Palace Secretariat to retrieve them directly, bypassing the Secretariat entirely, further diminishing his trust in me. Moreover, rumors circulate among the common people that ‘the Huo family poisoned Empress Xu.’ Could such a thing be true?”

    Huo Xian, stricken with fear, at once revealed the truth to Huo Yu, Huo Shan, and Huo Yun. They were stunned and cried out: “If this is so, why did you not tell us sooner? The Emperor’s dismissal and dispersal of the sons-in-law of our house were all because of this. The matter is grave, and the punishment will be heavy. What course remains for us?” Thus the shadows of treachery began to gather.

    A close associate of Li Jing—maternal uncle to Huo Yun—named Zhang She observed the panic within Huo Yun’s household. He said to Li Jing: “The Chancellor and the Marquis of Ping’en now hold full power. You should have Grand Madame Xian petition the Empress Dowager to remove these two first. Thereafter, depose His Majesty and establish a new Son of Heaven—such matters lie within the reach of the Empress Dowager.”

    A man of Chang’an named Zhang Zhang reported this plot. The Minister of Justice and the Bearer of the Mace took up the case, and Zhang She and his accomplices were arrested.

    Later, an imperial edict ordered the arrests suspended. Huo Shan and the others grew still more fearful and conferred among themselves: “The Emperor hesitates only out of filial reverence for the Empress Dowager; otherwise, matters would already have gone to the end. This bodes ill. The restraint will not last—once it breaks, our clan will be annihilated. It is better to act first.” They bade their daughters warn their husbands. The husbands all replied: “There is nowhere for us to flee or hide!”

    Li Jing was charged with illicit dealings with the feudal lords, and his testimony implicated the Huo clan. An edict was issued: “Huo Yun and Huo Shan are unfit to remain in the capital. Let them be stripped of office and retire to their fiefs.”

    Zhang Chang, Prefect of Shanyang, submitted a memorial:

    “I have heard that Prince Ji You rendered meritorious service to Lu, Zhao Cui contributed greatly to Jin, and Tian Wan achieved for Qi. All were amply rewarded by their states, and their descendants shared in the benefit. Yet in the end, the Tian clan usurped Qi, the Zhao clan partitioned Jin, and the Ji clan manipulated Lu. Therefore Confucius composed the Spring and Autumn Annals to trace rise and decline, censuring most severely the hereditary aggrandizement of noble houses.

    “Recently, the Grand General made resolute plans, secured the ancestral temples, and brought order to the realm—his merits are not insignificant. The Duke of Zhou governed for seven years, yet the Grand General held authority for twenty, controlling the fate of the empire. At the height of his power, he shook Heaven and Earth, disturbing the harmony of yin and yang. The court advisers should have submitted a frank memorial, saying: ‘Your Majesty has already rewarded the Grand General to the fullest for his service. Of late, the regent ministers have dominated affairs, and the power of the nobility has grown excessive; the boundary between ruler and subject is no longer distinct. It is fitting to remove the three marquises of the Huo clan from power and send them back to their fief; as for the Guard General, Zhang Anshi, grant him a cane and a tea table for retirement, consult him on occasion, and treat him with courtesy, appointing him as mentor to the Son of Heaven, with a marquis title.’

    “Your Majesty should then have issued an edict declining their proposal, expressing gratitude for past achievements. The ministers, asserting righteousness, would repeatedly press their case until it was accepted. The world would regard Your Majesty as mindful of past achievements, and the officials as discerning in principle. The Huo clan would have no grounds for resentment in generations to come.

    “Now, the court hears no upright words, and the Emperor issues decrees alone. This is no prudent course. The two marquises have already departed the capital, and the feelings of the people do not differ by much. In my humble estimation, Grand Marshal Huo Yu and his subordinates are likely gripped by fear. When those close to the throne feel insecure, it won’t be an ideal situation.

    “I, Zhang Chang, dare to speak first and expose the root of the matter. Yet I stand alone in this distant commandery, unable to pursue the argument further. I beseech Your Majesty to examine my words with care.”

    The Emperor greatly approved his proposal, but did not summon him.

    The households of Huo Yu, Huo Shan, and the others were repeatedly troubled by uncanny portents, which filled them with grief and dread. Huo Shan said, “The Chancellor has arbitrarily reduced the offerings in the ancestral temple—lambs, pigs, and even frogs. This may be the source of these calamities.” They conspired to have the Empress Dowager Shangguan host a banquet for Lady Bo’ping, the Emperor’s maternal grandmother, summoning the Chancellor, the Marquis of Ping’en(Xu Guanghan), and their subordinates. Their plan was that Fan Mingyou and Deng Guanghan, acting under the Empress Dowager’s command, would execute them during the feast, afterward depose the Emperor, and set Huo Yu upon the throne. The scheme was spoken of, but no action was taken.

    Before it could be carried out, Huo Yun was appointed Prefect of Xuantu, and Ren Xuan was sent as Prefect of Dai Commandery. When the plot came to light, in July of autumn, Huo Yun, Huo Shan, and Fan Mingyou took their own lives. Grand Madame Huo Xian, Huo Yu, Deng Guanghan, and others were arrested. Huo Yu was executed by waist-chopping; Huo Xian, her daughters, and her brothers were put to death. All connected with the Huo clan shared their fate, and several dozen households were exterminated. The Grand Coachman Du Yannian, because of past dealings with the Huo family, was also dismissed from office.

    On August 1, Empress Huo was deposed and confined in the Zhao’tai Palace. On August 17, an imperial edict enfeoffed Zhang Zhang, Court Guard Dong Zhong, Left Assistant to the Secretariat Yang Yun, and the Privy Counselors Jin Anshang and Shi Gao—all of whom had aided in exposing the conspiracy. Yang Yun was the son of the former Chancellor Yang Chang; Jin Anshang was nephew to the late General of Chariots and Cavalry Jin Midi; and Shi Gao was nephew to Lady Shi, grandmother of the Emperor.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 194): Erring on The Side of Lenience

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 17 Scroll 25 (continued)

    Jiaohe Ruin, the Capital of Jushi, Turpan, Xinjiang. Photo by Hiroooooo

    The 3rd year of Emperor Xuan’s Di’jie Era (67 B.C. continued)

    During the reign of Emperor Wu, conscription was onerous, and the people were burdened with toil and impoverishment. The destitute, driven by hardship, often transgressed the law, and corruption spread throughout the realm. To restore order, Zhang Tang, Zhao Yu, and others were appointed to establish stringent laws and ordinances. They enacted measures that imposed heavy penalties upon those who concealed offenses, and laws that held the superiors accountable, while implicating all their subordinates. They rewarded those who applied excessive severity or lodged wrongful accusations, while punishing those who showed leniency or doubt toward the accused.

    As cunning and deceit grew among the people, prohibitions multiplied in response; thus, the legal codes became ever more intricate. The system of justice turned oppressive, with countless documents and statutes filling the archives—so voluminous that no one could read them all. The application of law came to differ by region, and similar crimes were judged with dissimilar sentences. Corrupt officials exploited the confusion, bending laws to serve their own ends. Those who sought mercy were compelled to bribe, that lighter statutes might be invoked; those falsely accused were condemned to death. The cries of injustice resounded throughout the empire, and resentment filled the hearts of the people.

    A staff officer of the Justice Ministry, Lu Wenshu of Julu, presented a memorial:

    “I have heard that in the state of Qi, the calamities caused by Prince Wuzhi were turned into prosperity by Duke Huan; and in the state of Jin, the disorders brought about by Concubine Li were transformed into hegemony by Duke Wen. In more recent times, the Prince of Zhao, Liu Ruyi, perished untimely, and the Lü clan rose in rebellion; yet from that turmoil emerged Emperor Wen, venerated as Emperor Taizong. Thus it may be seen that chaos and misfortune often precede the rise of a sagacious ruler. When a new age succeeds one of disorder, there must arise extraordinary virtue to distinguish the present from the past, thereby manifesting Heaven’s Mandate. Formerly, when Emperor Zhao died without an heir, and the Prince of Changyi sank into debauchery, it was indeed Heaven’s will, opening the way for the most enlightened to ascend the throne.

    “I have heard that the Spring and Autumn Annals place great weight upon the rectification of succession and the unity of the realm. At the beginning of a reign, utmost caution must be observed to establish orthodoxy. Your Majesty, upon ascending to the throne, has aligned with the rightful order. It is now fitting to correct the faults of former times, to affirm the transmission of the Mandate, to cleanse the laws of their excesses, to relieve the people of their grievances, and to respond to the will of Heaven.

    “It is recorded that the Qin dynasty had ten wrongdoings, one of which still remains: the officers of the penal law. The handling of judicial affairs is the lifeblood of the empire. The dead cannot be restored to life, and the mutilated cannot be made whole again. The Book of Documents says, ‘Better to spare the guilty than to slay the innocent.’ Yet the law officials of today are contrary to this: they pursue harshness to gain merit, regarding cruelty as justice. Those who punish with severity win praise, while those who judge with equity fall into peril. Thus the magistrates of law desire the death of the accused, not from hatred, but to secure their own safety. Hence blood flows in the markets, and the condemned stand side by side; the yearly toll of executions numbers in the tens of thousands. This rips the heart out of the humane and the wise, and delays the coming of great peace—this is the root of the disorder.

    “Human nature is such that in comfort one cherishes life, and in agony one seeks death. Under the lash and the torture, what confession cannot be extracted? Prisoners, unable to endure the pain, take hints from their interrogators; and the officials, eager to conclude the case, guide them toward the desired confession. Fearing later reversal, they forge and embellish evidence to make it irrefutable. Even if a fair judge like Gao Yao were to review it, he would have deemed that a thousand deaths could not atone for such crimes. Why so? Because the records, filled with forced confessions and falsified testimony, stand before him as proof. Thus has it been said: ‘Draw a circle upon the ground as a prison, and none dare step within; carve wood into a prosecutor, and all fear to behold him.’ These are laments for the cruelty of officials and the cries of victims who perish unjustly. Only Your Majesty, by reforming the laws and tempering punishments, can restore harmony to the people and bring forth the tranquil winds of Great Peace throughout the realm.”

    The Emperor approved his words.

    In December, an imperial edict was issued, declaring:

    “In recent times, the officials of justice have grown adept at twisting the law, and the use of fabricated charges has become ever more severe. This is the fault of My governance. False judgments have led to wrongful convictions, the innocent have suffered punishment, and fathers and sons have been left in grief and despair. We are deeply pained by this! Now, We appoint staff of the Justice Ministry to help resolve doubtful cases of the commanderies. Their authority is limited, their emoluments modest. Furthermore, an Appeal Panel shall be established within the Ministry of Justice, with a stipend of six hundred piculs, composed of four members. Their duty shall be to ensure impartiality and uphold My intent toward fairness.”

    From that time forth, whenever the autumn reviews of appeals were held, the Emperor would frequently reside in the Hall of Proclamation, abstaining from food, deliberating upon the cases himself. Thus the judgments of criminal matters grew increasingly equitable, and justice was more faithfully rendered throughout the realm.

    Zheng Chang, the Prefect of Zhuojun Commandery, submitted a memorial, stating: “Under the current enlightened Sovereign, even without establishing the Appeal Panel, the legal system will naturally rectify itself. However, for the sake of future generations, it is advisable to revise and simplify laws and regulations. Once the laws are clearly defined, the foolish common people will know what to avoid, and corrupt officials will have no room for manipulation. Failing to correct the fundamental issues while setting up appeal panels is tantamount to address the trees while losing sight of the forest.  Once a new ruler enthroned leading to decline and negligence in governance, it would allow the appeal panels rooms to manipulate the laws and become a source of disorder again.”

    During the reign of Emperor Zhao, the Xiongnu sent four thousand cavalry to hunt near the kingdom of Jushi. When the Five Generals of Han mounted their campaign against the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu horsemen who were hunting there fled in terror. Thereafter, Jushi restored its communication with the Han. The Xiongnu, enraged, summoned the Jushi crown prince, Junsu, intending to hold him as a hostage. But Junsu, being grandson of the king of Yanqi and unwilling to become a captive of the Xiongnu, fled to Yanqi. The king of Jushi then appointed his younger son, Wugui, as crown prince. When Wugui succeeded to the throne, he forged marriage ties with the Xiongnu and caused them to block the passage between Wusun and the Han.

    In that same year, vice minister Zheng Ji of Kuaiji, together with Colonel Sima Xi, led pardoned convicts to establish military farms in the Quli kingdom. They amassed grain, raised an army of more than ten thousand from various tribes, and, together with the recruited peasants, attacked Jushi and defeated it. The king of Jushi sued for surrender. The Xiongnu, angered, sent troops to strike Jushi. Zheng Ji and Sima Xi advanced northward to confront them, and the Xiongnu dared not proceed. Leaving one captain and twenty soldiers to guard the king, Zheng Ji returned to Quli. The Jushi king, fearing that the Xiongnu might return and kill him, fled on horseback to Wusun. Zheng Ji then received the king’s wife and children and escorted them to Chang’an.

    The Xiongnu appointed Dou Mo, the king’s younger brother, as the new king of Jushi, moved the remaining people eastward, and forbade them from dwelling in their former lands. Zheng Ji then sent three hundred officers and soldiers to settle in the reclaimed Jushi territory.

    Since his accession, the Emperor had dispatched envoys repeatedly to search for his maternal kin. For a long time none of those found proved to be the true relatives. In this year, however, the Emperor at last discovered his maternal grandmother, Lady Wang, and her sons, Wang Wugu and Wang Wu. He bestowed upon Wang Wugu and Wang Wu the rank of Inner Marquis. Within a few months, generous rewards and gifts were lavished upon them, amounting to a vast sum.