The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yangshuo Era (22 B.C.)
In the spring, on February 27, eight meteorites fell in Dongjun Commandery.
In June of summer, the workers of the ironworks in Yingchuan—led by Shen Tusheng and numbering one hundred and eighty—killed their chief officials, seized weapons from the armory, proclaimed themselves generals, and roamed through nine commanderies. The government dispatched the Chancellor’s Chief of Staff and the Censor-in-Chief to pursue and capture them. The local armed forces were mobilized, the rebels were all brought to justice and executed.
In autumn, Wang Feng fell gravely ill, and the Emperor visited his home several times, personally holding his hand and weeping, saying, “General, should the unspeakable occur, Marquis of Ping’e, Wang Tan, will succeed you as Grand General.”
Wang Feng knelt and wept in reply: “Though Wang Tan and the others are my close kin, their conduct is extravagant and expropriating, and they cannot properly lead the people. The Grand Master of the Censorate, Wang Yin, is diligent and cautious; I avouch for his qualification, betting my life.”
As Wang Feng approached death, he submitted a final memorial to thank the Emperor and once again firmly recommended Wang Yin as his successor, insisting that Wang Tan and the other four marquises not be employed. The Emperor agreed.
Earlier, Wang Tan had been haughty and unwilling to serve under Wang Feng, whereas Wang Yin respected him and behaved with the humility of a son. For this reason, Wang Feng recommended Wang Yin.
On August 24, Wang Feng died. On September 2, Wang Yin was appointed Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry, while Wang Tan was promoted to Special Appointee and placed in charge of the capital gate guards. The Prefect of Anding Commandery, Gu Yong, believing that Wang Tan had lost out in the contest for the post of Grand General, urged him to decline the command of the city gates. From that time forward, Wang Tan and Wang Yin were on poor terms with one another.
In winter, on November 6, the Chamberlain Yu Yong was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. Yu Yong was the son of Yu Dingguo.
The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Yangshuo Era (21 B.C.)
In February of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
In April of summer, snow fell.
On September 16, Prince Si of Dongping, Liu Yu, died.
The Minor Kunmi of the Wusun, Wujiutu, died, and his son Fuli succeeded him, but was killed by his younger brother, Ri’er. The Han court dispatched an envoy to install Fuli’s son, Anri, as the new Minor Kunmi. Ri’er fled and took refuge in Kangju. Anri then sent three nobles—Gumoni and others—who feigned defection to Ri’er and assassinated him. Thereupon, the states of the Western Regions submitted memorials requesting that the former Protector-General (Viceroy), Duan Huizong, be reinstated. The Emperor approved their request. When news of this spread, the states with walled cities in the region all vied eagerly to pledge allegiance to Han.
Gu Yong submitted a memorial, saying: “A wise ruler does not confer fame and titles without regard to actual ability and experience. The office of Grand Master of the Censorate bears heavy responsibility and is of the utmost importance. The Privy Treasurer, Xue Xuan, is well versed in governance. I beg Your Majesty to deliberate carefully.” The Emperor accepted his counsel.
The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Hongjia Era (20 B.C.)
In the spring, on January 9, Xue Xuan was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
On February 28, the Emperor went to inspect his mausoleum at Chuling and granted a pardon to the convicts laboring there. Township Xi of Xinfeng County was designated as Changling County to finance the Chuling mausoleum.
The Emperor began to travel incognito, accompanied by more than ten palace guards or personal attendants, sometimes riding in a small carriage, sometimes on horseback, roaming through markets and countryside, and going to palaces as far as neighboring counties such as Ganquan, Changyang, and Wuzuo Palace. He engaged in cockfighting and horse racing, often claiming to be a family member of the Marquis of Fuping. The Marquis of Fuping, Zhang Fang, was the great-great-grandson of Zhang Anshi. Zhang Fang’s father, Zhang Lin, had married Princess Jingwu(Sister of Emperor Yuan). Zhang Fang served as a Privy Counselor and General of the Household, married the younger sister of Empress Xu, and was an unrivaled catamite at the time, which is why the Emperor used his surname as an alias.
On March 27, Zhang Yu was dismissed on account of age and illness. He was permitted, as a marquis and special appointee, to attend court on the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month, receiving ceremonial honors equivalent to those of the Chancellor, along with rewards amounting to several tens of millions.
In summer, on April 27, Xue Xuan was appointed Chancellor and enfeoffed as Marquis of Gaoyang; the Intendant of Jingzhao, Wang Jun, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
Wang Yin, as the Emperor’s maternal uncle, handled affairs with care and diligence. Since Wang Yin had advanced to the post of General of the Household from that of Grand Master of the Censorate without receiving the marquisate customarily granted to a Chancellor, on June 17 the Emperor enfeoffed him as Marquis of Anyang.
That year, the Xiongnu’s Fuzhulei Chanyu died, and his younger brother, Jumixu, ascended the throne as Souxie Ruodi Chanyu. He sent his son, Xuliusihou, the Left Zhuduhan King, to serve at court as a hostage, and appointed Jumoche as the Left Tuqi King.
Strategies of the Warring States, Compiled by Liu Xiang
The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yangshuo Era (23 B.C.)
In March of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
The Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhang Zhong, passed away.
In summer, on April 27, the Privy Counselor and Grand Coachman, Wang Yin, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. At this time, the Wang family grew ever more prominent: inspectors of the provinces and prime ministers of principalities were drawn almost entirely from their ranks. The Five Marquises and their younger brothers vied with one another in extravagance, exchanging lavish gifts and rare treasures from every quarter. They were adept in the arts of human relations, patronizing of scholars and men of reputation, spending their wealth to enhance their prestige. Their gates were thronged with retainers, all competing to extol their virtues.
Liu Xiang said to Chen Tang, “Now, with disasters and anomalies so frequent, and the maternal relatives growing more powerful by the day, the Liu clan is inevitably endangered. I have been fortunate, as a distant kinsman of the same surname, to benefit from the grace of the Han for generations. As an old servant of the imperial house, I have served three emperors. The Emperor respects me as a minister of the former reign and always shows me favor in the audience. If I do not speak, who will?”
He therefore submitted a sealed memorial of vehement remonstrance:
“Your servant has heard that no ruler does not desire security, yet all are ever in danger; none does not wish for preservation, yet all stand on the brink of ruin—this comes from losing the art of restraining one’s ministers. When great ministers seize the levers of power and control the governance of the state, there has never been one who did not bring harm. Therefore the Book of Documents says, ‘When a minister exercises authority and dispenses favor on his own, it brings ruin to his clan and calamity to his state.’ Confucius said that when emoluments are distributed outside the court and governance is usurped by high ministers, it is a sign of peril and destruction.
“Now the Wang clan alone—those who ride vermilion-wheeled, ornamented carriages—number as many as twenty-three. Blue and purple robes, sable and cicada pendants fill the inner curtains, arrayed to the left and right of Your Majesty like the scales of a fish. The Grand General holds the reins of government and wields authority; the Five Marquises are haughty, extravagant, and presumptuous beyond measure. Together they exercise power and dispense favor at will, striking down and deciding arbitrarily, indulging themselves without restraint—committing what is foul under the cloak of administration, pursuing private ends under the guise of public duty. They rely on the dignity of the Eastern Palace and exploit the intimacy of nephew and maternal uncle to give weight to their authority.
“The Ministers of the State Secretariat, the Nine Ministers, provincial governors, and commandery prefects all issue from their gate. They grasp the pivots of the state, forming cliques and factions. Those who praise them are advanced; those who offend them or incur their hatred are punished and injured. Idle talkers assist them with persuasion; those in office speak on their behalf. They exclude and cast aside the imperial kindred, isolating and weakening the royal clan. Those among the imperial house who possess ability and understanding are especially slandered and denied advancement; they are kept far from offices assigned to the imperial family and are not permitted to attend at court, lest they share authority with them. Repeatedly they invoke the Prince of Yan(Liu Dan) and the Royal Princess Gai to sow suspicion in the Emperor’s mind; they avoid and taboo the names of Empress Dowager Lü and Huo Guang and refuse even to utter them.
“Within the court they sow seeds of rebellion like Uncle Guan and Uncle Cai; outside the court they borrow the language of the Duke of Zhou. Brothers occupy positions of weight; the clan interlocks like bedrock. From high antiquity through Qin and Han, never has there been an affinal house whose usurping eminence equals that of the Wang clan.
“When things reach fullness, extraordinary change must follow, first revealed in subtle signs to those who attend to them. In the time of Emperor Zhao, a stone crown rose upon Mount Tai, and a fallen willow sprouted again in the Imperial Park—then Emperor Xuan ascended the throne. Now, among the graves of the Wang ancestors in Jinan, a catalpa pillar has put forth branches and leaves, spreading upward beyond the roof, its roots hanging down into the earth; even the rising of a stone or the reviving of a willow could scarcely surpass the clarity of this portent.
“The circumstances of affairs do not permit two great powers: the Wang clan and the Liu clan cannot stand together. If there is peace below like Mount Tai, then there is peril above like a stack of eggs. Your Majesty is the heir of the ancestral line, charged with guarding the ancestral temples. If the mandate of the state is allowed to pass to affinal kin and the imperial house is reduced to menial service—even though Your Majesty might refrain from speaking for your own sake, what about then for the ancestral temples?
“A woman takes her husband’s house as her inner sphere and her natal parents’ house as external; this, too, is no blessing for the Empress Dowager. Emperor Xuan did not share authority with his maternal uncle, the Marquis of Pingchang, and thereby preserved complete security and peace.
“Now, the enlightened lord cultivates blessings from what has no visible form and extinguishes calamities before they arise. It would be fitting to issue a clarifying imperial edict, giving voice to benevolent instruction: draw near the imperial kindred, cherish them, and admit them to trust; dismiss the distant affinal kin and grant them no share in governance; relieve them all of office and order them to return to their respective domains—thus taking as model and effecting what the Former Emperor practiced. In this way, the affinal kin would be generously secured and their clans preserved intact, in accord with the intent of the Eastern Palace and as a blessing to the maternal families.
“The Wang clan would endure, their ranks and emoluments preserved; the Liu house would enjoy lasting peace and not lose the altars of soil and grain. This is the means to honor harmony between the inner and outer surnames, a plan without limit for sons and grandsons. If this policy is not carried out, the Tian clan(taking over State of Qi) will be seen again in our own day, and the Six Grandees (dividing state of Jin) will surely arise within Han—a grave anxiety for later heirs, plain and manifest. I beg that Your Majesty hold fast to these thoughts.”
After reading the memorial, the Emperor summoned Liu Xiang for an audience. Sighing, he lamented the gravity of the matter and said, “You may withdraw for now; I will give this my consideration.” In the end, however, he was unable to adopt Liu Xiang’s counsel.
In autumn, severe floods occurred east of Hangu Pass.
At this time, Grand General Wang Feng held effective authority, and the Emperor was modest, yielding in most matters. The Emperor’s attendants once recommended Liu Xin, the youngest son of the Grand Master of Merit, Liu Xiang, praising his exceptional talent and ability. The Emperor summoned Liu Xin, who recited poetry and compositions, greatly delighting him. The Emperor wished to appoint him Attendant-in-Ordinary and called for his robes and cap. Just as Liu Xin was about to receive the appointment, the attendants said, “We have not yet informed the Grand General.”
The Emperor replied, “This is a minor matter; why involve the Grand General?” The attendants knelt and pressed their objection. The Emperor then consulted Wang Feng, who deemed the appointment inappropriate, and it was halted.
Members of the Wang family all held high offices as ministers, grandees, privy counselors, and administrators, dominating the court. Du Qin, seeing Wang Feng’s overwhelming authority, warned him: “I hope the Grand General will emulate the humility and caution of the Duke of Zhou, restrain the overbearing power of Marquis Rang (Wei Ran), curb the ambitions of Marquis Wu’an (Tian Fen), and not allow men like Fan Ju to find opportunities to sow discord.” Wang Feng did not heed this counsel.
At that time, the Emperor had no heir and was often in poor health. Prince Gong of Dingtao, Liu Kang, came to court. The Empress Dowager and the Emperor, following the wishes of the late Emperor, treated Prince Gong with great kindness, granting him rewards ten times greater than those given to other princes and allowing no past grievances to cause estrangement. They kept him in the capital and did not permit him to return to his fief. The Emperor said to Prince Gong, “I have no son, and human life is uncertain. If anything should happen to me, we may never see each other again. Remain always at my side.”
Later, the Emperor’s health improved, and Prince Gong continued to reside in the royal quarters, attending upon him day and night. The Emperor held him in high favor. Grand General Wang Feng, however, felt uneasy about Prince Gong’s continued presence in the capital. During a solar eclipse, Wang Feng said: “A solar eclipse is a sign of the ascendancy of yin. Though the Prince of Dingtao is a close kinsman, according to the rites he should remain in his fief. His staying in the capital is irregular and improper, and thus Heaven has issued this warning. It is fitting to send the Prince back to his principality.”
The Emperor, unable to oppose Wang Feng, agreed. When Prince Gong took his leave, the Emperor and the Prince wept as they bid farewell.
Wang Zhang was by nature upright and outspoken. Although he had been recommended by Wang Feng, he did not support Wang Feng’s monopolization of power and did not associate closely with him. He submitted a memorial stating, “The blame for the solar eclipse lies in Wang Feng’s seizure of authority and his obstruction of the Emperor.” The Emperor summoned Wang Zhang and questioned him on the matter. Wang Zhang replied:
“Heaven is discerning, favoring the good and punishing the wicked, using auspicious and inauspicious signs as its indicators. Now, because Your Majesty has no heir, you have drawn Prince of Dingtao close to you to secure the continuation of the ancestral temple and the stability of the state. This accords with Heaven’s will and brings peace to the people. It is a righteous and virtuous act and should give rise to auspicious signs. Why, then, have calamities occurred? These calamities arise from high ministers who monopolize power. I have heard that the Grand General Wang Feng falsely shifted the blame for the solar eclipse onto Prince of Dingtao and proposed sending him back to his fief. If he seeks to isolate the Emperor and control state affairs for his own advantage, that is not the conduct of a loyal minister.
“The solar eclipse, in which yin overcomes yang, signifies a minister usurping the authority of his lord. Now all matters of state, great and small, are decided by Wang Feng, while the Emperor does not so much as raise a hand. Instead of reflecting upon himself and assuming responsibility, Wang Feng casts blame upon the virtuous and drives away Prince of Dingtao. Moreover, Wang Feng’s deceit and disloyalty are not confined to a single instance. The former Chancellor, the Marquis of Lechang, Wang Shang, was a close maternal relative of the late Emperor and a man of firm principle and great influence, a true pillar of the state. Because he upheld his convictions and would not bend to Wang Feng’s will, he was dismissed on the pretext of private matters involving women, and died of grief. The people mourned him.
“Furthermore, Wang Feng knew that his concubine’s younger sister, the Lady of Beauty Zhang, had previously been married, and was therefore, by the rites, unfit to be presented to the Emperor. Yet he falsely claimed that she was suitable to bear sons and placed her in the imperial harem for his own household’s advantage. It is said that Lady of Beauty Zhang never conceived. Even among the Qiang and Xiongnu barbarians there are customs of purifying a woman by killing the firstborn and rectifying the woman’s intestines for future delivery, let alone asking the Son of Heaven to be intimate with a woman who has been previously married. These three major matters are things Your Majesty has personally witnessed; they suffice to reveal what remains unseen. Wang Feng should not be permitted to hold power for long. It would be best to retire him and choose in his place a loyal and virtuous man.”
Since Wang Feng’s recommendation to dismiss Wang Shang and his later proposal to send Prince of Dingtao away, the Emperor had grown increasingly discontented. When he heard Wang Zhang’s words, he was moved and enlightened. He said to Wang Zhang, “Had it not been for the direct counsel of the Intendant of Jingzhao, I would not have known the present state of affairs. Only the wise recognize the wise. Please find someone suitable to assist me.” Wang Zhang then submitted a sealed memorial recommending Feng Yewang, Prefect of Langya and maternal uncle of the Prince of Xindu (Liu Xing), for his loyalty, honesty, and exceptional strategic insight.
The Emperor, having heard of Feng Yewang’s reputation since his own days as Crown Prince, held him in high esteem and intended to replace Wang Feng with him. Whenever Wang Zhang was summoned, the Emperor would dismiss all attendants except for a Privy Counselor, Wang Yin—the son of the Empress Dowager’s cousin—who secretly listened and reported everything to Wang Feng. When Wang Feng learned of this, he grew deeply anxious and fearful. Du Qin advised him to feign illness and request retirement. Wang Feng submitted a sorrowful memorial seeking to withdraw from office. The Empress Dowager, upon hearing this, wept and refused to eat. The Emperor, who had been close to Wang Feng since his youth, could not bear to remove him and issued a gracious edict urging him to remain in service. Thus, Wang Feng resumed his duties.
The Emperor then had a minister of the State Secretariat draft a memorial impeaching Wang Zhang, stating: “Although Wang Zhang knew that Feng Yewang had previously been assigned outside the capital because he was the uncle of a prince, he nevertheless privately recommended him, seeking to bring him into court and to collude with the feudal lords. It is also known that the Lady of Beauty Zhang had served the Emperor intimately, yet Wang Zhang falsely claimed that the Qiang and Xiongnu tribes killed a woman’s firstborn to cleanse her, which was an improper and offensive statement.”
The matter was referred to the judicial officials. The Minister of Justice found Wang Zhang guilty of treason, declaring that “by comparing the Emperor to barbarians, he intended to sever the imperial lineage, rebel against the throne, and secretly support the Prince of Dingtao.” Wang Zhang eventually died in prison, and his wife and children were exiled to Hepu Commandery. From then on, high officials regarded Wang Feng with fear, avoiding even meeting his eyes.
Feng Yewang, fearing for his own safety, fell ill. After three months, he was granted leave to return to Duling with his wife and children for medical treatment. Grand General Wang Feng induced the Censor-in-Chief to submit an impeachment, stating: “While on sick leave, Feng Yewang privately went beyond the bounds of his commandery of Langya with the tiger tally, thereby showing disrespect for the imperial decree.”
Du Qin submitted a memorial to Wang Feng, saying: “When a high official of the two-thousand-picul rank falls ill and is granted leave to return home, there is precedent; there is no established law forbidding him to leave his post. The Classics say, ‘In cases of doubt, favor reward,’ to broadly encourage merit; and, ‘In cases of doubt, refrain from punishment,’ to exercise caution in the law, for it is difficult to discern the truth. Now, to disregard law and precedent and to bring a false charge of disrespect runs directly counter to the principle of refraining from punishment in cases of doubt. If we claim that high officials, because they guard vast territories and bear heavy military responsibilities, should be bound by a new precedent, then Feng Yewang’s alleged offense occurred before such a rule was established. Rewards and punishments must be consistent and administered with care.” Wang Feng did not heed this counsel and dismissed Feng Yewang from office.
At the time, many among the common people sympathized with Wang Zhang and criticized the court. Du Qin, wishing to rectify the situation, again advised Wang Feng: “The case of the Intendant of Jingzhao has been handled in secrecy; even the people of the capital do not know the true circumstances, much less those in distant regions. I fear that the world believes Wang Zhang was punished merely for speaking frankly. If this is so, it will stifle honest remonstrance and damage the virtues of leniency and clarity in the law. Your servant, in his dullness, submits that it would be fitting, on the basis of this memorial, to promote those who are most forthright in speech and remonstrance, and also to encourage the existing Gentlemen-Attendants and Retinue Officials to state matters fully, clearly marking the limits of what is tolerated. Thus it will be made known to the four quarters that His Majesty is sagely and enlightened, and does not punish those below for their words. If this is done, circulating rumors will be dispelled and doubts will be resolved.”
Wang Feng reported this to the Emperor and put the proposal into effect.
That year, Xue Xuan, Prefect of Chenliu, was appointed Intendant of Left Pingyi. Wherever Xue Xuan served as a regional administrator, he left a notable impression. His son, Xue Hui, was appointed Magistrate of Pengcheng County. When Xue Xuan once passed through his son’s jurisdiction, he knew in his heart that Xue Hui was incompetent, yet he did not question him about official affairs. Someone asked Xue Xuan, “Why do you not instruct Xue Hui in his duties?”
Xue Xuan laughed and said, “In the conduct of office, one takes the laws and regulations as one’s teacher, and these can be learned by inquiry. But as for ability or inability, that depends on one’s own nature and cannot be taught.”
The people repeated his words and regarded them as true.
The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Heping Era (25 B.C.)
In January of spring, Xiongnu Chanyu came to court.
An amnesty was granted to all convicts throughout the empire.
On March 1, a solar eclipse occurred.
The Prefect of Langya, Yang Rong, was connected by marriage to Wang Feng. When disasters occurred in his commandery, Chancellor Wang Shang conducted an investigation. Wang Feng interceded on Yang Rong’s behalf, but Wang Shang refused to heed him and submitted a report calling for Yang Rong’s dismissal. The Emperor subsequently disregarded the report. Wang Feng resented Wang Shang for this and secretly sought to find fault with him.
He had Geng Ding of Pinyang submit a letter stating: “Wang Shang consorted illicitly with his father’s maidservant; moreover, his younger sister was promiscuous, and one of her slaves killed her secret lover—Wang Shang is suspected of having instructed and instigated this act.” The Emperor judged these salacious accusations insufficient to damage a high minister. Wang Feng, however, persisted in pressing the case, and it was referred to the Colonel of the Capital Inspectorate.
Zhang Kuang, a Grandee of the Palace and a native of Shu Commandery, known for his sycophantic and crafty disposition, submitted a memorial vehemently denouncing Wang Shang. The officials requested that Wang Shang be summoned to the imperial prison. The Emperor, who held Wang Shang in high esteem and knew that Zhang Kuang’s words were often malicious, decreed, “Do not investigate.” Yet Wang Feng continued to press the matter.
In summer, on April 20, an edict was issued confiscating the Chancellor’s seal and ribbon from Wang Shang. Three days after his dismissal, Wang Shang fell ill, vomited blood, and died. He was posthumously styled Marquis Li. As for Wang Shang’s sons, younger kinsmen, and close associates who held posts such as Cavalier Commandant, Privy Counselor, Attendant-in-Ordinary, and various administrative and clerical offices, all were reassigned to positions outside the palace, and none were permitted to remain as palace liaisons or to continue service in the imperial guard. The officials proposed abolishing his marquisate; however, an imperial edict declared that his eldest son, Wang An, would inherit the title as Marquis of Lechang.
When the Emperor was Crown Prince, he studied the Analects under Zhang Yu of Lianzhuo. Upon ascending the throne, he granted Zhang Yu the title of Marquis within the Passes, appointed him Secretary and Grandee of Merit with emoluments of the two-thousand-picul rank, and had him serve as Palace Liaison and Recorder of the State Secretariat. Zhang Yu, together with Wang Feng, oversaw the State Secretariat, but he felt ill at ease and frequently feigned illness, submitting memorials requesting to retire in order to avoid Wang Feng. The Emperor did not permit this and instead treated him with even greater favor.
On June 5, Zhang Yu was appointed Chancellor and enfeoffed as Marquis of Anchang.
Earlier, in the reign of Emperor Wu, when contact was first made with the Western Region, Jibin (Kashmir or Kabul) considered itself so remote that Han forces could not reach it and therefore did not submit, frequently raiding and killing Han envoys. After some time, the Han envoy Wen Zhong conspired with Yinmofu (Hermaeus), a son of the Rongqu (Hellenes) king, to attack and kill the Rongqu king and install Yinmofu as King of Jibin.
Later, when the scout Zhao De visited Jibin, he fell out with Yinmofu, who chained Zhao De and killed more than seventy of his subordinates. Yinmofu then sent envoys to offer an apology. Emperor Yuan, recognizing the extreme distance involved, did not pursue the matter and allowed the envoys to return, thereby severing relations.
When the new Emperor ascended the throne, Jibin again sent envoys to apologize, and the Han court intended to dispatch a return mission. Du Qin advised Wang Feng: “Previously, Yinmofu was installed by the Han and later rebelled. There is no greater grace than to set a man upon a throne and give him a people to rule, and no greater crime than to seize and kill envoys. The reason they neither repay kindness nor fear punishment is that they know they are too distant for our forces to reach. When they seek something, they speak humbly; when they desire nothing, they grow insolent. They can never truly submit.
“The reason the Central Realm maintains contact and bestows gifts upon the barbarians is to make them neighbors and to prevent invasion. At present, the narrow passes of Xiandu cannot be crossed by Jibin. Even if they were to admire and submit to us, it would not suffice to secure the Western Regions. If they do not submit, they likewise cannot threaten our cities.”
“Previously, their rebellion and violence against us alarmed all the states of the Western Regions and led to the severing of relations. Now they profess repentance and send gifts, yet their envoys are neither nobles nor kinsmen of their king, but merely lowly merchants. These merchants seek to trade under the guise of tribute. If we take the trouble to escort them as far as the Xiandu Pass, we risk being deceived and extending courtesies that do not befit their humble status. In all cases where escorts are dispatched to accompany guests, the purpose is to guard against bandit attacks. From the Kingdom of Pishan(Guma Nahiyisi) onward, to the south, there are four or five states no longer subject to Han. Though more than a hundred scouts are posted, and though the night watches are divided into five shifts with clappers struck to keep guard, raids and plunder still occur from time to time.
“Donkeys are used to carry provisions, and one must rely on the various states to supply grain in order to sustain the journey. Some states are poor and small and cannot provide food; others are violent and deceitful and refuse to give it. Bearing the credentials of the Mighty Han, one may yet starve among the mountain valleys, begging and receiving nothing. After being stranded for ten or twenty days, men and beasts are abandoned in the open wilderness, never to return.
“Moreover, one must cross Mount Great Headache and Mount Lesser Headache, the Red Earth Ridge and the Burning Body Ridge, where men grow feverish and sallow, plagued by headache(altitude sickness) and vomiting, and the donkeys and cattle suffer the same. Beyond these lie the Three-Pools Coil and the Stone-Slope Road: at their narrowest they are but one foot six or seven inches wide; at their longest they extend a full thirty li. They overlook precipitous, unfathomable depths. Travelers, whether mounted or on foot, must support one another, pulling along with ropes. Only after more than two thousand li does one reach the Xiandu Pass. When a donkey falls, before it has descended halfway it is smashed to pieces in the ravine; when a man falls, the violence of the plunge makes it impossible even to look back toward him. The obstructions and dangers are beyond all telling.
“The sage kings of antiquity divided the realm into the Nine Provinces and established the Five Zones of Service(each concentric zone is 500 li from center), devoting themselves to what lay within and not seeking what lay without. Now envoys are dispatched, bearing the mandate of the Supreme Command, to escort alien traders. They weary multitudes of officials and soldiers, traverse roads of peril and hardship, and exhaust the resources of the Central Realm in order to attend to what is of no use in distant lands. This is not a policy for long endurance. Let the envoy receive the credentials, accompany them as far as Pishan, and then return.”
Wang Feng agreed with Du Qin’s counsel. Jibin, seeking profit from trade and gifts, thereafter sent envoys only once every few years.
The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Heping Era (27 B.C. continued)
The King of Yelang, Xing (Moyaxie, indigenous Yi people), the King of Gouding, Yǔ, and the Marquis of Louwo, Yu, raised troops and attacked one another. The Prefect of Zangke requested permission to dispatch an army to punish King Xing of Yelang and the others. The officials argued that the great distance made such an expedition impracticable, and instead dispatched the Grandee of the Palace, Zhang Kuang of Shu Commandery, with a commission to mediate and resolve the conflict. Xing and the others, however, did not comply with the orders; they carved wooden effigies of Han officials, set them by the roadside, and shot arrows at them.
Du Qin advised the Grand General Wang Feng: “The southern barbarian kings have shown contempt for the Han envoys and no longer fear the authority of the state. I am afraid that the officials will adopt a weaker stance and persist in seeking reconciliation. The Prefect observes developments and reports them only once they have already become rebellion. If this is so, action will be delayed a further three months; in that time, these kings and chieftains will muster their forces and fortify their positions. Their resentment will only deepen, leading inevitably to mutual destruction. Knowing their crimes to be punishable, they will recklessly assault the prefects and commandants, then withdraw into remote and inhospitable lands, dense with poisonous plants and sweltering with heat and humidity. Even if commanders like Sun Wu or Wu Qi, or warriors such as Meng Ben and Xia Yu, were to enter such perilous terrain, it would be like leaping into fire or flood—they would either burn or drown, and wisdom and valor alike would gain no advantage. To maintain these lands by settlement and farming would impose an excessive burden.
“We should act before their offenses become ominous and before they suspect Han’s punitive intent. Secretly instruct the neighboring prefects and commandants to train troops and horses, and have the Grand Minister of Agriculture prepare grain stores at key points. Select a capable prefect and dispatch him. Enter in the cool season of autumn and execute those kings and chieftains who are especially defiant. If we judge this land barren and its people of no use, then a wise ruler should not burden the Central Realm with them: abandon the commandery, forsake its inhabitants, and sever ties with their leaders. But if the achievements of the late Emperor, established over many generations, must not be allowed to decay into ruin, then act early to eliminate this threat. Once matters escalate into open war, countless lives will be lost.”
Grand General Wang Feng then recommended Chen Li of Linqiong, Marshal of Jincheng, to serve as Prefect of Zangke. Upon arriving in Zangke, Chen Li sought to communicate with Xing, King of Yelang, but Xing refused to comply. Chen Li requested permission to punish him, yet received no reply. Thereupon, Chen Li, accompanied by several dozen officials, toured the counties and reached Jutongting, where Xing was stationed. He summoned Xing, who arrived with several thousand followers, but entered with only a few dozen village chiefs to meet Chen Li. Chen Li reprimanded him and then had him beheaded.
The village chiefs said, “The general has punished the unruly and removed a threat to the people. We wish to inform the soldiers.” Displaying Xing’s head, they laid down their arms and surrendered. The King of Gouding, Yǔ, and the Marquis of Louwo, Yu, were struck with fear and offered a thousand bushels of grain, along with cattle and sheep, to welcome the officials and troops. Chen Li then returned to the commandery seat.
Xing’s father-in-law, Wengzhi, together with his son Xiewu, gathered the remaining forces and compelled twenty-two neighboring villages to rebel. By winter, Chen Li petitioned to recruit local tribes and, together with the Commandant and the Chief of Staff, divided his forces to attack Wengzhi and the others. Wengzhi fortified a key position, but Chen Li dispatched a surprise detachment to cut off their supply routes and spread false reports to sow discord among their ranks.
The Commandant Wan Nian said, “A prolonged conflict cannot be sustained.” He led his troops to attack independently, was defeated, and retreated to Chen Li’s camp. Enraged, Chen Li rebuked him and ordered his subordinates to drive him from the camp with fist blows. Commandant Wan Nian returned to the fight, and Chen Li provided reinforcements. During a severe drought, Chen Li launched an attack and severed their access to water. The barbarians then collectively beheaded Wengzhi and surrendered with his head, and the western tribes were pacified.
The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Heping Era (26 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Prince of Chu, Liu Xiao, came to court. On February 16, an edict was issued commending Liu Xiao for exemplary conduct and distinguished virtue, and his son, Liu Xun, was granted the title of Marquis of Guangqi.
On February 27, an earthquake struck Qianwei, causing mountains to collapse and block the Zangke River, so that its water flowed backward.
On August 30, a solar eclipse occurred.
The Emperor observed that the court library’s collections had largely been dispersed and lost, and therefore dispatched the court usher Chen Nong to search for missing books throughout the realm. An imperial decree ordered the Grand Master of Merit, Liu Xiang, to collate the Classics, their commentaries, and the writings of the various philosophers and poets; the Commandant of Infantry, Ren Hong, to collate military texts; the Grand Astronomer, Yin Xian, to collate works on numerology and astrology; and the Court Physician, Li Zhuguo, to collate medical and technical writings. Each time a book was completed, Liu Xiang listed its chapters, summarized its principal ideas, recorded them, and presented them to the Emperor.
Liu Xiang, perceiving that the power of the Wang family had grown excessive and knowing that the Emperor favored the ancient texts of the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents, compiled materials based on the “Hong Fan” chapter of the Book of Documents. He gathered accounts of auspicious signs and calamities from antiquity through the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, down to the Qin and Han dynasties. He analyzed these events, linked them to the causes and effects of fortune and misfortune, set forth their prognostications and verifications, and arranged them into related categories. In all, there were eleven chapters, which he entitled Hong Fan: Commentary and Discussion on the Wuxing(Five Elements), and he presented them to the Emperor. The Emperor, aware of Liu Xiang’s loyalty and devotion, understood that the work had been composed to restrain the brothers of Wang Feng; yet in the end he was unable to strip the Wang family of their power.
The Yellow River again breached at Pingyuan, flowing into Jinan and Qiansheng Commanderies, causing damage roughly half as extensive as in the Jianshi era. Wang Yanshi was once more dispatched, together with the Prime Minister’s Chief of Staff, Yang Yan, the Grand Architect, Xu Shang, and the Grand Master of Remonstrance, Chengma Yannian, to oversee the repairs, which were completed in June. Wang Yanshi was rewarded with one hundred catties of gold. The laborers who repaired the river, having received no wages for their work, were granted an exemption from corvée service for six months.
The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Heping Era (27 B.C.)
In the spring, Xiongnu envoy Yiye Moyan prepared to return home but declared his intention to surrender, saying: “If you do not accept me, I will kill myself. I will never dare to return.” The envoy reported this, and the matter was referred to the ministers for deliberation.
Some proposed, “We should follow precedent and accept his surrender.” However, the Grand Master of Merit, Gu Yong, and the Counselor, Du Qin, argued:
“Since the founding of the Han dynasty, the Xiongnu have repeatedly troubled the frontiers, and thus rewards of gold and titles were offered to those who surrendered. Now the Chanyu has submitted and become a vassal, sending envoys to pay tribute without duplicity. The response of the Han court should therefore differ from past practice. If, while enjoying the sincerity of a tribute mission, we were to shelter a fugitive from the Chanyu’s own envoy, we would be valuing the gain of a single man over the goodwill of an entire nation—harboring a criminal while alienating a lord who admires our virtue.
“Suppose the newly enthroned Chanyu, uncertain of advantage and disadvantage, has secretly sent Yiye Moyan to feign surrender in order to test our intentions. To accept him would diminish our virtue and discourage future goodwill, causing the Chanyu to distance himself from the Central Realm and to cease friendly relations with our border officials. Alternatively, this may be a scheme to sow discord, using a pretended surrender to create a rift. To accept him would play into their design, allowing them to manipulate events to their advantage. This matter bears upon the security of our frontiers and the movement of our forces and must be weighed with care. It is better not to accept him, thereby demonstrating the integrity of the Han, thwarting deceitful plots, and fostering genuine loyalty. This would be more beneficial.”
The Emperor accepted their counsel and dispatched General Wang Shun to inquire into Yiye Moyan’s intent. Yiye Moyan replied, “I spoke nonsense because of illness.” He was then sent back. Upon his return, his official rank remained unchanged, but he was not permitted to meet with the Han envoy.
In April of summer, hailstones as large as cauldrons fell in the principality of Chu.
In June, the Emperor ennobled his maternal uncles: Wang Tan was made Marquis of Ping’e, Wang Shang Marquis of Chengdu, Wang Li Marquis of Hongyang, Wang Gen Marquis of Quyang, and Wang Fengshi Marquis of Gaoping. All five were enfeoffed on the same day and were therefore collectively known as the “Five Marquises.”
The Empress Dowager’s mother, Lady Li, remarried and became the wife of Gou Bin of Henei, by whom she had a son named Gou Shen. The Empress Dowager wished to follow the precedent of Tian Fen and have Gou Shen enfeoffed. The Emperor said, “Ennobling the Tian family was improper.” Accordingly, Gou Shen was appointed Privy Counselor and Commandant of Parks and Waterways.
The Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhang Zhong, submitted a report accusing the Intendant of Jingzhao, Wang Zun, of being violent, arrogant, and disrespectful, which led to Wang Zun’s removal from office. Many officials and commoners expressed regret over this decision. A village educator (Three Elders) of Hu County, Gongsheng Xing, and others submitted a petition in his defense:
“In Jingzhao, Wang Zun brought order out of chaos, punished the violent, and suppressed evil, achievements rarely matched even by renowned administrators. Aside from his appointment as Intendant, he has received no extraordinary honors. Yet the Grand Master of the Censorate accuses him of ‘disturbing the balance of yin and yang and bringing peril upon the state, of failing to receive and carry out the intent of the imperial edict,’ and brands his conduct with the words of the Book of Documents: ‘With placid words he habitually defies in governing; in semblance he is reverent, yet his ego swells to the sky.’
“The source of these charges lies with Yang Fu, Deputy Chief Censor, who bears a personal grudge against Wang Zun. Yang Fu has used public office to fabricate accusations, composing documents that exaggerate and falsely malign Wang Zun. We are deeply grieved by this. Wang Zun has maintained personal integrity, upheld public principles, fearlessly criticized ministers and generals, and punished wrongdoing without regard for rank or power. He subdued lawless bandits and relieved the state of its anxieties, earning a reputation for diligence and resolute authority. Truly, he is an official who serves as the strong arm of the state, a minister who leads the vanguard.
“Now, without just cause, he has fallen into the hands of his enemies, harmed by deceitful slander. His merits are not weighed against his alleged faults, and he is denied the opportunity for a proper defense. He is burdened by biased reports and bears a stigma as grave as that of the mythical villain Gonggong, without recourse to plead his case. Wang Zun was appointed because the capital was in turmoil, bandits ran rampant, and capable leaders were required. He restored order; yet once the bandits were subdued and the powerful criminals punished, he was dismissed as if unworthy. Within three years, the same Wang Zun has been deemed virtuous and then treacherous—how absurd this is!
“Confucius said, ‘To love someone, you wish him to live; to hate someone, you wish him to die—how confused it is to wish both.’ He also said, ‘To discern slander that seeps in like water—this is wisdom.’ We ask that Your Majesty convene ministers, grand masters, and scholars to examine Wang Zun’s conduct thoroughly. If it is proven that he has disrupted the natural order, he deserves capital punishment. If he has committed treacherous acts under the guise of governance, he merits severe penalty. Should these charges be substantiated, Wang Zun ought to be executed or exiled to a remote frontier, without pardon, and those who recommended him should likewise be punished. If the accusations are false, then the accusers must be punished, to silence slanderous tongues and eradicate deceitful schemes. We implore Your Majesty to distinguish black from white and ensure that justice is done.”
After this petition was submitted, the Emperor appointed Wang Zun as Inspector of Xuzhou.
Dujiangyan, Ancient Hydraulic Engineering Project Still in Use.
The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Heping Era (28 B.C.)
In the spring, Du Qin recommended Wang Yanshi of Qianwei to Wang Feng, and Wang Yanshi was appointed to oversee the breach of the Yellow River. Wang Feng designated him Special Envoy for the Yellow River embankments. Wang Yanshi employed bamboo crates, each forty feet in length and nine men in circumference, filled them with small stones, and floated them downstream, each crate pressed by two boats. Within thirty-six days, the embankment was completed.
In March, an edict appointed Wang Yanshi Grand Master of Merit, with emoluments of the two-thousand-picul rank, and bestowed upon him the title of Marquis within the Passes, together with one hundred catties of gold.
In summer, on April 30, a solar eclipse occurred. An edict was issued calling upon officials and ministers to discuss the court’s faults openly and without restraint, and a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
The Grand Master of Merit, Liu Xiang, responded: “In late April and early May, the month of this eclipse corresponds to that of the eclipse in the time of Emperor Hui, and the day of this eclipse corresponds to that in the time of Emperor Zhao. Neither of those emperors left a son. This portent thus suggests a threat to the dynastic succession.” At the time, Empress Xu monopolized the Emperor’s intimacy, and few in the harem had the opportunity to see him. Both within and beyond the palace, people feared there would be no heir. Accordingly, Du Qin, Gu Yong, and Liu Xiang all raised this concern in their responses.
The Emperor then reduced expenditures for the Pepper Chamber—the Empress’s residence—and the rear quarters of the harem. Henceforth, outlays for clothing, carriages, and other necessities were to be supplied through the various government offices, and gifts to the Empress’s family and to ministers were to follow the precedents established before the Jingning era (under Emperor Yuan).
The Empress submitted a memorial in her own defense, saying: “Times and institutions change; different measures may complement one another without departing from the Han system. Minor details cannot always be made to coincide exactly. To compare the period before the Jingning era (under Emperor Yuan) with the period before the Huanglong era (under Emperor Xuan) is unreasonable. My household staff does not understand, and this decree now makes it so that I cannot so much as move my hand freely. If I wish to have a screen made and placed somewhere, they will say, ‘There is no precedent for this,’ and I will be constrained by the decree. This truly cannot be carried out. I beg Your Majesty to reconsider!
“By precedent, sacrifices using a single head of cattle were offered to grandparents; yet my grandparents—Marquis Dai (Xu Guanghan, whose title was inherited by Xu Jia, her father) and Marquis Jing (Xu Yanshou, Xu Jia’s biological father)—have, by Your Majesty’s exceptional grace, received the honor of grand sacrifices. If we must adhere strictly to precedent, then we should offer only a single head of cattle. I beg Your Majesty to show mercy!
“Now, as soon as the officials received the decree and read it aloud, they made its meaning plain to me: that these resources are not to be treated as private household property, to be taken at will. This is the beginning of a slippery slope—constraining me in a manner contrary to human nature. I ask Your Majesty to examine this thoroughly!”
The Emperor replied, citing the statements of Gu Yong and Liu Xiang concerning disasters and portents arising from the harem: “Officials are constrained by the law and should not be overly reproached. In rectifying excess, there is often the risk of overcorrection; this has been so throughout history. The reduction of expenditures and the offering of sacrifices with only a single head of cattle are intended to foster virtue and to win for you, Empress, greater praise and renown. If the root causes of calamity are not removed, disasters will continue, and our ancestors will not receive their proper sacrifices—still less the Marquis Dai. Does not the Classic say, ‘Those who are frugal seldom go astray’? Does the Empress truly wish to pursue a path of extravagance?
“I could have followed the example of Emperor Wu; had I done so, the palaces of Ganquan and Jianzhang might have been restored. No—Emperor Wen is my model, and the Empress Dowager is the standard for the Empress. If the Empress Dowager, when she was Empress, did not attain such a standard, yet you now enjoy intimacy and favor, do you begrudge surpassing her example? The Empress should diligently cultivate virtue, practice modesty and frugality, and set a pattern for the other consorts, thereby establishing a lasting standard.”
The Palace Steward, Ping Dang of Pingling, submitted a memorial stating: “The Emperor Emeritus, founding ancestor of the Han dynasty, should not have his mausoleum and temple precincts left in neglect.” The Emperor, who was also concerned about the lack of an heir, accepted this advice. In September of autumn, the mausoleum and temple precincts of the Emperor Emeritus were restored.
An edict declared: “At present, there are more than a thousand provisions for capital punishment in the penal code, and the laws and decrees are numerous and intricate, amounting to over a hundred thousand words. Special statutes and far-reaching citations increase daily. Even those well versed in the law find them difficult to comprehend; how much more so the common people? This ensnares the innocent and leads to wrongful deaths. Is this not tragic? Discuss the reduction of capital penalties and the simplification of the laws so that they may be clear and easily understood, and submit your proposals.”
At the time, officials failed to convey and propagate the Emperor’s intent in full, merely quibbling over minor points and listing a few matters to satisfy the edict superficially.
At the New Year celebration in the first month of spring, the Chanyu of the Xiongnu sent the Right Gaolin King, Yiye Moyan, to present tributes at court.
The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Jianshi Era (29 B.C.)
In April of summer, snow fell.
In late autumn, peach and plum trees bore fruit.
Heavy rain fell for more than ten days, causing the Yellow River to breach the Jindi River Embankment in Dongjun Commandery. Earlier, Feng Qun, Commandant of Qinghe, had submitted a report stating: “This commandery lies downstream of the Yellow River, where the soil is light and prone to collapse. The absence of major disasters in recent times has been due to the Tunshi River connecting two streams and diverting the flow. Now that the Tunshi River is blocked, the Lingmingdu Outlet has become even more obstructed, leaving a single channel to bear the force of several rivers. Even if the embankments are raised, this cannot ultimately relieve the pressure. Should rain continue for ten days, an overflow will be inevitable.
“The former courses of the Nine Rivers are now obliterated and difficult to trace, but the Tunshi River, having only recently been blocked, can easily be dredged. Its position is high, making it suitable for dispersing the water’s force and for constructing a water-control project. Dredging it would enable the Yellow River to discharge floodwaters and serve as a contingency against emergencies. If repairs are not undertaken in advance, a northern breach will damage four or five commanderies, while a southern breach will affect more than ten commanderies. To worry only after disaster strikes will be too late.”
The matter was referred to the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate, who recommended dispatching the Erudite Xu Shang to conduct an inspection. Xu Shang proposed: “Given the present lack of funds, dredging may be deferred.”
Three years later, the Yellow River indeed breached at Guantao and at the Jindi River Embankment in Dongjun Commandery, flooding Yanzhou and Yuzhou and reaching Pingyuan, Qiancheng, and Jinan. In total, four commanderies and thirty-two counties were inundated, submerging more than 150,000 acres of land, with depths reaching thirty feet in some places. Nearly forty thousand official pavilions and private dwellings were destroyed.
In November of winter, the Emperor severely reprimanded Yin Zhong, Grand Master of the Censorate, for his ineffective and erroneous flood-control measures, accusing him of dereliction of duty. Yin Zhong thereupon committed suicide.
The Grand Minister of Agriculture, Fei Diao, was dispatched to oversee the distribution of money and grain to the commanderies affected by the Yellow River floods. Two court ushers were sent east of Henan to mobilize five hundred boats, and more than ninety-seven thousand people were relocated to high ground to escape the floodwaters.
On November 20, Zhang Zhong, the Privy Treasurer, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
Bandits in the southern mountains, led by Peng Zong and numbering several hundred, were inflicting harm on officials and civilians. The Emperor issued an edict deploying one thousand troops to suppress them, yet after more than a year they could not be captured. Someone advised the Grand General Wang Feng, saying: “When several hundred bandits operate at our very doorstep and cannot be apprehended, it is difficult to display authority to the foreign tribes. Only by selecting an outstanding Intendant of Jingzhao can this be resolved.”
Wang Feng recommended the former Magistrate of Gaoling, Wang Zun, who was summoned to serve as Grandee of Remonstrance and Commandant of Jingzhao, acting as Intendant of Jingzhao. Within a few months, the bandits were eliminated, and Wang Zun was thereafter formally appointed Intendant of Jingzhao.
At the beginning of the Emperor’s reign, Chancellor Kuang Heng reported: “Chen Tang, Colonel of Shooting the Sound, while serving as an envoy of the two-thousand-picul rank, conducted himself improperly among the barbarians and stole treasures from Kangju, instructing his subordinates that ‘matters in distant territories are not subject to scrutiny.’ Although this occurred before the amnesty, he should not be allowed to hold office.” In consequence, Chen Tang was dismissed without formal charges. Later, Chen Tang reported that the hostage prince of Kangju was not the king’s son; upon investigation, however, it was found that the hostage was indeed the king’s son. Chen Tang was then imprisoned and faced the death penalty.
The Grandee of the Palace, Gu Yong, submitted a memorial in Chen Tang’s defense, saying: “I have heard that when Chu had Cheng Dechen (courtesy name Ziyu), Duke Wen of Jin lost sleep over him; when Zhao had Lian Po and Lord Mafu, mighty Qin did not dare to advance through Jingxing Pass; and in more recent times, when the Han had Zhi Du and Wei Shang, the Xiongnu did not dare to move south of the Gobi. From this it may be said that victorious generals are the claws and fangs of the state and ought to be highly prized. A gentleman, upon hearing the drums of war, thinks of the ministers who serve as generals.
“I have observed that the Marquis within the Passes, Chen Tang, who formerly beheaded Zhizhi, struck fear into all the barbarians and extended the military might of Han to the Western Seas. Since the founding of Han, there has been no such exemplary general who has led expeditions beyond the borders. Now Chen Tang is imprisoned for a minor fault of speech, detained for a long time without resolution, while the judicial officers intend to impose the death penalty.
“In former times, Bai Qi of Qin conquered Yingdu in the south and buried Zhao Kuo alive in the north, yet was granted death at Duyou for a small fault. The people of Qin pitied him and wept. Today, Chen Tang personally wielded the axe and led troops thousands of miles, achieving merits that should be recorded in the ancestral temple and reported to Heaven. The armored soldiers admire his righteousness. His error of speech does not constitute a grave offense. The Book of Zhou says, ‘Record a man’s merits and forget his faults; this is fitting for a lord.’ Even dogs and horses that serve men are given honorable burials; how much more should the state’s meritorious officers be so treated?
“I fear that if Your Majesty disregards the sound of the war drums and does not heed the wisdom of the Book of Zhou, forgetting the principle of rewarding service, treating Chen Tang as an ordinary and undistinguished minister, and follows the judges’ proposal to condemn him, the people will harbor deep resentment, as did the people of Qin. This is not the way to encourage loyal ministers who face death and hardship for the sake of the state.”
Upon receiving the memorial, the Emperor released Chen Tang from prison, stripped him of his marquisate, and reduced him to the status of a common soldier.
Around this time, the Protector-General (Viceroy) of the Western Regions, Duan Huizong, was besieged by Wusun forces. A courier brought word and requested that troops be dispatched from the various western kingdoms and from Dunhuang for his relief. Chancellor Wang Shang, Grand General Wang Feng, and the other high ministers deliberated for several days without reaching a decision. Wang Feng then proposed: “Chen Tang is known for his strategic insight and familiarity with foreign affairs. We should consult him.”
The Emperor summoned Chen Tang to the Xuanshi Hall. Chen Tang, who had suffered frostbite during his campaign against Zhizhi, had arms that could no longer be fully extended. When he entered, an edict exempted him from performing the bow of salutation, and he was shown Duan Huizong’s memorial. Chen Tang replied, “I believe there is no cause for concern.”
The Emperor asked, “Why do you say so?”
Chen Tang answered: “In combat, barbarian soldiers are but one-fifth the worth of Han soldiers, for their weapons are blunt and their bows and crossbows ineffective. Even though they have lately acquired some of our techniques, they are still no more than one-third as effective. Moreover, the Art of War says, ‘When the attacking force is twice that of the defender, the two are evenly matched.’ The troops besieging Duan Huizong are insufficient to overcome him; Your Majesty need not be anxious. Furthermore, light troops can march fifty li a day, and heavy troops thirty. If relief forces are summoned from the nomad kingdoms and from Dunhuang, they will require time to arrive and will be better suited for retaliation than for immediate rescue.”
The Emperor asked, “What, then, should be done? Can the siege be broken, and when?”
Chen Tang, knowing that the Wusun forces were loosely allied and unable to sustain a prolonged siege, and recalling past instances of short encirclements, replied, “The siege must already have been lifted.” Counting on his fingers, he added, “Within five days we will hear good news.”Four days later, a military report arrived confirming that the siege had indeed been raised. Thereupon, Grand General Wang Feng recommended appointing Chen Tang as Gentleman of the Central Staff, with all major decisions in the Grand General’s office to be entrusted to his discretion.
The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Jianshi Era (30 B.C.)
In March of spring, an amnesty was granted to all those imprisoned throughout the empire.
In autumn, rain fell continuously in Guanzhong for more than forty days. The inhabitants of the capital grew alarmed and spread rumors that a great flood was imminent. The common people fled in panic, trampling one another; the old and the weak cried out in distress, and great disorder arose in Chang’an. The Emperor personally appeared in the front hall and summoned the ministers to deliberate. The Grand General Wang Feng proposed: “The Empress Dowager, the Emperor, and the palace women should take to boats, and the officials and populace should be instructed to ascend the walls of Chang’an to avoid the flood.”
The Emperor and the ministers were inclined to accept Wang Feng’s proposal. Only the General of the Left, Wang Shang(Marquis of Lechang), said: “Since antiquity, even in states lacking proper governance, floods have never overrun city walls. Now the realm is at peace, there are no wars, and the people live in harmony. How could there suddenly be a flood overflowing the capital in a single day? This must be a false rumor. It is not appropriate to order the people onto the city walls and thereby further alarm them.”
The Emperor thereupon suspended the plan. After some time, conditions in Chang’an gradually returned to calm, and upon investigation the report was indeed found to be false. The Emperor praised Wang Shang for his steadfast judgment and frequently commended his counsel, while Wang Feng was deeply ashamed and regretted his hasty words.
The Emperor wished to entrust state affairs entirely to Wang Feng. In August, he dismissed Xu Jia from his post as General of Chariots and Cavalry and appointed him a Special Marquis, permitting him to attend court deliberations.
Zhang Tan was dismissed for improprieties in the selection and recommendation of officials. In October of winter, Yin Zhong, Grand Master of Merit, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
On December 1, a solar eclipse occurred. That night, an earthquake struck within Weiyang Palace. The Emperor issued an edict calling for the recommendation of virtuous, upright, and outspoken men capable of offering uncompromising remonstrance. Du Qin and the Associate Minister of Ceremonies, Gu Yong, responded that excessive indulgence and jealousy within the harem were harmful and could endanger the imperial succession.
On December 30, Kuang Heng was accused of having appropriated more than four hundred mu of fief land and of overseeing a steward who embezzled more than ten catties of gold. He was dismissed from office and reduced to the status of a commoner.
The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Jianshi Era (29 B.C.)
In the spring, on January 26, meteorites fell four times in Bo County and twice in Feilei County.
The eunuchs of the Palace Secretariat were dismissed, and for the first time five posts were established in the State Secretariat.
On March 8, Wang Shang, Marquis of Lechang and General of the Left, was appointed Chancellor.
In summer, the Emperor summoned those who had previously been recommended for their forthright speech to the White Tiger Hall, ordering them to submit written responses to the questions he had posed. At the time, the Emperor had entrusted governance to Wang Feng, and many critics attributed various problems to him. Gu Yong, aware that Wang Feng held real power and secretly seeking to align himself with him, wrote in his essay:
“At present, the four barbarian tribes are all submissive, having become subjects and dependents. In the north there is no menace from the Xunyu tribes or Modu Chanyu; in the south, none from Zhao Tuo or Lü Jia. The frontiers are at peace, with no alarms of warfare. The major principalities govern only a few commanderies, and their authority is held by Han officials, preventing any independent action—unlike the former situations of the principalities of Wu, Chu, Yan, or Liang. Officials are interlinked, with both close and distant relations working together. Ministers and nobles display the loyalty of Shen Bo, being cautious and respectful, without the conspiracies of Marquis Zhonghe of Mang Tong, Marquis of Anyang Shangguan Jie, or Marquis of Bolu Huo Yu. In these three respects there is no cause for concern. Yet I fear that Your Majesty may overlook what is clear and evident, heed obscure and confused counsel, cast blame upon the innocent, and thereby depart from proper governance. This would result in a grave loss of Heaven’s favor and constitute one of the most serious of errors.”
“If Your Majesty sincerely examines these humble words, casts aside the tendency to indulge a single favored beauty, eliminates partiality, exercises firm masculine authority, and applies the impartiality of Heaven, then let concubines be chosen from among the people on an equal basis, adding virtuous and suitable women capable of bearing sons, without discrimination on the grounds of appearance, prior marriage, or age. By following this principle, Your Majesty may obtain heirs of humble origin, which would itself be a blessing; once an heir is established, the mother’s low status is of no consequence. Seek out honest and forthright women among female officials and palace attendants, and also broadly among the common people, so as to receive Heaven’s favor, relieve the concerns of the Empress Dowager, and appease the wrath of the Supreme Deity. In this way, the heirs will flourish and calamities will come to an end.”Du Qin expressed similar views in his examination response. The Emperor showed their examination papers to the harem and promoted Gu Yong to Grand Master of Merit.
Bao Si, A Legendary Beauty serving the King You of Zhou.
The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Jianshi Era (32 B.C.)
In the spring, on January 1, a fire broke out at the temple of the late Emperor’s(Emperor Xuan) father (Liu Jin, also known as the Imperial Grandson Shi).
Shi Xian was transferred to the post of Grand Coachman of the Changxin Palace, with emoluments equivalent to the two-thousand-picul rank. With this reassignment, Shi Xian lost his protection and authority. Thereupon, the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate submitted a memorial detailing Shi Xian’s past misconduct. His associates, Lao Liang and Chen Shun, were likewise dismissed from office. Shi Xian, together with his wife and children, was exiled to his native place. Stricken with grief, he refused food and died on the journey.
All those who had obtained official appointments through their association with Shi Xian were dismissed. The Privy Treasurer, Wulu Chongzong, was demoted to Prefect of Xuantu Commandery, and the Censor-in-chief, Yi Jia, was appointed Commandant of Yanmen.
The Colonel of the Capital Inspectorate (f.k.a. Colonel of Retainers), Wang Zun of Zhuojun, submitted a proposal for impeachment, stating: “Chancellor Kuang Heng and Grand Master of the Censorate Zhang Tan knew that Shi Xian and others had monopolized power, exercised authority arbitrarily, and inflicted grave harm and suffering throughout the empire. They failed to report these crimes promptly or enforce punishment, but instead flattered and accommodated them, deceiving their superiors and misleading the state, harboring wickedness and sowing disorder, thereby neglecting the duty of high ministers to assist in governance. Such conduct occurred before the amnesty decree and might therefore be pardoned. After the amnesty, however, Kuang Heng and Zhang Tan impeached Shi Xian. Rather than confessing their own disloyalty, they praised the former Emperor for employing subversive individuals, falsely asserting, ‘The officials feared Shi Xian more than the Sovereign,’ thereby belittling the Sovereign and exalting the ministers. This is inappropriate and undermines the dignity of senior ministers.”
Thereupon, Kuang Heng, ashamed and fearful, removed his cap and offered an apology, submitting the seal and ribbon of his offices as Chancellor and Marquis. The Emperor, having only recently ascended the throne and being unwilling to impose severe punishment on a senior minister, demoted Wang Zun to the post of Magistrate of Gaoling. Many among the subordinate officials, however, supported Wang Zun. Kuang Heng, deeply uneasy and taciturn, repeatedly requested permission to resign whenever floods or droughts occurred. Each time, the Emperor issued edicts to console and reassure him and did not grant his resignation.
The younger brother of the late Prince of Hejian, Liu Liang, who was serving as Prefect of the Shangjun Armory, was appointed the new Prince of Hejian.
A comet appeared in the Encampment constellation.
An amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.
On February 28, the Emperor rewarded his maternal uncles and their dependents. He conferred upon his maternal uncle Wang Chong—previously a Grandee of Merit and a Marquis within the Passes—the title of Marquis of Ancheng. He also granted the titles of Marquis within the Passes to his maternal uncles Wang Tan, Wang Shang, Wang Li, Wang Gen, and Wang Fengshi.
In April of summer, a yellow haze filled the air in all directions. The Emperor issued an edict broadly consulting the Three Excellencies and the ministers, instructing them to speak without restraint. The Grandee of Remonstrance Yang Xing, the Erudite Si Sheng, and others all stated: “This signifies an excess of Yin overwhelming the Yang “Qi”. According to the covenant of Emperor Gaozu, only those with meritorious service were to be enfeoffed as marquises. Now the brothers of the Empress Dowager have all been made marquises without merit—an unprecedented act for imperial relatives—and thus Heaven has manifested this anomaly.” Accordingly, the Grand General Wang Feng, in fear, submitted a memorial requesting to resign and retire, but the Emperor, by a gracious edict, did not permit it.
The Censor-in-Chief Xue Xuan of Donghai submitted a memorial, saying: “Your Majesty’s utmost virtue and benevolence are profound, yet baleful influences still persist, and the harmony of Yin and Yang remains disturbed. This is likely due to the severity imposed by many officials. Provincial inspectors often fail to adhere to their proper duties and act according to personal inclination, intruding excessively into the affairs of commanderies and counties, opening the way for private interests, listening to slanderers and flatterers, seeking faults among officials and commoners, and punishing even minor infractions, while demanding obligations beyond their capacity. As a result, commanderies and counties are burdened and, in turn, they oppress the common people. Thus, mutual hospitality among communities is neglected; the nine degrees of kinship forget their bonds; assistance in times of need declines; and the rites of sending off and welcoming are no longer observed. When human relationships are obstructed, the harmony of Yin and Yang is disrupted, and the vital Qi cannot circulate freely. This may indeed be the cause.
“The Book of Songs says, ‘When the people lose their virtue, they fall into disorder through petty offenses.’ A common saying holds, ‘Harsh governance estranges kinship, and excessive labor diminishes good fortune.’ When provincial inspectors submit their reports, it would be appropriate to instruct them clearly in the essential duties of the imperial court.”
The Emperor approved and adopted his counsel.
In August, two moons appeared in succession, visible in the east at dawn.
In December of winter, construction began on the southern and northern suburban altars of Chang’an. The sacrifices at Ganquan and Fenyin were abolished, along with the extravagant embellishments of the Purple Altar, the choirs of girls and boys, imperial carriages with jingling horse bells, sacrificial crimson horses, dragon-horse statues, and stone altars.
The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Jianshi Era (31 B.C.)
In January of spring, the sacrifices at the Five Deities Altar in Yong County and at the Chenbao(a meteorite found in Chencang) Shrine were abolished, all in accordance with the proposals of Kuang Heng. On January 23, the Emperor for the first time performed the suburban sacrifice at the southern suburbs of Chang’an. He granted amnesty to exiles serving sentences in Fengjiao County and to convicts in the capital region whose punishments were lighter than shaving the hair and beard, and he reduced the nationwide tax levy by forty coins per person.
In the intercalary month, Weicheng City and Yanling Pavilion were designated as the initial burial site for the new Emperor.
On March 14, the Emperor for the first time offered sacrifices to Earth at the northern suburbs.
On March 19, he established Lady Xu as Empress. The Empress was the daughter of the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Xu Jia. Emperor Yuan, lamenting that his mother, Empress Gong’ai Xu Pingjun, had held her rank only briefly before falling victim to the injustices of the Huo family, therefore chose Xu Jia’s daughter as consort for his Crown Prince (the future Emperor Cheng).
When the Emperor was still Crown Prince, he was known for his lust for beauty; after he ascended the throne, the Empress Dowager ordered the selection of daughters from reputable families to fill the harem. Du Qin, Magistrate of the Armory under the Grand General, admonished Grand General Wang Feng, saying:
“According to the rites of antiquity, the Son of Heaven marries nine women at one time, thereby ensuring the flourishing and continuity of the ancestral line. Though younger women in time lose their youth, they are not replaced, so as to preserve the lord’s longevity and prevent contention. Thus, when the empress and concubines possess virtuous conduct, their descendants will be wise and noble lords; when the system is dignified and orderly, the lord will enjoy a long and prosperous life. If these rites are discarded, the lord may become obsessed with women; once such obsession goes unchecked, his lifespan will not extend to old age.
“Men of fifty still retain strong desires, while women of forty have already changed in appearance. To have a man still full of desire served by a woman whose appearance has altered, without the restraint of ritual, cannot quell the dominance of lust and will give rise to aberrant conduct. Aberrant conduct, in turn, causes the rightful Empress to harbor doubts and the concubines to breed rivalry and discord, thereby endangering the position of the legitimate heir. This is why Duke Xian of Jin was deceived by slanders, and Prince Shensheng suffered an unjust death.
“Now the enlightened Sovereign, though in the prime of life, has as yet no heir. He remains devoted to learning and has not been reproached for indulging among empresses and concubines. General Wang, as you are chaperon in governing the state, it is fitting at the outset of this flourishing era to establish the system of the nine women, carefully selecting from families of upright conduct and righteousness, and seeking those of virtue. There is no need to require beauty, musical skill, or talents for entertainment, so as to set a great and enduring law for all ages. Be ever wary of the allure of beauty, for the poem ‘Xiaobian’ in the Book of Songs offers a chilling warning, recounting how King You of Zhou deposed his queen, took Bao Si as his favorite, and drove away the Crown Prince. I hope the General will always keep this concern in mind.”
Wang Feng reported this to the Empress Dowager, who replied that there was no such precedent in Han. Wang Feng therefore could not establish the system on his own and simply followed existing practice.
Wang Feng held Du Qin in great esteem and accordingly placed him on his staff. Matters of state and policy were often discussed with Du Qin, and Wang Feng frequently praised him as a learned man who rectified errors and supplied what was lacking. Many of the sound policies of the time originated with Du Qin.
The Xiongnu ruler, Chanyu Huhanye, favored two nieces of his Left Yizhizi King, both daughters of his elder brother. The elder niece, Zhuanqu Yanzhi (the Queen), bore him two sons: the elder, Jumoche, and the younger, Nangzhiyasi. The younger niece became the principal consort, the Great Yanzhi, and bore him four sons: the eldest, Diaotaomogao; the second, Jumixu—both older than Jumoche—and the younger sons, Xian and Le, both younger than Nangzhiyasi. In addition, he had more than ten sons by other consorts.
Zhuanqu Yanzhi was greatly honored, and Jumoche was deeply favored. When Huhanye fell gravely ill and approached death, he wished to establish Jumoche as his successor. Zhuanqu Yanzhi said: “The Xiongnu have been in turmoil for more than ten years, and their survival has hung by a single thread. It was only through the support of the Han that stability was restored. Now peace has endured but a short time, and the people are still recovering from the wounds of war. Jumoche is young, and the people have not yet rallied around him; I fear this may again imperil the state. Since the Great Yanzhi and I are of the same clan and both have sons, it would be better to establish Diaotaomogao.”
The Great Yanzhi replied: “Although Jumoche is young, the high ministers could jointly manage the affairs of state. To set aside the noble and establish one of lesser rank will surely bring disorder in the future.” In the end, the Chanyu followed Zhuanqu Yanzhi’s counsel and established Diaotaomogao, with the understanding that the throne would later pass to his younger brother.After Huhanye’s death, Diaotaomogao ascended the throne as Fuzhulei Ruodi Chanyu. He appointed Jumixu as Left Tuqi King, Jumoche as Left Luli King, and Nangzhiyasi as Right Tuqi King. Fuzhulei Ruodi Chanyu also took Wang Zhaojun as his consort, and they had two daughters: the elder, Yun, who became Juci (Princess) of Xubu, and the younger, who was married to the Juci(Princess) of Dangyu.
