In October of that winter, King Xiang Yu issued a secret order to the King of Jiujiang, the King of Hengshan, and the King of Linjiang to attack the Honorary Emperor. They murdered the emperor and disposed of his body in the river.
Chen Yu drafted a force from his three-county fiefdom and joined a surprise attack on the Kingdom of Changshan alongside the troops from the Kingdom of Qi. The King of Changshan, Zhang Er, failed to defend his kingdom and fled westward to the army of Han, where he sought refuge with the King of Han in Feiqiu County. The King of Han received him with high regard. Chen Yu welcomed back the former King Zhao Xie from the Kingdom of Dai and reinstated him as the King of Zhao. In gratitude, the King of Zhao granted Chen Yu the title of King of Dai. However, Chen Yu did not go to his kingdom; instead, he remained in the capital to assist the new King of Zhao in establishing a new government. He sent Xia Yue to the Kingdom of Dai as the prime minister.
Zhang Liang escaped from the Kingdom of Hán and returned by taking an alternate route. The King of Han awarded him the title of Marquis Chengxin. Zhang Liang was in poor health and had never commanded an armed force on his own. He often served as a strategist, remaining at the King of Han‘s side.
The King of Han went to Shan County to console the people outside the Kingdom of Qin. The King of Henan, Shen Yang, submitted to the King of Han, and the Kingdom of Han established the administration of Henan Commandery.
The King of Han appointed Xin, the grandson of King Xiang of Hán, as the chief commander of the armed forces of Hán. He ordered Xin’s troops to recapture the territory of the former Kingdom of Hán. Xin led a blitzkrieg on Yangcheng County, compelling Zheng Chang, the King of Hán appointed by Xiang Yu, to surrender. The King of Han then granted Xin the title of King of Hán. Xin continued to command the armed forces of Hán, staying by the side of the King of Han most of the time.
Several generals of the Kingdom of Han conquered the Longxi Commandery.
In January of that spring, King Xiang Yu and his army advanced north, arriving at Chengyang Commandery. The King of Qi, Tian Rong, led his troops into a decisive battle there but was defeated. Tian Rong fled to Pingyuan County, where he was killed by the local people. King Xiang Yu then reinstalled Tian Jia as the King of Qi.
King Xiang Yu’s troops continued north to Beihai Commandery, pillaging cities, burning castles, and destroying residential houses along the way. They buried Tian Rong’s surrendered soldiers alive and took the elderly, the young, and women as prisoners, enslaving them. The devastation they left in their wake forced the people of Qi to unite and rise in revolt.
A general of Han conquered the town of Beidi and captured Zhang Ping, the younger brother of the King of Yong, Zhang Han.
In March, the King of Han crossed the Yellow River at Linjin Pass. The King of West Wei, Wei Bao, surrendered and placed his troops under the King of Han’s command. The Han army then sacked the Kingdom of Henei and captured the King of Yin, Sima Ang, establishing an administration in the Henei Commandery.
A man from Yangwu county named Chen Ping came from a poor family but had a passion for reading. He was once in charge of distributing sacrificial meat among his community after the ceremonies of progenitor worship. Chen Ping sliced and divided the meat so evenly that he received praise from the community. The locals said, “We are fortunate to have this young man in charge of the meat sharing.” Chen Ping sighed and replied, “Ah! If only you could make me responsible for the whole country; public affairs would be as well taken care of as this meat!”
When the allies rebelled against the rule of Qin, Chen Ping worked for the King of Wei, Wei Jiu, as the minister of transportation. He proposed some ideas to Wei Jiu, but they were not adopted. Disheartened, he left Wei Jiu when a scandal was spread about him. He later joined Xiang Yu and was given a position as a staff officer. When the King of Yin, Sima Ang, rebelled against Xiang Yu, Chen Ping was sent to suppress the mutiny, successfully forcing Sima Ang to back down. On his triumphant return, he was promoted to chief commandant and awarded 480 ounces of gold.
Shortly afterward, the King of Han took over the Kingdom of Yin, and Sima Ang surrendered. Furious, Xiang Yu considered punishing the officers who had previously suppressed Sima Ang’s mutiny. Fearing for his safety, Chen Ping returned the gold and the seal of the chief commandant to Xiang Yu, changed his clothes, and fled via alternate routes, taking only a sword with him. He crossed the Yellow River and joined the forces of Han in Xiuwu county. With the help of his friend Wei Wuzhi, Chen Ping secured an appointment with the King of Han.
The King of Han summoned Chen Ping and dined with him. As the King was about to send Chen Ping to rest in the guest house, Chen Ping insisted, “I have come with a mission. What I need to discuss cannot wait another day.” The King of Han, delighted by their conversation, asked Chen Ping, “What rank did you hold in the Kingdom of Chu?” Chen Ping replied, “I was a chief commandant.” The King of Han immediately reinstated him as chief commandant, appointed him to his entourage, and made him the supervisor of army officers.
These rapid promotions caused an uproar among the Han generals. They complained, “Can you believe it? The King accepts a defector from Chu, puts him in his entourage, and even makes him to be a supervisor to oversee veterans like us!” Despite the complaints, the King of Han, aware of the discontent, only trusted Chen Ping more.
After the nomination ceremony, the King of Han sat down with Han Xin and said, “The Prime Minister has recommended you so many times. What can you teach me about strategy?” Han Xin expressed his gratitude and downplayed the praise before addressing the King of Han, “It is King Xiang Yu who contends with Your Majesty for power in the east, isn’t it?”
Han Xin then asked, “In terms of strength and chivalry, how do you compare yourself to Xiang Yu?”
After a moment of thought, the King of Han admitted, “I am not as good as him.”
Han Xin saluted the King of Han and encouraged him, saying, “I agree with Your Majesty’s assessment. However, I once served under Xiang Yu, so I know his personality well. Xiang Yu‘s roar alone can make thousands tremble with fear, but he lacks the ability to choose capable people to assist him, which makes him a force of one. While he treats people kindly and is compassionate, he is also soft-hearted and sentimental. He cries when he sees someone suffering from illness and shares his food and drink with the sick. However, he is also stingy in rewarding his subordinates. Even when they achieve great merits, he is reluctant to grant them high ranks, keeping the seals of power firmly in his own hands until edges are worn out. This is what we call the petty kindness of a woman.”
“Xiang Yu dominates the nation, and all the rulers submit to him, but he chose Pengcheng as his capital instead of staying in the strategically advantageous Guanzhong region. He gave away territories to his friends unjustly, violating the agreement made with the Honorary Emperor. He removed legitimate rulers and replaced them with generals or ministers of his liking, and he even banished the Honorary Emperor to the south of the Yangtze River. Wherever he goes, he leaves destruction in his wake. The people do not support him; they only fear his might. Although he appears to be the hegemon of the country, he has already lost the people’s hearts. This is his weakness.”
“If Your Majesty does the opposite of what Xiang Yu does, then his strength could easily turn into his vulnerability. Who could cling to life if you deployed the country’s bravest warriors against him? Who would not heed your command if you rewarded your allies with the nation’s best cities? Who would dare stand in your way if you lead your troops back home rightfully? The three kings of Qin (Zhang Han, Sima Xin, Dong Yi) were once generals who forced the people of Qin to fight for years, witnessing countless deaths. Yet, they coerced these same people to surrender to the Chu forces. When Xiang Yu buried 200,000 prisoners of war alive at Xianyang, only the three generals survived. The people of Qin hate these three to the bone.”
“The Chu authority installed these generals as kings of Qin by decree, but the people did not accept them. When Your Majesty entered Wu Pass, your troops did not harm a single civilian, and you abolished Qin‘s harsh laws, replacing them with the simple law of three articles. The people of Qin love you and wish for you to be their king. According to the allies’ agreement, you should indeed be the rightful king of Qin. The people all knew the pact, and were outraged when you were sent to Hanzhong. Now, if Your Majesty advances eastward, the three kingdoms of Qin could be conquered simply by issuing a proclamation.”
The King of Han was deeply moved by Han Xin‘s words and regretted not promoting him sooner. He decided to adopt Han Xin‘s strategy and assigned his generals to their respective targets of attack, while leaving Xiao He in Ba and Shu commanderies to collect taxes and ensure a stable food supply for the army.
In August, the King of Han launched a surprise attack on the Kingdom of Yong by advancing through Gudao county. Zhang Han, the King of Yong, countered the attack at Chencang county, but his forces were defeated and retreated. They regrouped at Haoshi county but were beaten again and fled back to their capital, Feiqiu. The King of Han captured most of the territory of the Yong Kingdom, advancing as far east as Xianyang, and laid siege to the city of Feiqiu and its ruler, Zhang Han. Meanwhile, he dispatched his generals to capture other territories in the Qin region. The King of Sai, Sima Xin, and the King of Di(Zhai), Dong Yi, both surrendered to the King of Han. The King of Han then established the commanderies of Weinan, Heshang, and Shangjun within Qin‘s territory.
The King of Han ordered Generals Xue Ou and Wang Xi to move eastward through Wu Pass, where they linked up with Wang Ling‘s forces to escort the King of Han’s father and his wife, Queen Lü, to Guanzhong. Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu deployed his troops to block their advance at Yangxia county.
Wang Ling, originally from Pei County, had gathered thousands of his followers and occupied Nanyang before joining the King of Han‘s camp with his troops. When Xiang Yu learned of Wang Ling‘s approach, he took Wang Ling’s mother hostage and held her under house arrest in his camp. To persuade Wang Ling to switch allegiance, Xiang Yu received Wang Ling’s envoy with respect, seating Wang Ling’s mother in a place of honor. During a private conversation with the envoy, Wang Ling’s mother said, “Please tell my son to remain loyal to the King of Han. The King of Han is destined to rule the country. He must not waver for the sake of me. I will die to see him off.” She then took her own life by throwing herself onto a sword in front of the envoy.
Enraged by this act of defiance, Xiang Yu ordered his men to boil the corpse of Wang Ling’s mother.
King Xiang Yu conferred the title of King of Hán to Zheng Chang, the former magistrate of Wu county, to hinder the advance of the King of Han.
Zhang Liang sent a letter to King Xiang Yu: “The King of Han did not get what he deserved. He only wishes to possess Guanzhong (Three Qins). He will stop where all agreed upon in the pact and dares not go further east.” He also sent the rebellion manifestos from the Kingdom of Qi and Kingdom of Liang (Wei) to King Xiang Yu, stating: “The Kingdom of Qi intends to ally with the Kingdom of Zhao to annihilate the Kingdom of Chu.” These communications distracted Xiang Yu‘s attention from the west and redirected his attacks to the north.
The former King of Yan, Han Guang, had no intention of going to his kingdom in Liaodong. The new King of Yan, Zang Tu, attacked and killed him, then annexed Han Guang’s kingdom.
The King of Han appointed Zhou Ke, an old friend from Pei County and the current mayor of Xianyang, as the Grand Master of Censorate.
King Xiang Yu hastened the relocation of the Honorary Emperor to his new court, and some of the emperor’s ministers and attendants chose to leave his court.
A man from Huaiyin county, named Han Xin, came from a poor family and was unruly. He was neither recommended for a government position nor inclined to make a living through trade or labor. Instead, he spent his time around people, often relying on them for food and drink, which caused most to shun him. One day, while Han Xin was fishing outside the city walls, an old woman doing laundry nearby saw him starving and gave him some food. Han Xin expressed his gratitude, saying, “Aunty, I will reward you greatly someday.” The old woman was unimpressed and reproached him, “You’re a grown man who can’t even feed yourself. I gave you food out of pity, not because I expect anything in return.”
One day in downtown Huaiyin, a young butcher who liked to bully Han Xin confronted him: “You look tall and strong and like to wear swords and machetes, but I bet you’re a coward inside!” He challenged Han Xin publicly, saying, “If you’re not afraid of death, stab me; if you are, crawl between my legs!” Han Xin stared at the butcher for a long moment, then got down on his hands and knees, crawling under the butcher’s crotch before prostrating himself. The crowd burst into laughter, jeering at Han Xin.
When Xiang Liang revolted against Qin and led his troops across the Huai River, Han Xin joined his forces with his sword, serving under Xiang Liang but failing to distinguish himself. After Xiang Liang‘s defeat and death, Han Xin joined Xiang Yu’s army as a guard officer in his central command. Despite presenting several strategies, his ideas were dismissed by Xiang Yu. Later, when the King of Han entered Shu commandery, Han Xin left Chu‘s camp and joined his forces, where he remained unnoticed, serving as a logistics officer.
Han Xin was implicated in a case due for collective punishment, which was punishable by death. Thirteen of his fellow cohorts had already been executed, and it was Han Xin’s turn next. As he looked up, he saw the Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, and called out for help: “Does the king want to conquer the country? Why is he beheading a capable fighter?” Xiahou Ying, impressed by Han Xin‘s words and his stature, commuted his death sentence. After speaking with Han Xin at length, Xiahou Ying was delighted and introduced him to the King of Han, who appointed Han Xin as Colonel of Grain Procurer. Despite this promotion, Han Xin‘s role remained unremarkable.
Han Xin had several conversations with Xiao He, who was captivated by his potential. When the King of Han reached Nanzheng County, many of his subordinates missed their homeland in the east. They sang folk songs together and many deserted along the way. Frustrated by his lack of advancement despite Xiao He and Xiahou Ying‘s endorsements, Han Xin also decided to leave. Upon hearing that Han Xin had fled, Xiao He, shocked, immediately chased after him without even informing the King of Han.
When someone reported to the King of Han, “Prime Minister Xiao He has run away,” the king was livid, feeling as though he had lost his right hand. Two days later, Xiao He returned to see the King of Han, who was both angry and relieved. The King demanded, “Why did you run away?” Xiao He replied, “I didn’t run away; I was chasing after a man who had fled.” When the King asked who that man was, Xiao He answered, “Han Xin.” The King of Han, still upset, retorted, “Dozens of generals have deserted, yet you ran after Han Xin? You are lying!” Xiao He explained, “Those other generals are easy to find, but Han Xin is a rare talent without equal. If Your Majesty only wishes to be King of Han, then Han Xin isn’t essential. But if you intend to conquer the entire realm, there is no better strategist than Han Xin. It all depends on your ambitions.”
The King of Han admitted, “I do want to return to the east. Who could bear staying in this desolate place for long?” Xiao He urged, “If that is your plan, then you must offer Han Xin a significant position to keep him from leaving.” The King of Han agreed, saying, “For your recommendation, I will make Han Xin a general.” Xiao He was unimpressed, responding, “He won’t stay for just a general’s rank.” The King of Han then said, “How about Grand Marshal?” Xiao He finally approved, “That would be appropriate!”
As the King of Han prepared to summon Han Xin, Xiao He advised him, “Your Majesty has treated people too casually. You call for someone to take a high position as if you were calling a child. That’s why Han Xin ran away in the first place. If you truly want him to accept the role, you must fast and pray, choose an auspicious day, and hold a ceremony with all due rites. That would be fitting.” The King of Han agreed to the proposal.
When the news spread, the generals were thrilled, believing they might have a chance at the top military rank. But when the ceremony revealed that Han Xin was being appointed Grand Marshal, the entire army was left in stunned silence.
A few days later, Xiang Yu led his troops westward and ransacked the city of Xianyang. He ordered the execution of the king of Qin, Ziying, and commanded the burning of all the Qin palaces. The inferno lasted for more than three months. His soldiers looted all the treasures of Qin, abducted the court’s women, and took them to the east. The people of Qin were horrified by Xiang Yu’s actions.
A scholar, Mr. Han, advised him: “The Guanzhong region (the heartland of Qin) is naturally fortified by mountains and rivers. It is a place secured by fortresses on all sides. The land here is fertile, making it an ideal capital for your empire.” However, as Xiang Yu saw the Qin palaces reduced to wreck, he intended to return to his hometown in the east. He dismissed Mr. Han’s suggestion, saying: “To become rich and famous and not return to one’s homeland is like wearing an embroidered gown in the dark. What is the point?” Disheartened, Mr. Han made the remark: “I’ve heard that the people of Chu were rhesus monkeys dressed-up as humans, with caps and gowns. Now I believe it is true.” Upon learning of this insult, Xiang Yu had Mr. Han executed by boiling.
Xiang Yu sent messengers to King Huai II of Chu, pleading to annul their agreement that whoever first entered Xianyang would be king. King Huai II replied, “A promise is a promise.” Enraged, Xiang Yu said, “It was my family who put King Huai II on the throne. He didn’t win any battles, so why does he get to dictate promises? When chaos erupted in the land, we installed descendants of the former monarchs to rally the troops against the Qin empire. It was you and I who donned armor and fought in the wilderness for three years until we finally crushed the Qin empire. Even though King Huai II did nothing, we can give him a king’s title but divide his land among ourselves.” His generals all agreed, saying, “Well said!” In January of that spring, Xiang Yu elevated King Huai II to the position of honorary emperor, stating, “The emperors of the past ruled over lands spanning thousands of miles and always lived upstream.” He relocated the honorary emperor to the south of the Yangtze River and designated Chen county as his capital.
In February, Xiang Yu divided the land into kingdoms and bestowed the title of king upon his generals. He declared himself the Hegemonial King of West Chu, ruling over nine commanderies in the former kingdoms of Liang (also known as Wei) and Chu, with his capital in Pengcheng. Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng were wary of the Duke of Pei but maintained a cordial relationship to avoid the appearance of breaking their pact. In private, they discussed, “The commanderies of Ba and Shu are distant, with treacherous roads, and were places where Qin exiled its convicts.” Publicly, they claimed, “The commanderies of Ba and Shu are part of Guanzhong.” Xiang Yu then conferred the title of “King of Han” upon the Duke of Pei, giving him control over the three commanderies of Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong, with his capital at Nanzheng county.
Xiang Yu divided the real Guanzhong (the heartland of the Qin kingdom) into three parts, granting them to the three surrendered Qin generals to block access by the king of Han(Liu Bang). General Zhang Han was made the King of Yong, ruling the land west of Xianyang, with his capital in Feiqiu county. Zhang Han’s chief of staff, Sima Xin, who had earlier been a prison warden who did a favor to Xiang Liang, was named the King of Sai, controlling the area from east of Xianyang to the Yellow River, with his capital in Yueyang county. General Dong Yi, who persuaded Zhang Han to surrender, was made the King of Di(Zhai), ruling Shangjun commandery with his capital at Gaonu county.
Xiang Yu transferred the King of Wei, Wei Bao, to be the King of West Wei, ruling the region east of the Yellow River with his capital in Pingyang. Shen Yang of Xiaqiu county, a favorite of Zhang Er and the first to conquer the Henan commandery, was named King of Henan with his capital at Luoyang. The King of Hán, Han Cheng, returned to his old capital at Yangdi. General Sima Ang of Zhao, who conquered the Henei commandery, was made King of Yin, ruling from the Zhaoge county.
Xiang Yu moved the King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, to be King of Dai, while Zhang Er, who had a great reputation and had accompanied Xiang Yu into the Hangu Pass, was awarded the title of King of Changshan, ruling the former land of Zhao from his office in Xiangguo county. Lord Dangyang, Qing Bu, the top general of Chu, was appointed King of Jiujiang, headquartered in Liu county. Lord Po, Wu Rui, who led the Yue tribes to support Xiang Yu, was made King of Hengshan with his government in Zhu county.
The commander-in-chief of the honorary emperor, Gong Ao, who had achieved multiple military victories, was awarded the title of King of Linjiang, with his capital in Jiangling. Xiang Yu reassigned the King of Yan, Han Guang, to be King of Liaodong, with his office in Wuzhong county. A general of Yan, Zang Tu, who joined the campaign to save Zhao and later followed Xiang Yu into the Hangu Pass, was promoted to King of Yan, ruling from Ji county.
Xiang Yu reassigned the King of Qi, Tian Shi, to be King of Jiaodong, with his office in Jimo. A general of Qi, Tian Du, who also took part in the rescue of Zhao and the western expedition against Qin, was made King of Qi, ruling from Linzi. Another general of Qi, Tian An, who conquered several cities in the Jibei region and joined the rescue of Zhao, was named King of Jibei, with his capital in Boyang.
In contrast, General Tian Rong of Qi, who had repeatedly spurned Xiang Liang and refused to join Xiang Yu’s western expedition, received no title. Similarly, Lord Cheng’an, Chen Yu, who relinquished his field marshal seal and did not join Xiang Yu’s campaign, also went unrewarded. Many of Xiang Yu’s supporters pleaded, saying, “Zhang Er and Chen Yu were inseparable and both accomplished much for the kingdom of Zhao. Since you awarded Zhang Er a king’s title, you must also reward Chen Yu.” Reluctantly, Xiang Yu awarded Chen Yu three counties around Nanpi county, upon hearing that he was staying there. Mei Juan, a general under Lord Po with numerous military merits, was granted the title of Marquis and a fief of one hundred thousand households.
The King of Han was furious and wanted to wage war against Xiang Yu. His generals, Zhou Bo, Guan Ying, and Fan Kuai, all urged him not to proceed. Xiao He cautioned him, saying, “As much as you despise being the King of Han, it is better than being dead.” The King of Han retorted, “Why would we end up dead?” Xiao He replied, “Our forces are vastly outnumbered compared to his. We have lost every time we faced him in battle. What else could the outcome be, except death? King Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou were able to defer to one man while commanding an army of ten thousand chariots. I implore Your Majesty to go to Hanzhong and establish your base there. Allow the people to recover from the ravages of war, recruit talent from across the land, and use the resources of the Ba and Shu regions to reclaim the three kingdoms of Qin—Kingdoms of Yong, Sai, and Di. Once we secure Qin, we can then strategize to take over the entire country.” The King of Han agreed, saying, “Well said!” He reported to his position in Hanzhong and appointed Xiao He as the Prime Minister. He also awarded Zhang Liang with twenty-four hundred ounces of gold and two buckets of pearls. Zhang Liang, in turn, redirected all these treasures to Xiang Bo.
In April of that summer, allied forces began to depart from the banner of Xiang Yu to take their positions in their respective kingdoms. Xiang Yu assigned thirty thousand soldiers to accompany the King of Han to Hanzhong, while tens of thousands more followers trailed behind him on their own will, entering Hanzhong through the plank road at Shi Valley in southern Du County.
Zhang Liang accompanied the King of Han to Baozhong before being ordered to return to his own king (King Han Cheng) by the King of Han. Zhang Liang advised the King of Han to burn all the plank roads they had used to travel from Xianyang to Hanzhong. The first reason was to prevent surprise attacks from the three kingdoms of Qin. The second reason was to demonstrate to Xiang Yu that he had no intention of advancing eastward.
Tian Rong was enraged when he learned that Xiang Yu had moved the King of Qi, Tian Shi, to Jiaodong and promoted Tian Du to be the King of Qi. In May, he led his troops to attack Tian Du, who fled to the Kingdom of Chu. Tian Rong detained the King of Qi and refused to allow him to go to Jiaodong. Fearing Xiang Yu’s authority, Tian Shi escaped to Jiaodong. Furious, Tian Rong pursued Tian Shi to Jimo and killed him there, proclaiming himself the King of Qi.
Peng Yue, commanding ten thousand troops in Juye County, remained unresponsive to calls from others. Tian Rong conferred upon Peng Yue the title of general and ordered him to attack Jibei. In July, Peng Yue killed the King of Jibei, Tian An, making Tian Rong the ruler of the three kingdoms of Qi (Jiaodong, Jibei, and Qi). Tian Rong then directed Peng Yue to launch an assault on the Kingdom of Chu. In response, Xiang Yu ordered the Duke of Xiao, Jiao, to lead the defense against Peng Yue. Peng Yue decisively defeated the troops of Chu.
When Zhang Er arrived in his kingdom, Chen Yu was furious, saying, “Zhang Er has the same achievements as I do, yet he is made a king while I am only a marquis. Xiang Yu is very unfair to me.” He secretly sent Zhang Tong and Xia Yue to lobby Tian Rong, the King of Qi, saying, “Xiang Yu is unjust as the nation’s power broker. He promoted his own generals to be kings of prosperous lands and moved the former kings to poor regions. General Chen Yu believes it was wrong to move the King of Zhao to Dai in the north. Now that Your Majesty has risen against this injustice, we hope you will support General Chen Yu‘s campaign against Changshan to restore the King of Zhao to his rightful place. The Kingdom of Zhao will then become the bulwark of the Kingdom of Qi.” Tian Rong agreed to the plan and sent troops to aid Chen Yu‘s offensive.
Xiang Yu harbored enmity for the King Han Cheng of State of Hán, due to Zhang Liang‘s support for the King of Han, and because Han Cheng had not significantly contributed to the downfall of the Qin Empire. As a result, Xiang Yu did not allow Han Cheng to return to his kingdom, instead taking him to Pengcheng, where he stripped him of his kingly title and demoted him to Marquis of Rang. Later, Han Cheng was assassinated.
In December, Xiang Yu’s troops reached the Xi River. Meanwhile, Cao Wushang, the left wing major under Duke of Pei, sent a messenger to Xiang Yu, slandering the Duke of Pei: “The Duke of Pei intends to become the King of Qin. He plans to make Ziying his chancellor and seize all the treasures of Qin.” Cao Wushang said this to gain favors from Xiangyu. Infuriated by this information, Xiang Yu organized a feast for his soldiers and prepared to launch an attack on the Duke of Pei the following morning. At that time, Xiang Yu commanded four hundred thousand troops, though he claimed to have a million, and camped at a village called Hongmen[Swan Goose Gate] in Xinfeng County. The Duke of Pei had one hundred thousand troops, with claims of two hundred thousand, and was stationed at Bashang.
Fan Zeng advised Xiang Yu: “The Duke of Pei was known for his greed and indulgence when he lived east of the Hangu Pass. But since entering the Pass, he hasn’t hoarded any valuables or sought out women. His ambitions now are far greater than mere wealth or pleasure. I sent people to observe the clouds around him, and they reported seeing auspicious signs like those of the dragon and tiger. They even saw a rainbow over him—an omen of the Son of Heaven. You must act quickly and strike him decisively. Do not let him slip away.”
The left-wing commander of the Chu army was Xiang Yu’s uncle, Xiang Bo, who was a good friend of Zhang Liang. Late at night, Xiang Bo secretly visited the Duke of Pei’s camp to meet with Zhang Liang. He warned Zhang Liang about the imminent attack and urged him to flee together: “You don’t want to die along with all the troops here.” Zhang Liang responded, “The King of Han instructed me to accompany the Duke of Pei into the Pass. Now that the Duke of Pei faces a crisis, it would be a dishonor of me to abandon him. I must speak with him first.”
Zhang Liang entered the Duke of Pei’s tent and informed him of the situation. Startled, the Duke of Pei asked, “Do you think our soldiers can withstand Xiang Yu’s attack?” Zhang Liang replied, “Our troops are indeed no match for Xiang Yu. But we must act swiftly.” He suggested, “Please speak to Xiang Bo and assure him that the Duke of Pei has no intention of betraying Xiang Yu.” Curious, the Duke of Pei asked, “How do you know Xiang Bo so well?” Zhang Liang explained, “We were playmates under Qin’s rule. He once killed someone, and I saved his life. Now, he repays that favor by warning me.” The Duke of Pei inquired further, “Between you and him, who is older?” Zhang Liang replied, “Xiang Bo is a few years older than I am.” The Duke of Pei decided, “Please invite him to meet me. I will honor him as an elder brother.”
Zhang Liang returned and insisted that Xiang Bo meet the Duke of Pei, and Xiang Bo eventually agreed. Upon entering the Duke of Pei’s tent, the Duke of Pei warmly received him, raising wine cups and toasting in his honor. He even proposed a marriage alliance between their families. The Duke of Pei explained, “Since entering the Pass, I have not taken even the smallest treasure from Qin. I preserved all the household records and sealed the vaults and warehouses of the Qin government, waiting for General Xiang to distribute these valuables. The reason I ordered the Hangu Pass closed was to prevent bandits and any other incidents. We eagerly await General Xiang’s arrival day and night. How dare I turn against him? Please, Mr. Xiang Bo, convey my pledge that I have no intention of betraying General Xiang.” Xiang Bo affirmed and advised the Duke of Pei, “You must come tomorrow morning to see General Xiang and clear any misunderstandings in person.” The Duke of Pei promised, “You have my word.”
Xiang Bo returned to his camp that same night, relayed the Duke of Pei’s message, and pleaded with Xiang Yu, “If the Duke of Pei had not entered the Wu Pass first, you would not have so easily walked into the land of Qin. Attacking someone who has just accomplished such a significant feat would be unjust. It would be better to treat him with respect.” Xiang Yu assured Xiang Bo that he would do that.
The Duke of Pei arrived at Hongmen the next morning with a hundred cavalrymen to meet Xiang Yu. He expressed his regret to Xiang Yu, saying, “I fought alongside the General against the army of Qin. The General battled in the north of the Yellow River, while I fought in the south. By sheer luck, I entered the Wu Pass and arrived in the kingdom of Qin first, which gave me this opportunity to meet the General again. Unfortunately, it seems the General harbors some hard feelings towards me due to the slander of a troublemaker.” Xiang Yu inadvertently admitted, “I wouldn’t have doubted you weren’t it for the words of your left wing major, Cao Wushang.”
Xiang Yu then invited the Duke of Pei to join him for a meal in his tent. While they were drinking, Fan Zeng repeatedly eye-signaled Xiang Yu and by raising his jade ornament three times, but Xiang Yu ignored these prompts. Frustrated, Fan Zeng left the tent and summoned Xiang Zhuang, Xiang Yu’s younger cousin, giving him an urgent order: “Your Lord is too hesitant. Go inside, toast the Duke of Pei, then perform a sword dance. During the dance, take the opportunity to kill the Duke of Pei. If you don’t act now, we may all end up as his captives one day.”
Xiang Zhuang entered the tent, made a toast to the Duke of Pei, and then suggested, “There isn’t much entertainment in the army, so let me perform a sword dance.” Xiang Yu approved, “Sure!” Xiang Zhuang drew his sword and began his dance, making threatening moves. Seeing this, Xiang Bo quickly drew his own sword and joined the dance, placing himself between Xiang Zhuang and the Duke of Pei, skillfully shielding the Duke of Pei from Xiang Zhuang’s strike attempts.
Zhang Liang rushed to the gate of the camp and called for Fan Kuai. Fan Kuai asked, “How are things going today?” Zhang Liang replied, “Xiang Zhuang is dancing with his sword, clearly aiming to harm the Duke of Pei.” Fan Kuai immediately said, “This is urgent! I must go in and share the fate with him.”
Armed with his shield and sword, Fan Kuai forced his way into the camp. When the guard at the entrance tried to stop him, Fan Kuai knocked the guard down with his shield and pushed his way into the tent. He threw open the curtains, staring directly at Xiang Yu, hairs standing on his head and canthus almost splitting. Xiang Yu was startled and, rising from his seat, reached for his sword. “Who is this guest?” he asked. Zhang Liang quickly introduced him, “He is the Duke of Pei’s body guard, Fan Kuai.” Impressed by Fan Kuai‘s intrepidness, Xiang Yu ordered, “What a strong man! Bring him some wine!”
A large jar of wine was brought to Fan Kuai, who bowed in gratitude, then stood and drank it all in one go. Xiang Yu then offered him a whole ham. Fan Kuai placed his shield on the ground, used his sword to cut the ham, and ate it with gusto. Xiang Yu asked, “Do you want more wine, brave man?” Fan Kuai responded, “I am not afraid to die; why would I fear more wine?”
Fan Kuai then launched into a speech, saying, “The rulers of Qin were as cruel as tigers or wolves. They killed without mercy and punished people as if they were in a competition of brutality. This is why the entire country rose up against them. King Huai of Chu made a pact with all his commanders: whoever conquered Qin and entered Xianyang first would become the king of Qin. Now, the Duke of Pei defeated Qin‘s defenders and entered Xianyang first. He didn’t even touch a single piece of treasure. He then withdrew to Bashang to await the General’s arrival. Despite his tremendous effort and success, he hasn’t received any reward. Instead, he faces death because of the slander of a mere loser. This is nothing but a continuation of Qin‘s tyranny. General, I don’t think you should do that!”
A while later, the Duke of Pei excused himself to go to the restroom, and Fan Kuai followed. Outside, the Duke of Pei said, “We could flee, but leaving without a proper farewell seems impolite.” Fan Kuai bluntly replied, “They are the cleaver, and we are the fish and meat on the chopping board. What need is there for politeness?” Without further delay, they fled.
From Hongmen to Bashang it is about 40 li. The Duke of Pei left without his wagon and cavalrymen. The Duke of Pei, on a single horse, raced back to Bashang, with his four loyal guards—Fan Kuai, Xiahou Ying, Jin Qiang, and Ji Xin—following on foot, holding swords and shields. They took a shortcut from Lishan through Zhiyang to Bashang, to avoid detection. Before leaving, the Duke of Pei instructed Zhang Liang to stay behind and offer gifts to Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng as an apology for his hasty departure. He reminded Zhang Liang, ”It is only 20 li by taking this route to our camp. You may go in to thank General Xiang with our presents when we have arrived at camp.”
After allowing sufficient time for the Duke of Pei to reach his army, Zhang Liang returned to Xiang Yu‘s tent. He offered the gifts and explained, “The Duke of Pei drank too much and couldn’t say a proper farewell, but he asked me to present these white jade pieces to General Xiang and jade vessels to Uncle Fan Zeng as tokens of his gratitude.”
Xiang Yu accepted the white jade with indifference, placing it on the table. Fan Zeng, however, furiously smashed the jade vessels with his sword, exclaiming, “One can’t make grand plans with an unworthy brat! The Duke of Pei will take this realm from King Xiang, and soon we all will be his prisoners!”
The Duke of Pei returned to his camp and immediately executed the informant, Cao Wushang.
The 3rd year of the Second Emperor(207 B.C. continued)
Earlier, the eunuch Chancellor Zhao Gao sought to establish absolute authority over the Qin empire but feared that other court officials might not be fully obedient. To test their loyalty, he devised a scheme. He presented a deer to the Second Emperor and said, “This is a horse.” The Emperor laughed and said, “Are you mistaken, Chancellor? You call a deer a horse?” The Emperor then asked those around him for their opinion. Some remained silent, others agreed it was a horse to appease Zhao Gao, while a few said it was a deer. Zhao Gao covertly persecuted those who called it a deer. From that point on, all the court officials were terrified of him, and no one dared to disagree with him.
Zhao Gao often dismissed the uprisings east of Hangu Pass, saying, “They are merely burglars, not a serious threat.” However, after Xiang Yu captured General Wang Li, and General Zhang Han suffered a series of defeats, Zhang Han sent repeated requests for reinforcements. Meanwhile, many towns east of Hangu Pass rebelled against Qin officials and aligned with the other kingdoms. Generals from these kingdoms began leading their armies westward toward Qin.
In August, the Duke of Pei led tens of thousands of troops through Wu Pass, annihilating all its defenders. Fearing that his lies had angered the Second Emperor and would result in his own execution, Zhao Gao feigned illness and stopped attending court.
The Second Emperor had a troubling dream in which a white tiger bit and killed the leftmost horse of his chariot. Feeling uneasy, he sought the interpretation of a shaman, who told him, “The deity of the Jing River is the source of this trouble.” Disturbed by the dream, the Emperor began fasting and praying at Wangyi Palace, planning to appease the Jing River deity by sacrificing four white horses. Simultaneously, he sent a message reprimanding Zhao Gao for his mishandling of the eastern rebellions. This frightened Zhao Gao, who conspired with his son-in-law, Yan Le, the mayor of Xianyang, and his brother Zhao Cheng.
Zhao Gao lamented to them: “The Emperor no longer heeds my counsel. Now, he blames me in his time of crisis. I intend to depose him and enthrone Ziying. Ziying is kind and prudent, and everyone speaks well of him.” He then ordered the court security chief, Zhao Cheng, to act as an insider. Zhao Gao fabricated a story that gangsters had infiltrated the palace, and Yan Le was to send his troops inside under this pretext. As leverage, Zhao Gao also took Yan Le’s mother hostage.
Yan Le led a thousand officers and soldiers to the gates of Wangyi Palace, tying up the chief guard and the court attendants. He shouted, “Gangsters have entered the palace! Why did you stop them?” The chief guard retorted, “The palace is well-guarded at all times. How could gangsters have gotten in?” In response, Yan Le ordered the chief guard’s execution. His forces stormed the palace, firing arrows. Eunuchs and servants panicked—some fled, while others were killed. Dozens died in the chaos.
Zhao Cheng and Yan Le penetrated the inner court, where the Second Emperor was praying. An arrow struck the Emperor’s curtains, enraging him. He called for his servants, but they were too paralyzed by fear to act. Only one eunuch remained by his side. The Emperor asked, “Why didn’t you tell me the truth earlier? Now it’s come to this.” The eunuch replied, “I have survived by staying silent. Had I told you the truth, I would have been killed long ago.”
Yan Le confronted the Second Emperor, accusing him: “You are tyrannical and reckless. You’ve killed countless people without remorse, and the entire country has risen against you. What do you intend to do now?” The Second Emperor pleaded, “May I see the Chancellor?” Yan Le refused. The Emperor then begged, “I want to be a king of a commandery.” Again, the answer was no. He lowered his request: “I want to be a marquis with a fief of ten thousand households.” Yan Le still refused. Finally, the Emperor pleaded, “Let me be a commoner, living with my wife, like the other princes.”
Yan Le replied coldly, “I have orders from the Chancellor to kill you for the good of the realm. Say as much as your honor wants, I cannot report back.” He then ordered his soldiers to advance. Cornered, the Second Emperor took his own life.
Yan Le reported back to Zhao Gao, who then summoned all the court officials and royals to inform them of the Second Emperor‘s death. Zhao Gao declared, “Qin was originally a kingdom, and only the First Emperor became ruler of all under heaven, claiming the title of emperor. Now, with the six kingdoms restored and Qin’s territory diminished, it is no longer fitting to call ourselves an empire. Let us return to being a kingdom.” He then enthroned Ziying as the King of Qin, and the Second Emperor was buried as a commoner in Yichun Garden, south of Du County.
In September, Zhao Gao ordered Ziying to begin fasting and praying in preparation for a ceremony in which he would worship at the ancestral temple and receive the royal jade seal. On the fifth day of fasting, Ziying devised a plot with his two sons. He said, “Chancellor Zhao Gao murdered the Second Emperor at Wangyi Palace. Fearing retaliation from the court, he pretended to seek justice by making me king. I have heard that Zhao Gao conspired with the Kingdom of Chu to eliminate all Qin royals and divide Qin into smaller kingdoms. His plan is to kill me when I go to the temple under the guise of this ceremony. I will feign illness, and when Zhao Gao comes to force me, we shall kill him.”
Zhao Gao sent numerous messengers to urge Ziying to attend the temple ceremony, but Ziying refused. Eventually, Zhao Gao came in person, demanding, “The ancestral temple ceremony is the most important event for the kingdom. Why, as king, are you refusing to go?” At that moment, Ziying assassinated Zhao Gao in the palace where he had been fasting. He then ordered the execution of Zhao Gao’s entire family, setting an example to others.
Ziying dispatched additional troops to defend Yao Pass. The Duke of Pei intended to launch an attack on the pass, but Zhang Liang advised caution: “The Qin army is still strong, and we should not underestimate them. We should set up banners and flags on the mountains to create the illusion of a larger force, then send lobbyists Li Yiji and Lu Jia to negotiate with Qin’s generals, offering them incentives.” The Qin generals, as predicted, were open to negotiations. The Duke of Pei was prepared to finalize the deal when Zhang Liang suggested another approach: “Though the generals may be ready to switch sides, their soldiers may not follow. Now that their guard is down, it is better to strike.”Following this advice, the Duke of Pei led his troops around Yao Pass, cleared Mount Kuai, and routed the Qin army south of Lantian. After taking Lantian, they fought another battle north of the town, decisively defeating the Qin forces again.
The 3rd year of the Second Emperor(207 B.C. continued)
The Duke of Pei launched a siege of the city of Kaifeng in March but did not succeed in taking it. He moved westward and skirmished with a Qin general named Yang Xiong in the town of Baima, then engaged in combat east of village Quyu and achieved a decisive victory. Yang Xiong fled to the city of Xingyang, where the Second Emperor sent an envoy who beheaded him to set an example.
In April, the Duke of Pei captured Yingchuan commandery in the south and ordered a mass execution in the city. He then led battles to take the land of the Kingdom of Han in aid of Zhang Liang. A general of the Kingdom of Zhao, named Sima Ang, was about to cross the Yellow River and enter Hangu Pass. The Duke of Pei conquered the county of Pingyin and seized the southern crossing of the Yellow River. He then engaged in another battle east of Luoyang but suffered a setback. Turning south, he passed through the Huanyuan Pass and united with Zhang Liang’s troops. The Duke of Pei ordered the King of Han, Han Cheng, to stay behind in Yangzhai county while he and Zhang Liang led their troops southward.
The Duke of Pei defeated Lü Yi, the governor of Nanyang Commandery, in a battle east of Chou County, seizing control of Nanyang. Lü Yi retreated to the city of Wan, where he fortified its defenses. The Duke of Pei led his army westward, bypassing the city. Zhang Liang then advised him: “Although you are eager to enter Wu Pass, a large Qin force is defending the natural stronghold. If we leave Wan intact and they attack from behind, we will be in a dangerous position, facing a strong army in front.”
The Duke of Pei heeded this counsel, turning his troops around and quietly marching back to Wan by an alternate route at night. By morning, they had encircled the city with three rings of troops. The governor, Lü Yi, was about to commit suicide when his attendant, Chen Hui, stopped him, saying: “Wait! There is still time to die.”
Chen Hui scaled the city wall to meet the Duke of Pei and said: “I understand you have a pact that whoever reaches Xianyang first will become king. Currently, you cannot take Wan. The city connects to numerous counties and commanderies, and the people here fear a massacre if you break through, so they defend it with all their might. Prolonging the siege will cost the lives of your soldiers and officers. If you bypass Wan, its army will pursue you from behind, and you will miss the chance to reach Xianyang first while worrying about attacks from the rear. If I were you, I would negotiate the governor’s surrender, reward him handsomely, and reinstate him as the governor of Nanyang. His troops would join your westward expedition, and other cities, hearing of this, would open their gates to you. Your march to Xianyang would then be unopposed.”
The Duke of Pei approved, “Good idea!” In July, Governor Lü Yi capitulated and was granted the title Marquis Yin, while Chen Hui was awarded a fiefdom of 1,000 families. From that point, the westward expedition faced no resistance. As they advanced to Danshui county, high-ranking Qin officers, including Marquis Gaowu, whose name was Sai and Marquis Xiang, Wang Ling, surrendered. When the Duke of Pei approached Huyang county, he encountered General Mei Juan, commander of a detachment under Lord Fan. They joined forces and proceeded to capture Xi County and Li County, both of which capitulated. Throughout the campaign, the Duke of Pei forbade pillaging, which won over the people of Qin.
After General Wang Li’s demise, General Zhang Han camped at Jiyuan, while General Xiang Yu stationed his forces at the south of Zhang River. The two armies reached a stalemate. Having suffered multiple defeats, the Second Emperor sent a messenger to reprimand Zhang Han. Fearing the consequences, Zhang Han dispatched his chief-of-staff, Sima Xin, to Xianyang to seek guidance. However, upon arrival, Sima Xin was held at the palace gate for three days, during which Chancellor Zhao Gao refused to see him. Growing suspicious, Sima Xin hurriedly took an alternate route back to camp, narrowly escaping assassins sent by Zhao Gao, as he had expected.
Upon his return, Sima Xin reported to Zhang Han: “Zhao Gao is in total control of the court, and no one can act without his approval. If we win, Zhao Gao will be jealous of our success; if we lose, death is certain. I implore you, General, to make the right decision.”
Chen Yu also wrote a letter to Zhang Han, saying: “When General Bai Qi commanded the army of Qin, he conquered the cities Yan and Ying of Chu in the south. He triumphed at Mafu and buried the entire Zhao army alive in the north. He captured countless cities and vast territories for Qin. His reward? A death sentence. When General Meng Tian led the Qin army, he drove the nomads back to the north and developed thousands of miles of land in the Yuzhong region. Yet he was beheaded at Yangzhou. What was their mistake? They achieved too much. Qin could not properly reward them, so the corrupt court sentenced them to death.”
“General Zhang, you have commanded the Qin army for three years, losing hundreds of thousands of soldiers, while more and more rebels arise from the other kingdoms. Zhao Gao rose to power by lying and slandering others. Now, with the kingdom in crisis, Zhao Gao fears the emperor will kill him. He plans to accuse you of crimes and kill you as a scapegoat, only to replace you with another puppet of his. You have been on the battlefield for so long that you have accumulated many enemies at court. You will be killed, regardless of your military success.”
“These days, everyone—whether wise or foolish—knows that the collapse of Qin is Heaven’s mandate. You cannot give honest counsel to your lord at court, nor can you survive as a commander of a dying kingdom. What a tragedy! Why not turn and join the alliance of other kingdoms to bring down Qin? We can divide the kingdom and become kings ourselves. Would that not be better than lying on the chopping block and watching your family slaughtered before your eyes?”
Zhang Han remained indecisive and secretly sent an officer named Shi Cheng to negotiate a surrender with Xiang Yu, but no agreement was reached. In response, Xiang Yu ordered General Pu to march his troops day and night to seize the Sanhu Crossing. General Pu camped on the south bank of the Zhang River and engaged the Qin army, achieving another victory. Xiang Yu then coordinated an all-out attack on the Qin forces along the Yushui River, delivering a crushing blow.
Zhang Han sent another envoy to Xiang Yu to seek terms. Xiang Yu gathered his officers and said, “We are running short on supplies. Let’s make a deal.” His officers all agreed. Xiang Yu then arranged for an armistice ceremony to be held near the Huan River at the site of Yinxu, the ancient ruins of the Shang dynasty.
Once the armistice was signed, Zhang Han went to meet Xiang Yu, where he tearfully denounced Zhao Gao. Xiang Yu rewarded Zhang Han by granting him the title of King of Yong and kept him at his headquarters. He appointed Zhang Han’s chief-of-staff, Sima Xin, as the commander of the Qin army, leading the westward expedition.
Meanwhile, Shen Yang, another rebel leader from Xiaqiu County, crossed to the south of the Yellow River and placed his troops under Xiang Yu’s command.
Zhang Liang advised Xiang Liang, “Now that you have installed the King of Chu, Lord Hengyang—whose name is Cheng—was the most capable among the princes of the Kingdom of Han. You should install him as the King of Han to strengthen our ranks.” Following this suggestion, Xiang Liang sent Zhang Liang to find Han Cheng and installed him as the King of Han. He appointed Zhang Liang as the defense minister. Zhang Liang, along with the new King of Han, led a force of around a thousand soldiers to reclaim territories of the former Kingdom of Han to the west. They managed to capture a few cities, but these were soon retaken by the Qin army. Zhang Liang and his king then resorted to guerrilla warfare tactics in the Yingchuan Commandery.
General Zhang Han of Qin had crushed Chen Sheng’s regime and led his army to attack the King of Wei in Linji county. The King of Wei sent Zhou Fu as his envoy to seek aid from the kingdoms of Qi and Chu. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, and General Xiang Ta of Chu led their troops with Zhou Fu to assist the Kingdom of Wei. Zhang Han launched a surprise night attack, keeping his soldiers silent by ordering them to hold sticks in their mouths. The Qin army defeated the joint forces of Qi and Chu in Linji county. The King of Qi and Zhou Fu were killed in the battle. The King of Wei, Wei Jiu, attempted to placate Zhang Han by surrendering on behalf of his people. After the settlement was signed, the King of Wei committed suicide by self-immolation. His brother, Wei Bao, escaped to the Kingdom of Chu. King Huai II of Chu assigned several thousand soldiers to Wei Bao and ordered him to retake the lost territory of Wei.
Tian Rong, a younger brother of Tian Dan, gathered the remaining troops of Tian Dan and fled eastward to the city of Dong’e. General Zhang Han relentlessly pursued them and laid siege to Dong’e. When the people of Qi learned that their king had died, they installed Tian Jia, a younger brother of the late King of Qi, Tian Jian4, as their new king. Tian Jiao became the prime minister, and his younger brother, Tian Jian1, was made commander-in-chief. They formed a new government to defend against the aggression of other kingdoms.
In July, there was non-stop rainfall. Lord Wuxin led a campaign to seize Kangfu county. Upon hearing of Tian Rong‘s crisis, he shifted his attack to Zhang Han at Dong’e county and overran the Qin troops. General Zhang Han retreated westward, while Tian Rong and his forces moved back eastward to the Kingdom of Qi. Lord Wuxin pursued the Qin army to the north and ordered Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei to capture Chengyang county. They breached the city and slaughtered its inhabitants. The army of Chu then moved east of the city of Puyang, where they engaged Zhang Han’s troops in another battle and secured another victory. Zhang Han received reinforcements from the Kingdom of Qin and strengthened the defense of Puyang by surrounding the city with water drawn from a nearby river. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu withdrew their forces and attacked the town of Dingtao.
In August, Tian Rong’s troops attacked the King of Qi, Tian Jia, who fled to the Kingdom of Chu. The Prime Minister of Qi, Tian Jiao, escaped to the Kingdom of Zhao. Commander Tian Jian, who had led an army to aid the Kingdom of Zhao, dared not return upon hearing the news. Tian Rong installed Tian Shi, the son of Tian Dan, as the King of Qi and assumed the position of prime minister himself. Tian Heng took command of the military. Together, they laid claim to the Kingdom of Qi. Meanwhile, Zhang Han‘s forces became emboldened. Xiang Liang sent several envoys to the Kingdoms of Qi and Zhao, pleading with them to join forces to counter Zhang Han‘s offensive. Tian Rong’s response was: “The Kingdom of Chu should kill Tian Jia. The Kingdom of Zhao must kill Tian Jue and Tian Jian. We will join forces with you once you have done that.” The Kingdoms of Chu and Zhao did not comply. Offended, Tian Rong refused to send his troops.
Zhao Gao, the Grand Chamberlain of Qin, had free rein over the court of Qin, relying on the trust of the Second Emperor, whose favorite eunuch he was. He murdered many people out of personal spite and feared that court officials might report him. He spoke to the Emperor, saying: “The Son of Heaven is far above everyone else if all his subjects can only hear from him but cannot see him face to face. Your Majesty is still young and may not yet be skilled in all matters. The flaws in your judgment on punishments and rewards will be fully exposed to court officials if Your Majesty attends court regularly. This is not a way to demonstrate your divine wisdom to the world. It would be better for Your Majesty to stay in the seraglio and allow me and other attendants who are well-versed in the laws to handle daily governance. Your Majesty would only need to address escalated issues. Thus, the officials would not dare to bring difficult problems before you, and the people of the world would praise Your Majesty as a saint.”
The Second Emperor approved Zhao Gao’s advice. He stopped attending court to face the officials and spent his days idling in the inner court. Zhao Gao and the eunuchs served as intermediaries between the Emperor and the court, with Zhao Gao making all the decisions on governance.
Zhao Gao learned that Chancellor Li Si wanted to speak out, so he visited Li Si and said, “The bandits outside the Hangu Pass are becoming uncontrollable, yet the Emperor demands more corvée labor to build the E’fang Palace and collects rare breeds of dogs and horses that are useless. I would like to raise objections, but I am just a lowly servant. These matters are for lords and marquis like you to discuss. Why don’t you offer your advice?” Li Si replied, “That is indeed my duty. The Emperor avoids court and won’t come to hear matters of state these days. The advice I want to give cannot be conveyed indirectly. I need to meet with the Emperor, but he has no time for me.” Zhao Gao promised, “If you truly wish to speak to the Emperor, I will arrange for you to see him when he has time.”
Zhao Gao would then summon Li Si when the Second Emperor had just indulged in female companionship, saying, “Please come in; the Emperor has time to meet.” Chancellor Li Si would request an audience, interrupting the Emperor’s leisure. This happened three times, and the Emperor became enraged: “The Chancellor never comes when I am free, but always seeks to discuss state affairs as soon as I relax and enjoy myself! Does the Chancellor think I am too young? Does he want to discipline me?” Zhao Gao seized the opportunity and said, “The Chancellor played a major role in the Shaqiu scheme. Now that Your Majesty has become Emperor, he remains in his position and might want to divide the land and declare himself king. I would not speak of this if Your Majesty did not ask. The Chancellor’s eldest son, Li You, is the governor of Sanchuan Commandery. The bandits from Chu, like Chen Sheng, hail from counties near the Chancellor’s hometown. When they wreaked havoc in Chu and passed by Sanchuan, the governor did not attack them. I have heard that the governor exchanged letters with the bandits. I have not investigated this fully, so I did not report it to Your Majesty. As you know, the Chancellor wields great power outside the court.”
The Second Emperor believed Zhao Gao. He wanted to prosecute the Chancellor but was concerned about the lack of evidence. He sent investigators to look into the alleged communications between the governor of Sanchuan and the bandits.
Li Si sensed a plot against him and wrote to the Emperor to denounce Zhao Gao: “Zhao Gao arrogates to himself the power to mete out benefits and punishments, behaving as if he were no different from Your Majesty. When Tian Heng was the prime minister under Duke Jian of Qi, he expropriated the grace and authority of his lord. He forged alliances with the officers and gained popularity among the common people. Eventually, he murdered Duke Jian and usurped the Kingdom of Qi. This is a well-known historical fact. Zhao Gao‘s devious motives, treacherous activities, and personal wealth rival Tian Heng‘s influence over the Kingdom of Qi. He is even more aggressive and greedy. Now, his standing is second only to Your Majesty, yet his avarice knows no bounds. He will strip you of your prestige and supremacy. His ambition is to be like Han Qi, the last prime minister of King Han An. If Your Majesty does not take proactive measures, I fear he will overthrow you.”
The Second Emperor rebuked Li Si, saying, “What are you talking about? Zhao Gao is just an old eunuch. He does not indulge himself in times of peace, nor does he waver in times of peril. His exemplary conduct and charity have earned him his position. He has risen through his loyalty and holds his office through his truthfulness. We greatly value him, and yet you accuse him. Why? Moreover, whom would I rely on if I didn’t trust Mr. Zhao? Mr. Zhao is a scrupulous and capable person. He understands the common people and makes We feel good. You should not slander him.”
The Second Emperor liked Zhao Gao personally and trusted him. Fearing that Li Si might try to kill Zhao Gao, he informed Zhao Gao of Li Si’s memorandum. Zhao Gao countered, “I am the only one the Chancellor is worried about. If he manages to get rid of me, he will do what Tian Heng did to your Majesty.”
More “bandits” emerged everywhere, prompting more soldiers to be drafted within the Hangu Pass and sent eastward incessantly to quash them. Vice Chancellor Feng Quji, Chancellor Li Si, and General Feng Jie went to speak to the Emperor, saying, “There are many brigands rising to the east of Hangu Pass. The army of Qin has struck these brigands and killed many, but their spread has not been contained. These brigands are numerous because the people’s lives have been made miserable by the heavy burdens of garrison duties, transportation of goods, logistical services for war, and excessive taxation. We plead for a temporary halt to the construction of the E’fang Palace and a reduction in garrison duties and logistical costs.”
The Second Emperor was outraged and responded, “The majesty of being the lord of the empire is to do whatever he pleases. The lord promulgates laws, and the subjects dare not infringe upon them, ensuring the world is under his complete control. Lords in the legendary Yu dynasty and the Xia dynasty, exalted as the sons of heaven, had to lead poor and arduous lives to set examples for the people. Then what is the purpose of laws? My father, the late Emperor, began as the lord of a single state and unified the realm. He brought peace to the empire and kept the barbarians at bay. Building palaces was to relish his joy and let you witness his series of achievements. During my reign over the last two years, so many bandits have emerged from the woods. You have failed to suppress their lawlessness, yet you dare to propose suspending the project of the late Emperor. First, you are not honoring the late Emperor’s wishes; second, you are not serving me loyally. Why are you still holding your posts?”
The Second Emperor ordered the three ministers to be put on trial for various charges. Feng Quji and Feng Jie committed suicide, but Li Si reported to prison. The Second Emperor appointed Zhao Gao as the judge, charging Li Si and his son Li You with seditious acts. The entire Li Si clan and their attendants were arrested. Zhao Gao had Li Si whipped thousands of strokes. Unable to withstand the pain, Li Si confessed to the false charges of sedition.
Li Si chose to live because he believed in his power of persuasion, his past accomplishments, and his innocence regarding the charge of sedition. He hoped to defend himself in writing, believing that the Second Emperor might come to his senses and pardon him. From his jail cell, he wrote to the Emperor:
“I have been the Chancellor and governed the people of Qin for more than thirty years. In the earlier years, the territory of the Kingdom of Qin was narrow, only about a thousand li across, with armed forces of merely a few hundred thousand soldiers. I made an all-out effort to recruit strategists in secret and financed them with gold and treasures to lobby other monarchs. I also covertly trained armored warriors and educated them in ethics and religion. I selected these elite fighters to be officers and awarded those who provided extraordinary service. Eventually, we terrorized the Kingdom of Han, weakened the Kingdom of Wei, conquered the Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao, and dismantled the Kingdoms of Qi and Chu. Finally, we annexed the six kingdoms and captured their kings. I enthroned the King of Qin as the Son of Heaven.”
“I demonstrated the strength of the Qin Empire by driving out the nomadic tribes like the Hu and the He in the north and subduing the hundreds of tribes in the land of Yue in the south. I established the institutions of the Qin Empire by unifying the writing, measuring, and weighing systems and promulgating them throughout the world. These are my crimes, and I should have died long ago! Thanks to Your Majesty’s wishing me to serve with all my ability, I have managed to last until this day. I hope Your Majesty will look into my case!”
The letter was submitted. However, Zhao Gao instructed the jail warden to suppress it, saying, “A criminal does not get to write to the authorities!”
Zhao Gao instructed his minions to interrogate Li Si in turns, pretending to be inspectors, court heralds, and palace attendants. At first, Li Si rescinded his guilty plea, but he was beaten more severely. After several rounds of interrogation and torture, Li Si gave up on retracting his confession. Later, when the Second Emperor sent his personal inquirer to see him, Li Si, unable to distinguish between them and Zhao Gao’s men, stuck to his false statements. The inquirer reported back to the Emperor, who was gleeful: “I would have been betrayed by the Chancellor were it not for Mr. Zhao!”
By the time the investigator sent by the Second Emperor reached the Commandery of Sanchuan, Li Si‘s eldest son, Li You, who was the governor, had already been killed by soldiers of Chu. The investigator returned to the capital just as the Chancellor was charged with crimes. Although the investigator submitted his findings, Zhao Gao relayed the opposite to the Second Emperor. The verdict against Li Si included the five cruel punishments, culminating in being chopped in half in Xianyang’s public market.
Li Si was taken out of prison, shackled alongside his second son. He spoke to his son: “I wish I could go with you and our yellow dog to hunt rabbits outside the East Gate of Shangcai, as we did in the past. Couldn’t we do it?” Father and son faced each other and wailed. The three clans of Li Si—his father’s, mother’s, and wife’s—were all exterminated. The Second Emperor then appointed Zhao Gao as the Chancellor. Zhao Gao monopolized all decision-making, whether crucial or trivial.
The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C. continued)
The left-wing colonel and right-wing colonel of the Qin army launched a counterattack and broke into Chen county. General Lü Chen fled with his Black-Head Army, seeking out his subordinates and reassembling his dispersed soldiers. They joined forces with a rebel group led by a bandit named Qing Bu from Fanyang county. Together, they turned around and confronted the Qin army, commanded by the left and right wing colonels. They routed the Qin forces at Qingbo Lake and successfully reoccupied Chen county.
Qing Bu hailed from Lu county, though his actual surname was Ying. He had been labeled a criminal and punished with “Qing”—black branding on his face. According to the laws of Qin, he was sent to Lishan as a convict laborer, where the number of laborers amounted to several hundred thousand. Ying Bu befriended the leaders among the laborers and eventually fled with his followers to the Yangtze River basin, where he became the leader of outlaws.
The magistrate of Poyang county, Wu Rui, was very popular with the people, even in the underworld, and was widely known as Lord Po. Ying Bu led his men to meet Lord Po, and his followers had grown into a force of several thousand. Lord Po married his daughter to Ying Bu and directed him to lead his forces in fighting the Qin army.
King of Chu, Jing Ju, stayed in Liu county, where the Duke of Pei went to join him. Zhang Liang, who led a group of around a hundred youths, also responded to Jing Ju’s call. He encountered the Duke of Pei and decided to follow him. The Duke of Pei appointed Zhang Liang as his logistic officer. Zhang Liang discussed “The Art of Warfare” by Jiang Ziya (also known as Great-Grandpa Jiang) and offered his strategic advice. The Duke of Pei valued his teachings and often adopted his ideas, though other leaders typically didn’t understand Zhang Liang’s insights. Zhang Liang sighed, “The Duke of Pei is godsent,” and was determined to follow him from then on.
They both met King Jing Ju and requested reinforcements to attack Feng county. At the time, a staff officer of General Zhang Han, whose name was Yi, led troops to suppress the insurgents in northern Chu, slaughtering the people of Xiang county before advancing to Dang county. Ning Jun of Dongyang and the Duke of Pei led their troops west of Xiao County, where a battle broke out, but they suffered a setback and withdrew to Liu County to regroup. In February, the Duke of Pei launched another attack on Dang county. After a three-day battle, they overcame the resistance and captured Dang county. The Duke of Pei took command of six thousand fighters from Dang county, adding to his original three thousand followers, bringing his force to nine thousand soldiers. In March, they attacked Xiayi county and seized it, then moved on to attack Feng county again but failed to break through.
Zhao Ping, originally from Guangling county, attempted to seize Guangling for Chen Sheng but failed. When he learned that Chen Sheng was fleeing and Zhang Han was pursuing him, Zhao Ping crossed the Yangtze River and forged a decree in Chen Sheng‘s name, appointing Xiang Liang as the Chief Commander of Chu. The decree stated: “The battles east of the Yangtze River are over. Lead your troops westward to attack the Qin army immediately!” Xiang Liang then led eight thousand soldiers across the Yangtze River, heading west. Upon hearing that Chen Ying had already occupied Dongyang county, he sent an envoy to Chen Ying, urging him to join the western expedition.
Chen Ying, a former staffer of the Dongyang county magistrate, lived in the county center and was known as a cautious and trustworthy elder. When the youths of Dongyang county rioted and killed the county’s magistrate, twenty thousand insurgents gathered and pushed Chen Ying forward to become king. However, Chen Ying‘s mother warned him against it: “Since I married into this family, I have never heard of your ancestors being highborn. It does not bode well to suddenly take on a lofty title. It would be better to be a follower than a leader. If the insurrection succeeds, you will be rewarded with a marquisate. If it fails, you can escape more easily because you are not so recognized by the world.” Taking his mother’s advice, Chen Ying refused to become king. He explained to his followers, “Xiang Liang‘s family has served as generals for the kingdom of Chu for generations and is well-known in Chu. To succeed in our uprising, we must have him as our commander. We can bring down the kingdom of Qin if we rely on this renowned clan.” Chen Ying‘s subordinates agreed, and they went under Xiang Liang‘s command.
Ying Bu’s troops defeated the Qin army and moved eastward until they heard that Xiang Liang’s forces had crossed the Huai River and were marching westward. The armed forces of Ying Bu and General Pu then accepted Xiang Liang as their commander. With these new additions, Xiang Liang’s forces grew to between sixty and seventy thousand soldiers. They set up camp in the city of Xiapi. Meanwhile, the King of Chu, Jing Ju, and his top general, Qin Jia, camped their forces to the east of Pengcheng, appearing to challenge Xiang Liang‘s leadership.
Addressing his soldiers, Xiang Liang declared: “King Chen Sheng was the first to rise against Qin. He suffered setbacks, and we do not know his current whereabouts. Qin Jia betrayed King Chen Sheng and installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu. That is an act of treachery!” With that, Xiang Liang led his troops to attack Qin Jia‘s camp. Qin Jia‘s forces were overwhelmed, and Xiang Liang‘s army pursued them to Huling. Qin Jia attempted a counter-attack, but after a full day of battle, he was killed, and his troops surrendered. Jing Ju fled but later died in the Kingdom of Wei.
Xiang Liang merged his forces with those of Qin Jia and established their camps at Huling, planning to continue his westward campaign. A detachment under the command of General Zhang Han approached Li county, prompting Xiang Liang to order his lieutenants, Zhu Jishi and Yu Fanjun, to attack. The battle ended disastrously: Yu Fanjun was killed, and Zhu Jishi fled back to Huling, where their troops were defeated. In response, Xiang Liang led his forces to occupy Xuecheng and executed Zhu Jishi for his failure.
The Duke of Pei, accompanied by about a hundred cavalry, came to meet Xiang Liang. Impressed by his commitment, Xiang Liang assigned five thousand soldiers and ten high-ranking military officers to support the Duke of Pei. The Duke of Pei led these reinforcements back to Feng County, launching another assault. This time, he successfully captured the city, forcing Yong Chi to flee to the Kingdom of Wei.
Xiang Liang then ordered Xiang Ji (whose courtesy name was Xiang Yu) to capture Xiangcheng county. Despite fierce resistance, Xiang Yu‘s troops eventually broke through after a prolonged battle. In a brutal move, Xiang Yu commanded that all the city’s residents be buried alive. He reported his actions back to Xiang Liang.
Xiang Liang finally confirmed that King Chen Sheng was dead. He summoned all his commanders to Xuecheng to strategize for the future, and the Duke of Pei also attended the meeting. Among the advisors was Fan Zeng, a seventy-year-old hermit from Juchao known for his original ideas. Fan Zeng offered his counsel to Xiang Liang:
“King Chen Sheng‘s downfall was inevitable. Of the six kingdoms annexed by Qin, the Kingdom of Chu was the most innocent. Ever since King Huai of Chu was tricked into visiting Qin and never returned, the people of Chu have mourned for him and kept his memory alive. That is why an old man from southern Chu predicted: ‘The Kingdom of Qin will ultimately be destroyed by the people of Chu, even if only three families of Chu remain.’ Chen Sheng was the first to rise against Qin, but he made the mistake of declaring himself king instead of restoring a descendant of King Huai of Chu. That is why he quickly lost support. Now, you have risen from east of the Yangtze River, and all the warriors follow you and obey your commands. They do so because your family has produced top generals for Chu for generations. Only you can lead the restoration of the Chu royal lineage.”
Xiang Liang applauded this advice. He sought out Xiong Xin, the grandson of King Huai of Chu, who had been living in obscurity and herding sheep. In June, Xiang Liang installed Xiong Xin as King Huai II of Chu to align with the people’s wish. He also granted Chen Ying the title of Generalissimo and the fiefdom of five counties. Chen Ying and the new King Huai II set up their headquarters in the capital city of Xuyi. Xiang Liang took the title of Lord Wuxin for himself.
In October of that winter, the inspector general of the Sichuan commandery, named Ping, led an armed force to surround the Duke of Pei in Feng county. The Duke of Pei emerged from the city and defeated Ping’s troops. He then assigned Yong Chi to defend Feng county. In November, the Duke of Pei led his forces toward Xue county. The governor of the Sichuan commandery, named Zhuang, came out to engage the Duke of Pei in a battle but was routed. Zhuang fled to Qi County, where he was captured and killed by the Left Major of the Duke of Pei’s forces.
General Zhou Wen fled from the Hangu Pass and halted at Caoyang post. About two months later, General Zhang Han pursued him and defeated his troops again. Zhou Wen retreated to Mianchi county, where Zhang Han attacked him again after a dozen days. This time, Zhou Wen’s troops were decisively crushed. Zhou Wen slit his throat, and his troops ceased fighting.
The Deputy King of Zhang-Chu, Wu Guang, led the siege of Xingyang. Li You, the governor of the Sanchuan commandery, commanded the defense of the city, successfully thwarting Wu Guang’s efforts. A general of Zhang-Chu named Tian Zang conspired with his confidants: “The army of Zhou Wen has collapsed, and the Qin army could arrive any day now. We cannot breach Xingyang, and we will be defeated when the Qin forces come. It would be better to leave a small contingent to continue the siege of Xingyang and concentrate our finest troops to face the incoming Qin army head-on. However, the Deputy King Wu Guang is arrogant and ignorant of military strategy. Discussing this plan with him would be pointless and could make matters worse.” They plotted to forge a decree from Chen Sheng, ordering Wu Guang‘s execution. They beheaded Wu Guang and delivered his head to Chen Sheng. In response, Chen Sheng sent an envoy to Tian Zang, granting him the seal of Prime Minister of Zhang-Chu and appointing him as the top general.
Tian Zang left General Li Gui and several other generals to maintain the siege of Xingyang. He then led his core forces westward to confront the Qin army at the town of Aocang. In the ensuing battle, Tian Zang was killed, and his troops were slaughtered. General Zhang Han advanced to Xingyang and broke the siege. General Li Gui and the other generals were killed.
General Deng Shui of Zhang-Chu from Yangcheng County had his troops camped at Jia county, but a lieutenant under Zhang Han routed them. General Wu Feng from Zhi County led his troops to the town Xu, where Zhang Han‘s army crushed them. Both Zhang-Chu forces collapsed, and their commanders fled back to their king. Enraged, Chen Sheng had Deng Shui executed.
The Second Emperor lampooned Chancellor Li Si several times: “You hold the highest ministerial position in the court; why do you allow bandits and thieves to be so rampant?” Li Si was frightened. He greatly valued his high rank and rewards but did not know how to address the issue.
Seeking to please the emperor, he drafted a proposal: “A wise ruler must master the art of surveillance and supervision. When Mr. Shen Buhai said, ‘When one owns the world and does not do whatever he wants, it can be said that he lets the world be a shackle on himself,’ he meant that a ruler who fails to surveil and supervise properly, like Emperors Yao and Yu who served all the people with their own labor, effectively shackles himself. If a ruler does not practice the wise arts developed by Mr. Shen Buhai and Mr. Han Fei, and instead burdens himself with the distress of ordinary people, making himself haggard, he is merely devoting himself to serving the people. This is the labor of a commoner, not the duty of a lord of the world. What is noble about that? Therefore, a wise monarch should enhance the surveillance of his subordinates and make all decisions himself to prevent power from falling into the hands of his subjects. Furthermore, he should stop the practice of benevolence and block all counsel and debate. The lord should do whatever he pleases, and no one would dare to resist. This way, officials and the people will be too busy correcting their own mistakes to plot any insurgency.”
The Second Emperor was pleased with this proposal. He began scrutinizing officials more strictly, equating the brightest officers with those who taxed the people most severely and the loyalists with those who killed the most. Half of the people on the streets had criminal records, and dead bodies piled up in public squares daily. The people of Qin were terrified and yearned for insurgence.
General Li Liang of Zhao had just subdued the chaos in Changshan commandery and reported back to the King of Zhao. The king then sent him to capture the city of Taiyuan. However, Li Liang‘s troops were halted at the town of Shiyi when the Qin army blocked the Jingjing Pass. The Qin commander forged a letter from the Second Emperor, attempting to persuade General Li Liang to change his allegiance. After reading the letter, Li Liang was not convinced and returned to Handan to request reinforcements. His request had not yet been answered when the king’s older sister went out on a drinking spree. Seeing her entourage of about a hundred people, Li Liang mistakenly thought it was the king himself and prostrated himself by the roadside to pay homage. The king’s sister, drunk and unaware of who was there, merely sent a cavalier to acknowledge him.
General Li Liang, from an aristocratic background, felt humiliated in front of his troops. One of his officers stepped forward and said, “The people across the empire are revolting against Qin. Whoever has the might will come out on top. The King of Zhao used to rank below you, General. Yet this woman did not even get off her carriage to greet you. Allow me to catch and kill her.” Having received the letter from Qin, Li Liang was already wavering about his loyalty to the King of Zhao. Infuriated by the insult, he sent his man to catch up with the king’s sister and kill her. Li Liang then led his troops to attack the capital, Handan. The city was caught off guard. Li Liang killed the King of Zhao and Vice Prime Minister Shao Sao. Zhang Er and Chen Yu managed to escape, as they had many informants throughout the state.
Qin Jia from Ling and Zhu Jishi from Fuli county raised an armed force and surrounded the governor of Donghai commandery in Tan county. When King Chen Sheng heard about it, he sent General Xin, titled Lord Wuping, to oversee the troops besieging Tan. Qin Jia, unwilling to accept Lord Wuping’s authority, declared himself Grand Marshal. He hated being under General Xin’s command. He told his fellow officers, “Lord Wuping is too young and knows nothing about military matters. Do not listen to him!” Claiming he had received an order from Chen Sheng, Qin Jia then killed Lord Wuping(General Xin).
The Second Emperor sent the court chief of staff, Sima Xin, and commandant Dong Yi to assist General Zhang Han in suppressing the “bandits and burglars.” Zhang Han had already defeated Wu Feng and proceeded to attack the top general of Zhang-Chu, Lord Fang, killing him. He then moved on to attack the troops of Zhang He, located west of Chen county. Chen Sheng himself came out to oversee the battle, but Zhang He was killed.
In December, while returning from Ruyin county, Chen Sheng was assassinated by his chauffeur, Zhuang Jia, in a village called Xiachengfu. Zhuang Jia subsequently defected to Qin.
In the early days when Chen Sheng became king, his fellow countrymen came to visit him, including his father-in-law. Chen Sheng treated him like any other visitor—he saluted him but did not kneel. His father-in-law was furious, saying, “You are a rioter and a title-grabber. You disrespect your elders; you won’t last long!” He turned around and left. Chen Sheng knelt and apologized, but his father-in-law did not look back. Encouraged by this, Chen Sheng‘s childhood friends began recounting old stories from their youth. Someone advised Chen Sheng, “These guests of yours are uneducated and boorish. Their talk is careless and out of control; it will bring dishonor to your name.” In response, Chen Sheng beheaded a few of the loose talkers. His chums deserted him afterward.
Chen Sheng appointed Zhu Fang as chief examiner and Hu Wu as inquisitor. These two supervised all his officers and generals. When generals returned from conquering cities, they were often punished as criminals if their actions were deemed inappropriate. Zhu Fang and Hu Wu equated harshness with loyalty; if they found any mistakes, they either issued punishments themselves or handed them over to prosecutors. Because of this, the generals distanced themselves from King Chen Sheng. This alienation contributed to Chen Sheng’s downfall.
General Lü Chen, a former housekeeper of King Chen Sheng, formed an armed force in Xinyang County, known as the Black-Head Army, as all the soldiers wore black headscarves. They broke into Chen county and killed Zhuang Jia, reinstating the Kingdom of Chu there. They buried King Chen Sheng in Dang county and gave him the posthumous title of King Yin of Chu.
Zhou Fu of Wei led troops to seize lands in Feng county and Pei county. He sent envoys to persuade Yong Chi to change allegiances. Yong Chi, who had previously been aloof and reluctant to report to the Duke of Pei, surrendered Feng county to the Kingdom of Wei. The Duke of Pei launched an attack on Feng county but was thwarted.
Zhang Er and Chen Yu of Zhao reassembled an armed force from the remnants of their collapsed troops. They led tens of thousands of soldiers to attack Li Liang, defeating him. As a result, Li Liang fled to surrender to General Zhang Han of Qin. An attendant of Zhang Er and Chen Yu advised them, “You are not natives of the Kingdom of Zhao, just mere travelers here, so you cannot claim kingship on your own. You need to find a descendant of the King of Zhao and help him become king. Then you may achieve your goals.” Following this advice, Zhang Er and Chen Yu found Zhao Xie. In January, during the spring, they installed Zhao Xie as the new King of Zhao and established Xindu county as its capital.
The rebels in Dongyang county, led by Ning Jun and Qin Jia, learned that Chen Sheng’s troops had been defeated. They installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu and led their troops to Fangyu county, planning an attack on the Qin army at Dingtao. They sent Gongsun Qing as an envoy to the Kingdom of Qi, requesting that the Qi army join forces with them to confront the Qin army. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, rebuked the envoy: “King Chen Sheng was defeated. We do not know if he is dead or alive. Why did you install a new king without consulting us?” Gongsun Qing retorted, “The Kingdom of Qi installed its king without consulting the Kingdom of Chu. Why should the Kingdom of Chu consult with the Kingdom of Qi before installing its king?” In response, Tian Dan had Gongsun Qing executed.
Reflection by Rio Grande 