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Tag: Xiongnu

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 116): Play off One Barbarian Against Another

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 7 Scroll 15

    Duration of 15 years

    Didao, a.k.a. Lintiao, Gansu Province

    The 11th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (169 B.C.)

    In November of winter, the Emperor traveled to the principality of Dai, returning to the capital in January of spring.

    In June, during the summer, Prince Huai of Liang, Liu Yi, died without an heir. Jia Yi once again presented a memorial to the Emperor:

    “If your Majesty does not establish a clear policy on the vassal states now, the situation will continue to worsen. The principalities, with only one or two generations of succession, act independently and are not constrained by the central court. As they grow stronger and more assertive, the laws of Han will no longer be enforced. Your Majesty’s barriers and the Crown Prince’s foundation rest with two key principalities: Huaiyang (Liu Wu) and Dai (Liu Can).

    “Dai borders the powerful Xiongnu in the north, and would have done more than its due if it could defend itself. However, compared to the other powerful princedoms, Huaiyang is like a mole on the face—significant enough to tempt larger states but not strong enough to resist their advances. Your Majesty holds all the power, yet you allow your son’s fief to serve as bait for these larger princedoms. This is not a sound strategy.

    “I humbly propose this: Take land from the princedom of Huainan to strengthen the princedom Huaiyang and establish a successor for the Prince of Liang. You could grant two or three cities in northern Huaiyang, along with the Dongjun Commandery, to the Princedom of Liang, thereby enlarging it. Alternatively, you could relocate the Prince of Dai to Suiyang as the new capital of Liang. The Principality of Liang would then stretch from Xinqi county to the Yellow River in the north, while Huaiyang would encompass the old Chen kingdom, reaching the Yangtze River in the south.

    “If this plan is implemented, the other princes will be too intimidated to rebel against the empire. The principality of Liang will be able to defend against the principalities of Qi and Zhao, and Huaiyang will be able to shield the empire from the principalities of Wu and Chu. This strategy will ensure Your Majesty can rest easy, free from worries in the east, and will provide stability for at least two generations.

    “Your Majesty currently enjoys a time of peace while the princes are still young, but in a few years, the threat they pose will become evident. Qin worked tirelessly to eliminate the problems posed by the six states, and now, Your Majesty directs the empire to your satisfaction with your fingers or facial expression, holding all the power to act. But if you idly allow the princedoms to grow into six powerful states once again, it would be difficult to say that your Majesty was a wise ruler.

    “Even if nothing happens in Your Majesty’s lifetime, the troubles are simmering beneath the surface, and by doing nothing, you will leave them for your elderly mother and young children to grapple with after your passing. This is not the act of a benevolent ruler.”

    The Emperor followed Jia Yi‘s advice and relocated the Prince of Huaiyang to become the Prince of Liang. He was granted over forty large counties, including Mount Tai in the north and Gaoyang County in the west. Jia Yi passed away a year later at the age of 33.

    The Emperor also relocated the Prince of Chengyang, Liu Xi, appointing him as the new Prince of Huainan.

    Meanwhile, the Xiongnu have begun invading Didao county.

    At this time, the Xiongnu posed a frequent threat to the border. The Crown Prince’s majordomo, Chao Cuo, submitted a military proposal:

    “The Art of War says, ‘There are commanders who are certain to win, but there is no such nation which is sure to win.’ From this, we understand that to defend the border and achieve military success, it is essential to select capable commanders.

    “I have also heard that three factors are crucial in winning a battle: the terrain, the training of the troops, and the quality of their armory. The Art of War teaches that different terrains require different strategies for infantry, cavalry, archery, pikes, spears, swords, and shields. Ten soldiers using the wrong tactics are no match for one soldier using the right tactics.

    “If officers are not selected from the best, and soldiers do not willingly practice; if they are careless in their daily routines and lack proper training; if they cannot move swiftly to seize opportunities or retreat in an organized manner when necessary; if the front engages in battle while the rear is in disarray; if they fail to respond to the signals of drums and trumpets from their commanders, then it is a failure of discipline and training. A hundred such untrained soldiers are no match for ten well-trained ones.”

    “If the weapons are not of good quality, they are as useless as empty hands. If the armor is not strong and secure, it is as ineffective as wearing no protection at all. If bows and arrows cannot hit their targets, they are no better than daggers, and if arrows cannot penetrate the enemy’s armor, they are as ineffective as arrows with no heads. This is the greatest danger for commanders who neglect the upkeep of their weaponry and equipment. Five ill-equipped soldiers are no match for one well-equipped soldier.

    “Moreover, the Art of War states: ‘If the equipment is inadequate, the soldiers are lost to the enemy; if the troops are not well-trained, the general is lost to the enemy; if the general is ignorant of military affairs, the ruler is lost to the enemy; and if the ruler fails to select capable generals, the state is lost to the enemy.’ These four factors are the most critical in warfare.

    “I have also heard that states of different sizes adopt different styles, states with varying strengths and weaknesses take different positions, and defending regions with different geographical features requires different preparations. Humbly serving a larger state is a self-preserving strategy for smaller states. Defending against a stronger enemy with a coalition of weaker forces is the position of a state of equal strength. Driving barbarians to attack other barbarians is a strategy of the Middle Kingdom, like Han.

    “The Xiongnu‘s terrain and tactics differ greatly from those of the Middle Kingdom. They excel in navigating mountains and hills, crossing streams and gorges, and their horses are faster than ours. On difficult terrain, whether riding or shooting, the Han cavalry cannot compare to the Xiongnu. When facing fatigue from wind and rain, or enduring hunger and thirst, the people of the Middle Kingdom are no match for the Xiongnu.

    “These are Xiongnu‘s strengths. However, they are vulnerable on open plains to sudden attacks by chariots and cavalry ambushes. They cannot withstand strong bows or long spears used for long-range attacks, nor can they resist the disciplined formations of the Middle Kingdom’s troops—organized into groups of five soldiers and teams of ten, moving in unison, equipped with a mix of long and short weapons and wearing metal armor. The detachments of crossbowmen and archers can easily overpower their leather outfits and wooden shields as our skilled artisans produce powerful bows and precise arrows; The Xiongnu are no match for the Middle Kingdom’s foot soldiers in close combat or the cavalry’s charge. These are the strengths of the Middle Kingdom.

    “Considering all of this, the Xiongnu possess three key strengths, while the Middle Kingdom has five. Your Majesty plans to deploy hundreds of thousands of troops to defeat the Xiongnu, who number only in the tens of thousands. This is a strategy of overwhelming force.

    “However, war is a dangerous and unpredictable endeavor. Sometimes, what is large becomes small, and what is strong turns weak in an instant. The risk of losing lives in battle is great, and once they are lost, there is no chance of recovery. The way of an emperor and a king is to take every precaution and ensure full preparation.

    “Currently, there are thousands of people from the Nomads, Yiqu, and other barbarian tribes who have surrendered to us. They share the lifestyle and skills as the Xiongnu. We should equip them with sturdy armor, warm clothing, strong bows, and sharp arrows, reinforcing them with the elite cavalry from the border regions. Experienced generals who understand their customs and can unite their hearts should be appointed by Your Majesty.

    “In treacherous terrain, these forces should bear the brunt of the fighting. On flat terrain, the empire’s chariots and skilled archers should be deployed. Both armies should use their respective strengths, complementing each other with reinforcements. This is a fail-safe strategy.”

    The Emperor appreciated Chao Cuo‘s advice and wrote back to him as encouragement. 

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 113): Comparing Huns with Han

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 6 Scroll 14 (continued)

    Huainan Principality in Han Empire of 195 BCE, Map by Esiymbro

    The 6th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (174 B.C.)

    In October of winter, peaches and plums blossomed out of season. 

    Prince Li of Huainan, Liu Chang, enacted his own laws and expelled officials appointed by the Han court. He sought to appoint his own prime minister and officials of ministerial rank (i.e., 2000 picul officials), and the Emperor acquiesced to his request. Prince Li also arbitrarily executed innocent people and conferred noble titles on undeserving individuals, elevating some to the rank of Marquess within the Pass. He repeatedly sent disrespectful letters to the Emperor, who was reluctant to admonish him directly. Instead, the Emperor ordered Bo Zhao to write a letter of admonition, citing the punishments of Guan Shu Xian (Uncle Guan) and Cai Shu Du (Uncle Cai) from the Zhou dynasty, as well as the banishment of Prince Qing of Dai (Liu Zhong) and Prince of Jibei (Liu Xingju) to serve as a warning.

    The Prince of Huainan was not pleased with the letter. He conspired with 70 individuals, including Grandee Dan, officer Kai Zhang, and Chai Qi, who was the son of Chai Wu, the Marquis of Jipu, to lead an uprising of 40 chariots at Gukou County. They also sought assistance from the Minyue and Xiongnu states. However, the plot was discovered, and they were arrested. The Emperor summoned the Prince of Huainan to Chang’an, where Chancellor Zhang Cang and Grand Hareld Feng Jing, acting as Grand Master of the Censorate, along with the Minister of imperial Clan and the Minister of Justice, submitted a joint memorial: “Liu Chang should be executed in the public market for his crimes.” The imperial edict commuted the Prince of Huainan‘s death sentence to banishment at Qiong Post Station in Yandao County, Shu Commandery, and stripped him of his title. All those who conspired with him were executed. The Prince of Huainan was transported in prison vehicles, carried in stages by each county along the postal route to Qiong.

    Yuan Ang remonstrated, “Your Majesty has always indulged the Prince of Huainan and has not appointed strict teachers and advisors for him, which has led to this situation. The Prince of Huainan is strong-willed and fragile by nature, and now he is being brutally crushed. I fear he may die from illness on the road to exile, and Your Majesty will be accused of fratricide. What do we do then?” 

    The Emperor replied, “I just wanted to give him a hard time.  I will call him back now.”

    The Prince of Huainan, livid, died from a hunger strike. When the cart reached Yong County, the officers opened the sealed cart and found his corpse. News eventually reached the Emperor in Chang’an. Filled with grief, the Emperor regretted not heeding Yuan Ang‘s advice and sought counsel on how to atone for his mistake. Yuan Ang suggested that the only way to appease the people was to execute the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate to show remorse. Instead, the Emperor ordered the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate to investigate the local officials and publicly execute those who had failed to provide food and attendants for the Prince of Huainan. He also ordered the Prince’s burial in Yong with a tomb styled and scaled like that of a marquess, guarded by thirty households.

    Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu(Huns) sent a letter to the Han, stating: “Earlier, the Emperor mentioned a marriage proposal and sent a letter expressing his intentions, which fostered friendship between our nations. However, Han officials have been harassing the Right Tuqi King. Without my permission, he listened to the advice of the Marquis of Houyilu, Nanzhi, and others, and confronted the Han officials. This violated the treaty between our nations and disrupted our bond of brotherhood. As a result, the Right Tuqi King was punished and sent west to seek out and attack the Yuezhi. Thanks to heaven’s favor, our soldiers were strong and our horses swift, and the Yuezhi were utterly defeated, with all either killed or surrendered. This brought stability to the northern frontier and solidified our rule over 26 neighboring kingdoms, including Loulan, Wusun, and Hujie. The various tribes with their bows and arrows have become one family. I request that we lay down our weapons, rest our soldiers, care for our horses, forget past grievances, and resume the old treaty to ensure peace for the border people. If Your Majesty prefers that our people stay away from the borders, I will issue a decree to my officials and people to remain at a greater distance.”

    The Emperor replied in a letter, saying: “The Chanyu’s desire to forget past grievances and resume the old treaty pleases me greatly. This reflects the wisdom of the ancient sage kings. The Han and Xiongnu made a treaty to be brothers, which is why the Han has treated the Chanyu with such generosity. Those who violate the treaty and disrupt our brotherhood are often found among the Xiongnu. However, the matter of the Right Tuqi King occurred before the amnesty, so I ask the Chanyu not to punish him too severely. If the Chanyu clearly communicates these intentions to your officials and ensures that they do not break the treaty, the Han will likewise honor the treaty and the goodwill expressed in the Chanyu’s letter.”

    Some time later, Modu Chanyu died and was succeeded by his son, Jiyu, who took the title of Laoshang Chanyu. Upon Laoshang Chanyu’s ascension, the Emperor once again sent a princess from the imperial clan to be his consort. An eunuch named Zhonghang Yue from Yan was sent to accompany the princess as her tutor. Zhonghang Yue was reluctant to go, but the Han government forced him. He remarked, “If it must be me, I will cause trouble for the Han!” Upon his arrival, Zhonghang Yue surrendered to the Chanyu, who treated him with great favor and affection.

    In the past, the Xiongnu were fond of Han’s silk and food. Zhonghang Yue warned, “Though the Xiongnu are numerous, they cannot compare to even a commandery of the Han. However, their strength lies in their distinct clothing and food, making them independent from Han. If the Chanyu adopts Han’s goods and customs, the Xiongnu will be under Han‘s control once they receive no more than ten or twenty percent of Han’s exports.” 

    When Zhonghang Yue obtained Han silk, he rode through thorns and grass, deliberately tearing his clothes to show that they were inferior to Xiongnu woolen cloaks and furs. When he received Han food, he rejected it, claiming it was less tasty and convenient than Xiongnu dairy products. He also taught the Chanyu’s attendants to keep records of their people and livestock. The letters and seals exchanged with the Han were enlarged to signify superiority. The letters were written in a haughty tone, referring to the Chanyu as “the great Xiongnu Chanyu, born of Heaven and Earth, and appointed by the Sun and Moon.”

    When Han envoys criticized the Xiongnu for lacking propriety and righteousness in their customs, Zhonghang Yue always countered by saying, “The Xiongnu have simple rules that are easy to follow. The relationship between their rulers and subjects is straightforward and enduring. Their statecraft functions as one cohesive body. Therefore, although the Xiongnu may at times be chaotic, they always establish a ruler from within the tribe. 

    “Now, while the Middle Kingdom claims to uphold propriety and righteousness, as family relations grow distant, people kill and steal from one another, and even the ruling clan is changed. Propriety or not, they all belong to the same kind of people. Alas! Those who live in earthen houses should not babble so much, or padding themselves on the back.

    “As for the goods that Han delivers to the Xiongnu—silk, cloth, rice, and wheat—let them be of good quality and appear pleasing. What more is there to say? If the goods are sufficient and of good quality, then all is well. But if the goods are lacking and of poor quality, then let them wait until autumn harvest, for our riders to sweep in and tramp on their crops.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 97): Appeasement

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 4 Scroll 12

    Duration of 12 years

    Guanzhong Plain, Shaanxi Province

    The 8th year of the Emperor Gaozu (199 B.C.)

    In winter, the Emperor led an attack on the remaining forces of Xin, King of Hán, at Dongyuan county, passing through Boren county. Guan Gao and other officials had assassins hide in the double wall of a latrine. The Emperor planned to stay overnight but suddenly asked, “What is the name of this county?” The reply was “Boren.” The Emperor said, “Boren sounds like po’ren, which refers to people under duress.” He then decided to leave without staying overnight. In December, the Emperor returned to the capital from Dongyuan county.

    In Spring of that March, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang. He decreed that merchants were prohibited from wearing clothing made of silk, embroidery, fine brocade, thick silk, fine cotton, coarse cotton, or hempen fabrics. They were also forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses as well as carriages.

    In September, during the autumn, the Emperor departed from Luoyang, accompanied by the King of Huainan, the King of Liang, the King of Zhao, and the King of Chu.

    The Xiongnu leader Modu Chanyu frequently harassed the northern border of the Han dynasty. Concerned, the Emperor sought advice from Liu Jing. Liu Jing responded, “The soldiers and officers are weary from battle, and it is unwise to resort to force now. Modu gained power by killing his father and seizing his wives and consorts. He relies on brute strength, and it’s difficult to sway him with principles of kindness and righteousness. However, we can adopt a long-term strategy, allowing his descendants to become our vassals. But I fear your majesty may not be able to convince yourself to do it.”

    The Emperor asked, “What should I do, then?” 

    Liu Jing replied, “If your majesty offers your eldest princess in marriage to him and provides generous gifts, he will admire you and view himself as your son-in-law. If a son is born by the princess, he will become the crown prince. You can gift items that the Han dynasty has in abundance but that the Xiongnu lacks, in each season year-round. You may use these opportunities to send lobbyists to educate them on Han cultural etiquette. Modu will be your son-in-law during his lifetime, and after his death, your grandson will become the new Xiongnu leader. Have you ever known a grandson daring to disrespect and contend with his grandfather? You can gradually subjugate them without warfare.  If Your Majesty cannot send the Eldest Princess, but instead has members of the imperial clan or the harem falsely claim to be the princess, once they find out, they will not be willing to honor or maintain close relationships, and it will be of no benefit.”

    The Emperor found the idea appealing and considered sending his eldest princess to Modu. However, Empress Lü wept day and night, saying, “I only bore the crown prince and one daughter.  How can we ditch her to the Xiongnu?” The Emperor ultimately could not bear to send his daughter, and the plan fell through.

    The 9th year of the Emperor Gaozu (198 B.C.)

    In winter, the Emperor selected a young girl from a plebeian family, bestowed upon her the title of ‘Eldest Princess,’ and sent her to marry the Xiongnu leader. He also dispatched Liu Jing to negotiate and finalize the marriage alliance.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Marquis Jianxin’s proposal to marry off a young woman to a vallian, Modu, who cannot be swayed by benevolence and righteousness is inherently self-contradictory. The bonds of kinship and distinctions of rank can only be appreciated by those who follow the principles of benevolence and righteousness. How, then, can we expect to win over the Xiongnu through marriage?

    In the past, emperors dealt with barbarian tribes either by showing them kindness or by demonstrating their might. There is no record of marriage being used as a diplomatic tool. Moreover, since the Xiongnu leader treated his own father as prey, how could he be trusted to show respect to his wife’s family? The strategy of the Marquis of Jianxin was fundamentally flawed, and how could he even consider taking away Princess Yuan of Lu, who had already been Queen of Zhao?

    Liu Jing returned from the Xiongnu and reported, “The Xiongnu‘s Baiyang and Loufan kings are only 700 li from Chang’an. A light cavalry could reach Qinzhong(a.k.a. Guanzhong) in a single day and night. Qinzhong has just been pacified, with a small population and fertile land. Increasing the population would help consolidate the region. When the monarchs established in the past, only the families of Tian in Qi, and the Shao, Jing and Qu clans in Chu prospered first. Although Your Majesty now rules Guanzhong, the population is sparse. In the east, the powerful clans of the former six states remain strong. If sudden unrest occurs, Your Majesty cannot be at ease.

    I recommend moving the influential clans of the former six states, along with other prominent families, to Guanzhong. Their presence will act as a deterrent to the Xiongnu, and they can be mobilized to vanquish the east if the monarchs revolt. This is the strategy of strengthening the core and weakening the periphery.”

    The Emperor agreed: “A good idea!” In November, he relocated the major clans of the Shao, Qu, Jing, Huai, and Tian families, along with other powerful households, to Guanzhong. A population of over 100,000 were given fertile fields and houses there.

    In December, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang. 

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 95): Inventor of Whistling Arrows

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

    A Bust of Modu (Metehan) Chanyu in Türkiye, Photo by Vikiçizer

    The 6th year of the Emperor Gaozu(201 B.C. continued)

    The emperor returned to Yueyang.

    The emperor granted his father the title Emperor Emeritus on May 23 of the summer.

    The Xiongnu empire feared the Empire of Qin and moved to the north for more than ten years.  As the empire of Qin collapsed, the Xiongnus gradually moved southward and crossed the Yellow River.  

    The chief of Xiongnu, whose name was Touman Chanyu, had a crown prince called Modu.  Then Touman’s other favorite wife bore him a younger son.  He wanted to crown his young son.  Nomad tribes Donghu was strong and Yuezhi was prosperous at the time.  Touman sent Modu to be a hostage in Yuezhi and then launched a sneak attack on Yuezhi.  Yuezhi would have killed Modu, except Modu stole a stallion and ran home.  Touman thought he was tough and let Modu command ten thousand cavalry. 

    Modu invented the kabura-ya, or whistling arrows, and trained his cavalry to use them in archery. He issued a strict command: “Anyone who fails to shoot at the same target immediately after seeing a kabura-ya hit the mark must be beheaded.” To enforce discipline, Modu shot his prized horse with a kabura-ya, followed by his beloved wife. Those who hesitated to follow his lead were executed. Eventually, he shot the best horse of the Chanyu with a whistling arrow, and everyone else shot as well. Satisfied with their readiness, Modu embarked on a hunting trip, where he shot Touman with a whistling arrow. His attendants, following his lead, killed Touman Chanyu.  Then he executed his stepmother, younger brother, and ministers who opposed him. Modu then declared himself Chanyu.

    When the Donghu tribe heard that Modu had become the Chanyu, they sent a messenger with a demand: “We want Touman Chanyu’s fast horse, the one that can run a thousand li in a day.” Modu consulted his ministers, who all advised, “This is a treasure of the Xiongnu, do not give it away!” But Modu replied, “How can we value a horse more than maintaining good relations with a neighboring state?” and so he gave them the horse.

    Soon after, the Donghu sent another messenger: “We would like one of the Chanyu’s wives.” Modu again asked his followers, who were outraged: “The Donghu are unreasonable, asking for Chanyu’s wife! Let’s attack them!” Modu responded, “How can we value a woman more than a neighboring state?” and hand out his beloved wife.

    Emboldened, the Donghu king became even more arrogant. There was a stretch of deserted land over a thousand miles wide between the Donghu and Xiongnu, each occupying their own side of the border, known as the “Ou-Tuo” (buffer zone). The Donghu then demanded this land. Modu asked his ministers for their advice; some said, “It is just deserted land, it doesn’t matter if we give it away or not.” Enraged, Modu declared, “The land is the foundation of the country, how can we give it away?” He beheaded those who had suggested giving it up.

    Modu mounted his horse and commanded, “Anyone who retreats during battle will be beheaded!” He attacked the Donghu, who had underestimated him and were unprepared, leading to their destruction.

    On returning home, Modu launched a westward attack and defeated the Yuezhi tribe. He then annexed the territories ruled by the King of Loufan and the King of Baiyang, the tribes living in the south of the Yellow River, before advancing into the states of Yan and Dai. He reclaimed the lands that had previously been taken from the Xiongnu by Meng Tian, extending the southern frontier to Chaona and Fushi counties. At the time, the Han army was preoccupied with their conflict against Xiang Yu, and the central plains were exhausted by war. This allowed Modu Chanyu to consolidate his power, amassing an army of more than 300,000 archers and inducing trepidation and submission to other nations.

    In the autumn, the Xiongnu besieged the Han vassal King of Hán, Xin at Mayi. Xin repeatedly sent messengers to the Xiongnu seeking a truce, and the empire dispatched troops to rescue him. However, the Han court grew suspicious of Xin’s loyalty, as he had sent envoys back and forth multiple times. Accused of dual loyalty and fearing punishment, in September, Xin surrendered Mayi to the Xiongnu. Seizing this opportunity, Modu Chanyu led his troops south, crossed the Gozhu Pass, raided Taiyuan commandery, and eventually reached Jinyang city.

    The emperor abolished the harsh and complicated laws of the Qin Dynasty and implemented a simpler system. However, officials began competing for recognition, and during drinking sessions, some became drunk and made reckless remarks, even drawing their swords and hacking at pillars. The emperor grew increasingly disgusted with their behavior.

    Shusun Tong advised the emperor, “Scholars may not be suited to ambitious plans, but they are capable of maintaining stability. I would like to invite scholars from Lu to establish court ceremonies, along with my own disciples.” The emperor asked, “Won’t this be difficult?” Shusun Tong replied, “The Five Emperors in history had different music, and the Three Kings had different rituals. Ceremonies should reflect the times and the people’s sentiments, so the rituals must be adjusted accordingly. I will draw on ancient rituals and blend them with Qin customs.” The emperor agreed, saying, “Let’s give it a try. Make it simple to understand, and only implement what I can manage.”

    Shusun Tong summoned over thirty scholars from the state of Lu. However, two scholars refused, saying, “You have served ten lords and flattered them all to gain favor. Now that the world has only just been pacified, the dead are not yet buried, and the wounded have not yet recovered, yet you want to start with ceremonies and music. Ceremonies and music should only be established after accumulating virtue for a hundred years. I cannot bear to follow your example. You may do as you wish, but do not tarnish my reputation!” Shusun Tong laughed and said, “You are dogmatic and shallow scholars who fail to grasp the changes of the times.”

    He then led the scholars he had recruited, along with those close to the emperor and his own disciples—a group of over a hundred people—to practice rituals and music outdoors, using ropes and thatch as mock-ups, for over a month. He reported to the emperor, “You can now observe and assess them.” The emperor ordered the court to rehearse the rituals and remarked, “I can do this.” He then instructed the officials to study and practice the rituals.