Feng Jieyu Stood in front a bear. Painting by Jin Tingbiao(-1767)
The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Jianzhao Era (38 B.C.)
In spring, on January 28, a meteor fell in the Principality of Liang.
In March, the Emperor traveled to Yong and offered sacrifice at the Altars of the Five Deities.
In winter, Liu Yuan, Prince of Hejian, was deposed and banished to Fangling for complicity in the killing of an innocent man.
The ancestral temple and garden of Empress Dowager Xiaowen (Madame Bo, mother of Emperor Wen) were abolished.
The Emperor went to the tiger menagerie to watch a beast fight, with all the ladies of the harem seated around him. A bear broke from its enclosure, climbed the railing, and attempted to enter the hall. The attendants, noblewomen, and Consort(Jieyu[Lady of Handsome Fairness]) Fu all fled in fear. But Consort(Jieyu) Feng stepped forth and stood before the bear. The attendants then slew it.
The Emperor asked, “When all were terrified, why did you stand before the bear?”
Consort Feng (Feng Jieyu) replied, “A fierce beast halts advance when it grapples with a person. I feared it would reach Your Majesty’s seat, so I used my body to block it.”
The Emperor sighed and praised her, and his favor toward her deepened. Consort Fu(Fu Jieyu) felt shamed, and thus enmity arose between her and Consort Feng(Feng Jieyu).
The 2nd year of Emperor Yuan’s Jianzhao Era (37 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and performed the suburban sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar. In March, he traveled to Hedong and offered sacrifice to Queen Earth.
In April of summer, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.
In June, the Emperor established his son Liu Xing (born by Feng Yuan)as Prince of Xindu.
Jing Fang of Dongjun had studied the Book of Changes under Jiao Yanshou of Liang principality. Jiao Yanshou often said, “He who will follow my teachings and lose his life thereby is my disciple Jing Fang.” His method excelled in interpreting disasters and transformations, dividing the sixty hexagrams and employing them daily to foresee events by observing wind, rain, cold, and warmth—each with its own verification.
Jing Fang mastered this method with singular skill. He was recommended to office as a Court Attendant on account of filial piety and incorrupt conduct, and he frequently submitted memorials concerning disasters, which were later confirmed. The Emperor esteemed him and summoned him repeatedly for inquiry.
Jing Fang said, “In ancient times, the Son of Heaven promoted the worthy according to their achievements; thus all transformations were successfully realized and auspicious signs appeared. In later ages, men were selected for their reputations, and achievements were neglected, resulting in calamities. Officials should be examined by their merits, thereby preventing disasters.”
The Emperor ordered Jing Fang to carry out the examination, and Jing Fang submitted a method for evaluating the performance of officials. The Emperor instructed the Three Excellencies and the ministers to deliberate upon it in the Warm Chamber(Heated) Palace. All judged Jing Fang’s proposal to be intricate and cumbersome, its system of mutual supervision between higher and lower ranks difficult to implement, though the Emperor inclined toward adopting it.
At that time, the provincial inspectors were presenting their annual reports in the capital. The Emperor summoned them all and commanded Jing Fang to explain his method of assessment; the inspectors likewise deemed it impracticable. Only the Grand Master of the Censorate, Zheng Hong, and the Grandee of Merit, Zhou Kan, who had at first opposed it, later gave their support.
At that time, the Director of the Palace Secretariat, Shi Xian, held exclusive authority. His friend Wulu Chongzong served as Director of the State Secretariat, and the two managed all court affairs day by day.
Once, during a banquet together, Jing Fang asked the Emperor: “Why did Kings You and Li of Zhou fall into peril? Whom did they employ?”
The Emperor replied, “Those lords lacked wisdom, and the men they employed were cunning sycophants.”
Jing Fang asked, “Did they know these men were sycophants and yet employ them, or did they take them for the virtuous?”
The Emperor said, “They took them for the virtuous.”
Jing Fang continued, “Then how do we now know that they were not virtuous?”
The Emperor replied, “Because their age fell into chaos, and the lords met with calamity.”
Jing Fang said, “If this is so, then employing the worthy certainly brings order, and employing the unworthy certainly brings chaos. This is an unchanging principle. Why, then, did Kings You and Li of Zhou not comprehend this and seek out the worthy? Why did they persist in employing the unworthy and bring peril upon themselves?”
The Emperor replied, “Lords in a time of disorder each believe their ministers to be virtuous. If all could discern the truth as plainly as we do now, how could any ruler lead his state into chaos and ruin?”
Jing Fang said, “Duke Huan of Qi and the Second Emperor of Qin also heard of those rulers and mocked them. Yet they themselves employed eunuch Shu Diao and Zhao Gao, plunging their realms ever deeper into chaos until bandits filled the mountains. Why did they not divine the faults of Kings You and Li of Zhou and awaken to their own misjudgment?”
The Emperor replied, “Only those of superior insight can infer the future from the past.”
Jing Fang then removed his cap, bowed, and said: “The Spring and Autumn Annals record two hundred and forty-two years of disasters to warn the rulers of all ages. Since Your Majesty ascended the throne, there have been eclipses and retrograde stars, landslides and erupting springs, earthquakes and falling stones, frosts in summer, thunder in winter, withering in spring, flourishing in autumn, unseasonable frosts that failed to kill pests, floods, droughts, locusts, famine, pestilence, rampant banditry, and execution grounds filled to excess—every disaster set forth in the Spring and AutumnAnnals has manifested. Does Your Majesty deem the present condition one of order or of chaos?”
The Emperor said, “It is greatly chaotic—what need is there to say more?”
The Emperor replied, “Indeed, I believe we fare better than the old regimes of Qi and Qin, and the fault does not lie with these men.”
Jing Fang said, “The rulers of old thought the same. I fear that future generations will judge the present as we judge the past.”
After a long silence, the Emperor asked, “Who is causing the present disorder?”
Jing Fang replied, “A wise lord should have known this of himself.”
The Emperor said, “I do not know. If I knew, why would I employ them?”
Jing Fang answered, “Those whom Your Majesty trusts most—who deliberate within the inner chambers and determine promotions and demotions—these are the ones.”
Jing Fang’s meaning pointed to Shi Xian. The Emperor understood and said to him, “I have got what you mean.” Jing Fang withdrew, but afterward the Emperor still could not bring himself to dismiss Shi Xian.
Fan Zhongyan’s family precepts. Calligraphy of Ai Xiongheng
The 3rd year of Emperor Yuan’s Yongguang Era (41 B.C.)
In February of spring, Feng Fengshi returned to the capital and was appointed General of the Left, and the title of Marquis Within the Passes was conferred upon him.
In March, the Emperor’s son Liu Kang was made Prince of Jiyang.
In April of summer, Wang Jie, Marquis Kao of Pingchang, passed away.
In July of autumn, Xu Jia, Marquis of Ping’en, was appointed Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry.
In winter, on November 8, there was an earthquake accompanied by rainfall.
The offices of Salt and Iron were reinstated; the enrollment of court scholars was limited to one thousand. Because funds were insufficient and many among the people had been exempted from levies, the government lacked the means to sustain both internal and external labor services.
The 4th year of Emperor Yuan’s Yongguang Era (40 B.C.)
In February of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.
In March, the Emperor traveled to Yong to offer sacrifice at the Altars of the Five Deities.
In summer, on June 26, a fire broke out at the eastern gate of the Mausoleum of Emperor Xuan.
On June 30, at the new moon, a solar eclipse occurred.
The Emperor then summoned and questioned those who had earlier spoken on the omens of the sun, including Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng. They bowed their heads and apologized. Thereupon the Emperor issued an edict praising Zhou Kan’s virtue, summoned him to the traveling court, appointed him Grandee of Merit with a stipend of two thousand piculs of grain, and placed him in charge of the State Secretariat. Zhang Meng was restored to the office of Grandee of the Palace and Palace Steward.
The Chief of the Palace Secretariat, Shi Xian, controlled the State Secretariat entirely, and all five ministers within it were his clients. Zhou Kan seldom had an opportunity to see the Emperor and was compelled to speak through Shi Xian, with all decisions made according to Shi Xian’s word. Later Zhou Kan fell ill with a throat ailment, lost the power of speech, and died. Shi Xian then falsely accused Zhang Meng, who, in despair, took his own life at the palace concierge.
Gong Yu had submitted a memorial stating: “The temples of Emperors Hui and Jing, having no direct descendants, should be dismantled. Furthermore, the temples maintained in the commanderies and kingdoms do not accord with ancient rites and should be rectified.” The Emperor approved this proposal.
Thus in autumn, on July 10, the temples of Queen Zhaoling (mother of Emperor Gaozu), King Wu’ai (elder brother of Emperor Gaozu), Queen Zhao’ai (elder sister of Emperor Gaozu), Empress Wei Si (Wei Zifu, mother of Crown Prince Liu Ju), Crown Prince Li (Liu Ju), and Empress Dowager Li (consort of Liu Ju and grandmother of Emperor Xuan) were discontinued. None of these were thereafter to receive sacrifices; only a minimal guard of officials and soldiers was assigned.
In winter, on October 19, the ancestral temples located in the commanderies and princedoms were likewise abolished.
The various imperial tombs were assigned to the jurisdiction of the Three Metropolitan Regions. The area of the Shouling Pavilion in Weicheng was designated as the preliminary burial ground of the Emperor. An edict forbade the establishment of counties or towns there, and prohibited forcefully relocating people from the commanderies or kingdoms into that area.
The 5th year of Emperor Yuan’s Yongguang Era (39 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and performed the suburban sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar. In March, he traveled to Hedong and offered sacrifice to the Queen of the Earth.
In autumn, great flooding struck Yingchuan, and many people perished.
In winter, the Emperor traveled to Changyang Palace, where the Bear-Shooting Park lay, and held a great hunt.
On December 16, the temples and tombs of the Grand Emperor Emeritus (father of Emperor Gaozu) and of Emperor Hui were destroyed in accordance with the counsel of Wei Xuancheng and others.
The Emperor favored Confucian arts and literary cultivation, thereby greatly altering the policies of Emperor Xuan. Many who offered proposals were granted audience, and all believed themselves to have entered the Emperor’s favor. Moreover, Consort(Zhaoyi[Lady of Bright Deportment]) Fu and her son, the Prince of Jiyang, were cherished above the Empress and the Crown Prince.
The Crown Prince’s tutor, Kuang Heng, submitted a memorial:
“I have heard that the key to order and disorder, safety and peril, and the governance of all under Heaven, lies in discerning where the Sovereign directs his mind. A sovereign who receives the Mandate fixes his thoughts upon founding and perpetuating a dynasty, transmitting it endlessly to future ages. One who inherits the throne seeks to continue the virtues of the former kings and to magnify their achievements. In ancient times, when King Cheng of Zhou succeeded to the throne, he sought to follow the ways of King Wen and King Wu of Zhou to cultivate his heart. All his illustrious deeds and glorious accomplishments he attributed to the two kings, never daring to claim the merit for himself. Thus Heaven took delight in their offerings, and the spirits bestowed their blessings.”
“Your Majesty possesses sacred virtue vast as the heavens and loves the people of the realm as your own children, yet the harmony of yin and yang has not been attained, and treachery and wickedness have not been curbed. This is likely because your advisers have not greatly extolled the achievements of the former emperors, but instead vie with one another to assert that established institutions cannot be used and must be changed. Some reforms prove impractical and are repeatedly altered and reversed, causing subordinates to dispute without end and leaving officials and people alike without trust. I privately lament that the state has cast aside what the people found successful and satisfying, and instead engages in fruitless back-and-forth.”
“I wish that Your Majesty would carefully review the great matter of succession, and devote your mind to upholding established institutions and advancing the past achievements so as to steady the hearts of your subordinates. The Great Odes of the Book of Songs say: ‘Do not forget your ancestors; cultivate their virtue.’ This is the root of utmost virtue. The Commentaries say: ‘By discerning likes and dislikes and regulating emotion and nature, the royal Way is achieved.’ The means of regulating one’s nature is to examine one’s excesses and strengthen one’s deficiencies.
“Those who are bright and perceptive must beware of being overly critical; those who are less informed must beware of being obstructive. The brave and strong must beware of undue violence; the benevolent and gentle must beware of indecision. The tranquil and easygoing must beware of negligence; the broad-minded and magnanimous must beware of forgetfulness. One must scrutinize the cautions appropriate to oneself and temper them with righteousness; then the influence of balanced harmony will respond, and the deceitful and cunning will not dare to scheme for advancement. If Your Majesty heeds this counsel, it will elevate your sacred virtue.”
“I have also heard that when the Way of the household is cultivated, the governance of the realm is thereby achieved. Thus the Book of Songs begins with the ‘Airs of the States,’ and the Book of Rites begins with the ceremonies of capping and marriage. The Airs of the States reveal the origins of emotion and human relationships, thereby illuminating ethical norms. The ceremonies of coming-of-age and marriage set the household in order and lay the foundation for preventing future disorder. Therefore, the sage kings carefully managed the relationships among consorts and queens, distinguished between the heir-apparent and the lesser sons, and observed the rites within the household. The lowly did not overstep the honored, nor the new precede the old, thus harmonizing human sentiments and regulating the yin force.
“By honoring the rightful heir and subordinating the lesser sons, the legitimate son is capped at the Eastern Terrace and receives the sweet-wine rite; the lesser sons do not join the ranks. Thus the legitimate lineage is exalted and doubts and suspicions are dispelled. This is not merely a matter of adding external ritual forms, but of manifesting a true internal distinction. Therefore, ritual inquires into inner emotion and makes it visible outwardly. When the sage’s movements—whether in formal intercourse or in leisurely intimacy—accord with proper order, then everything follows its correct pattern, self-cultivation is achieved, and the people are transformed by his example.
“If those who should be near are pushed afar, and those who should be honored are disgraced, then the treacherous and cunning will seize the chance to disturb the state. Thus the sage vigilantly prevents wrongful beginnings and forbids troubles before they arise, never allowing private affection to injure public righteousness. The Commentaries say: ‘When the household is in order, the realm will be at peace.’”In earlier times, after Emperor Wu had blocked the breach of the Yellow River and built Xuanfang Palace to commemorate the achievement, the river later burst northward again at Guantao, forming the Tunshi River, which flowed northeast into the sea. The Tunshi River grew as broad and as deep as the main course of the Yellow River, and thus it was left unblocked. In this year, the Yellow River broke through at Lingmingdu Estuary in Qinghe Commandery, causing the Tunshi River to dry up.
The 2nd year of Emperor Yuan’s Yongguang Era (42 B.C.)
In February of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
On February 5, Wei Xuancheng, Grand Master of the Censorate, was appointed Chancellor, and Zheng Hong, Intendant of Fufeng, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
On March 1, at the new moon, a solar eclipse occurred.
In June of summer, a general amnesty was again granted to the empire.
The Emperor asked the Palace Steward Kuang Heng about the meaning of the earthquake and the solar eclipse. Kuang Heng submitted a memorial:
“Your Majesty embodies sacred virtue and opens the way to peace, showing compassion even to foolish officials and commoners who violate the law. In recent years Your Majesty has repeatedly granted general amnesties, allowing the people to correct themselves and begin anew—this is a great blessing to the realm.
“However, I observe that after the amnesties, deceit and wickedness have not diminished. One day there is a general amnesty; the next, crimes are committed anew; prisons are continually filled. This reveals that the root of the problem has not been addressed.
“The customs of our age are such that people are greedy, valuing wealth over righteousness; they pursue pleasure and extravagance, belittle the bonds of kinship, seek alliances through marriage, and dare to test the boundaries of the law as they pursue profit by opportunistic means. Without altering these underlying causes, even if amnesties were granted every year, it would be difficult to eliminate crime and make punishments unnecessary. In my humble view, it is essential to profoundly transform the ethos of the land.
“The court is the pillar of the realm. If the court speaks words of discontent, contention will arise below; if those above act for private gain, those below will become unyielding; if those above use unprincipled means to overcome others, those below will harbor harmful intent; if ministers seek profit, the people will turn to theft. The court is the root of society.
“To govern the realm, it is essential that the example be set from above. The transforming influence of instruction does not come from preaching alone, but from virtuous men holding office and capable men fulfilling their duties. When the court reveres propriety, the officials will act with deference; moral conduct will spread outward, beginning with those near at hand. Only then will the people know whom to emulate, gradually improving themselves without being aware of the change.
“As the Book of Songs says: ‘The city of Shang is orderly, the supreme model for the four quarters.’ Today’s Chang’an, seat of the Son of Heaven, should directly inherit the sacred teachings. Yet its customs differ little from those of distant regions. Visitors from commanderies and principalities find no model to follow; at times they witness extravagance and emulate it. This is the root of education and transformation, the pivot of reforming customs; it must be rectified first.
“I have heard that the interaction between Heaven and humanity is such that spiritual omens answer one another, and good and evil move in mutual response. Events below are mirrored above. When Yin stirs and changes, the still is shaken, as in an earthquake; when Yang is obscured, the bright grows dark, as at a solar eclipse; thereafter follow the disasters of flood and drought.
“Your Majesty should, in awe of Heaven’s warnings, take pity upon the people; reduce extravagance, examine institutions, cherish loyalty and integrity, and distance yourself from the cunning and the fawning. By exalting supreme benevolence, correcting corrupt customs, and elevating moral conduct in the capital, virtuous influence will flow beyond the borders, producing great transformation, renewing propriety and deference.”
The Emperor found his words pleasing and promoted Kuang Heng to Grand Master of Merit.
Xun Yue’s commentary: An amnesty is a measure suited to particular times; it is not a constant policy. When the Han first arose, it followed upon the tumult of Qin’s wars, in an age of great confusion when almost every household was liable to punishment. Therefore the simple law of three articles and the general amnesty were instituted to purge corruption and give the people a new beginning—such measures accorded with the times.
Later generations inherited these practices without adapting them to changing circumstances, and thus their appropriateness was lost.
In the reigns of Emperors Hui and Wen, there was no need for an amnesty. But in the time of Emperor Jing, the Seven Kingdoms rebelled; factions arose with divergent aims, and deceit became widespread. By the end of Emperor Wu’s reign, excessive taxes and labor levies gave rise to banditry, and the affair of the Crown Prince together with the witchcraft calamity plunged the people into fear and disorder. Likewise, under Emperor Guangwu, following the restoration after turmoil, conditions made an amnesty fitting.
In July of autumn, the Qiang tribes of Longxi rebelled. An edict summoned Chancellor Wei Xuancheng and others to deliberate. At that time, the year’s harvest was poor, and the court was already anxious; suddenly the Qiang uprising erupted, yet Wei Xuancheng and the others remained silent, none venturing a word.
General of the Right, Feng Fengshi, said: “The Qiang barbarians lie close at hand and have risen against us. If we do not strike quickly, we cannot overawe the tribes afar. I am willing to lead a host to suppress them.”
The Emperor asked how many troops were needed. Feng Fengshi replied: “I have heard that those skilled in war do not repeatedly mobilize troops, nor store provisions for more than three years. Thus their forces are not left long in exposure, and they swiftly enact Heaven’s punishment. The rebels number some thirty thousand; therefore we should employ twice that number—sixty thousand men. Yet the Qiang and Xirong chiefly use bows and spears, weapons not exceptionally keen; forty thousand should suffice. One month will settle the matter.”
The Chancellor, the Grand Master of the Censorate, and the Two Generals (the General of Chariots and Cavalry and the General of the Left) all said: “The people are still recovering; it is unwise to mobilize great numbers. Ten thousand garrison troops will suffice.”
Feng Fengshi objected, saying: “No—it will not suffice. Famine spreads, our soldiers and horses are weak, and our defenses have long been neglected. The barbarians may deem our garrisons feeble and feel no fear. If we fight in the field, our troops may break and suffer wounds; if we cling to our forts, the people will not be rescued. This will reveal our weakness. The Qiang will seize the moment, and the tribes will unite and rise. I fear that the levies of the Central Plain will surpass even forty thousand, and the matter cannot be settled with coins alone. Thus a small force will protract the war, whereas a decisive strike will settle it swiftly. The difference is ten thousandfold.”
Feng Fengshi pressed his argument vigorously but could not prevail. An edict was issued adding only two thousand more troops. Thereafter Feng Fengshi was dispatched with twelve thousand cavalry, ostensibly for garrison duty, with the Minister of Vassal Affairs Ren Li and the Protection Commandant Han Chang as his lieutenants.
Upon reaching Longxi, they established three garrisons. Han Chang first sent two colonels against the Qiang, but the enemy were numerous, overwhelmed them, and the two colonels were slain.
Feng Fengshi then submitted detailed calculations of the terrain and the forces required, requesting an additional thirty-six thousand troops to settle the matter decisively. His memorial persuaded the Emperor, who mobilized more than sixty thousand soldiers.
In August, the Emperor appointed the Minister of Rites and Marquis of Yiyang, Ren Qianqiu, as General of Fervent Resolve to assist in the campaign.
By October of winter, the troops had reached Longxi; in November they advanced in unison. The Qiang suffered a crushing defeat; several thousand heads were taken, and the remainder fled beyond the borders.
While the campaign was still underway, the court again levied ten thousand troops and appointed Han Anguo, Prefect of Dingxiang, as General of Establishing Might. But when news arrived of the Qiang defeat, they returned without advancing.
An edict was issued demobilizing the officers and troops, leaving a portion to remain in garrison-farms and guard the strategic passes.
The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Yongguang Era (43 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor traveled to Ganquan to offer sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar. When the rites were completed, he remained there to hunt. Xue Guangde submitted a memorial, saying: “I observe that the lands east of Hangu Pass are in extreme distress, and the people wander in displacement. Yet Your Majesty daily strikes the bell of fallen Qin and listens to the music of Zheng and Wey—this fills me with deep sorrow. Now the soldiers stand exposed to wind and chill, and the officials grow weary. I earnestly request that Your Majesty return swiftly to the palace and share in the joys and sorrows of the common people, that the whole realm may be greatly comforted.” The Emperor returned to the palace on that very day.
In February, an edict was issued: “The Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate shall recommend men who are sincere, upright, modest, and virtuous. Each year the Grand Chamberlain shall examine Secretariat Gentlemen and Palace Attendants according to these standards.”
In March, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.
Rains, snows, and frost fell, withering the mulberry trees.
In the autumn, the Emperor performed sacrifices at the ancestral temple. As he was about to depart through the side gate to board the tower-ship, Xue Guangde, the Grand Master of the Censorate, removed his cap and bowed low, saying: “It is fitting to use the bridge.”
The Emperor said, “Put on your cap, Grand Master.”
Xue Guangde replied: “If Your Majesty will not heed me, I shall cut my throat and stain the chariot wheels with blood—then Your Majesty will not be able to enter the temple!” The Emperor was displeased.
The forerunner, Grand Master of Merit Zhang Meng, stepped forward and said, “I have heard that when the lord is wise, his ministers are upright. To ride the tower-ship is perilous; to use the bridge is more secure. A wise lord does not court danger. The words of the Grand Master of the Censorate ought to be heeded.”
The Emperor replied, “Should not an enlightened man explain it thus first?” Therefore he followed their counsel and crossed by the bridge.
In September, frost descended and destroyed the crops, and famine spread throughout the realm. The Chancellor Yu Dingguo, the Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry Shi Gao, and the Grand Master of the Censorate Xue Guangde all requested leave to retire, taking the blame for the disaster. They were granted carriages, four horses, and sixty catties of gold, and were dismissed. The Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince, Wei Xuancheng, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. When Xue Guangde returned home, he hung his carriage aloft and displayed it to his descendants as a badge of honor.
When the Emperor was Crown Prince, he studied the Book of Documents under Grand Master of the Palace Kong Ba. Upon ascending the throne, he granted Kong Ba the title of Marquis Within the Passes, the honorific Lord Baocheng, and appointed him Palace Liaison. The Emperor wished to elevate Kong Ba to Chancellor, but Kong Ba—modest and yielding, averse to power and influence—often said, “My rank and title are already excessive; how could I be worthy of them?”
Whenever the post of Grand Master of the Censorate fell vacant, the Emperor desired to appoint Kong Ba. But Kong Ba declined each time, explaining his reasons with humble sincerity. The Emperor, perceiving that his modesty was genuine, did not compel him to accept and esteemed him all the more, bestowing upon him many generous rewards.
On September 24, the Privy Counselor and Commander of the Capital Guards, Wang Jie—son of Wang Wugu, the maternal uncle of Emperor Xuan—was appointed Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry.
Shi Xian feared Zhou Kan, Zhang Meng, and the others, and incessantly slandered and maligned them. Liu Gengsheng, fearing they were endangered, submitted a sealed memorial:
“I have heard that when Emperor Shun appointed the Nine Ministers, they worked in harmony, achieving perfect concord. When ministers were harmonious at court, all things were harmonious in the countryside, prosperity was attained, the nine movements of the music Xiao–Shao were composed, and phoenixes appeared. Conversely, in the tumultuous reigns of King You and King Li of Zhou, when the court was rife with discord, mutual accusations, and grievances, the sun and moon were eclipsed, springs and wells boiled, mountains collapsed, and frost fell out of season. From this it is evident that harmony brings good fortune, while discord invites calamity. When auspicious signs abound, a state is secure; when anomalies multiply, the state is imperiled. This is the principle of Heaven and the Earth, the shared understanding of all ages.
“Now Your Majesty has revived the traditions of the Three Dynasties(Xia, Shang, Zhou)—gathering scholars, promoting lenience and tolerance, allowing them to advance together. Yet at present, the worthy and unworthy are mixed; black and white are not distinguished; the corrupt and upright are intermingled; loyal and slanderous men advance side by side. Memorials inundate the transmission office; dubious petitioners crowd the prisons of the Northern Army, detained for questioning. Court officials are disordered and discordant, hamstringing one another, thereby confounding and misleading the eyes and ears of the court, clouding the heart and mind.
“They form factions and cliques, often plotting against righteous ministers. When righteous ministers advance, governance is in order; when they are cast aside, occasions of chaos arise. Now, at the very moment when the government must be set right, Your Majesty hesitates over whom to entrust with authority, while disasters and anomalies frequently occur—this fills me with profound apprehension.
“Since the first year of the Chuyuan era(the Emperor’s enthroning year), six years have passed, and never in these six years have disasters been as numerous as recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals. The reason lies in the advancement of slanderers and the wicked. And the reason they advance lies in the Sovereign’s distrust and suspicion. Even when worthy men are appointed and good policies enacted, if slander arises, the worthy will withdraw and the good policies will cease. When the Sovereign’s heart clings to doubt, slanderous tongues multiply; when his mind is hesitant and irresolute, falsehoods gain entry. When slanderers advance, the worthy retreat; when the wicked flourish, the righteous disappear. Thus the Book of Changespeaks of misfortune and fortune: when misfortune reaches its end, good fortune comes. When the way of the petty prevails, the way of gentlemen declines and chaos ensues; conversely when the way of gentlemen prevails, the way of the petty declines and good governance arises.
“In ancient times, Gun, Gong’gong, and Huan Dou served in Emperor Yao’s court together with Shun and Yu; and the Duke of Zhou served in the Zhou court alongside Uncle Guan and Uncle Cai. In those days they contended fiercely and slandered one another without end. Yet Emperor Yao empowered Shun, Yu, where King Cheng of Zhou empowered the Duke of Zhou, while suppressing Gong’gong, Uncle Guan, and Uncle Cai. Thus governance flourished, and their renown endures to this day. By contrast, Confucius served in Lu beside Jisun and Mengsun; Li Si served in Qin alongside Shusun Tong. Duke Ding of Lu honored Jisun, Mengsun yet dismissed Confucius where the First Emperor(Qin Shihuang) honored Li Si but dismissed Shusun Tong. Hence chaos arose and their disgrace is remembered to the present.
“Therefore, the root of order and disorder, honor and disgrace, lies in whom the Lord trusts. If the Lord entrusts the worthy and his trust remains firm and unmovable, good governance will flourish. The Book of Songs says, ‘My heart is not a stone; it cannot be turned.’ This signifies steadfast adherence to what is good. The Book of Change says, ‘When a great command is issued, it should be as irrevocable as sweat.’ It means commands are like sweat: once sweat has come out, it cannot be rescinded. Yet now good ordinances are often reversed within three months—like attempting to reverse sweat. Worthy men are appointed only to be dismissed within thirty days—like turning a stone. The Analects says, ‘When you see what is wrong, act as though touching hot water.’ But now the Two Offices (Chancellery and Censorate) report that certain flatterers and deceivers should not hold office, and yet they have persisted for years. Thus orders are reversed like sweat, appointing the worthy is like turning stone, and removing flatterers is like moving mountains. Under such circumstances, wouldn’t it be so difficult to hope for harmony between yin and yang?
“Thus the unworthy perceive these openings, adorn their writings with cunning words, and spread slanderous tales among the people. The Book of Songs says, ‘My troubled heart is pained by the many unworthy men’—truly, when petty men abound, it is exasperating. In the past, Confucius, Yan Yuan, and Zigong praised one another without forming factions, and Yu the Great, Hou Ji, and Gao Yao recommended one another without private motive. This was because they were loyal to the state and harbored no ulterior motive.
“But now flatterers and wicked men intermingle with worthy ministers in the inner court, forming factions and plotting together—opposing the good, espousing the evil, frequently setting forth perilous words to sway the Lord. Should he suddenly make use of them, Heaven and Earth must first warn the people; thus calamities occur again and again.
“Since antiquity, no wise Lord has attained good governance without punishing the wicked. Thus Emperor Shun exiled the Four Criminals, and Confucius executed Shaozheng Mao at the Gate of Dual Views; only thereafter could the sage’s transforming influence take effect.
“Now, with Your Majesty’s enlightened understanding, with a mind that comprehends Heaven and Earth, examine the hexagrams of misfortune and fortune; follow the precedents of King Cheng of Zhou and Emperor Yao, and take lessons from the ruin of Qin and the disorder of Lu. Consider the blessings signaled by inauspicious omens and the disasters portended by anomalies, so as to discern the changes of the age.
“Expel the factions of flatterers and dissolve their cliques; close the gates through which falsehood enters and open the paths by which the righteous advance. Decide with firmness, distinguish right from wrong with clarity—then anomalous signs will vanish and manifold blessings will come. This will establish the foundation of enduring peace and bestow benefit upon ten thousand generations.”
Upon reading Liu Gengsheng’s memorial, Shi Xian bound himself still more tightly to the Xu and Shi clans and grew ever more hateful toward Liu Gengsheng and his cohorts.
That year, the summer was cold, and the sun appeared green and without radiance. Shi Xian, Xu Jia, and Shi Gao all claimed that these portents were due to the misgovernment of Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng. The Emperor, though inwardly cherishing Zhou Kan, was troubled by the rising clamor of criticism and found no one in whom he could wholly trust.
At that time, the magistrate of Chang’an, Yang Xing, was in high favor for his talent and ability and was known to praise Zhou Kan. The Emperor wished to seek out Yang Xing’s judgment and asked him, “Why do the court officials ceaselessly complain against the Grand Chamberlain?”
Yang Xing, a cunning and opportunistic man, discerned the Emperor’s doubts concerning Zhou Kan and echoed his thoughts, saying: “Zhou Kan is not only unfit for office at court, he is unfit even in his own native town! I have heard people say that Zhou Kan and Liu Gengsheng conspired to harm their own kin and deserved execution. Thus earlier I wrote that Zhou Kan should not be harmed, and the state might display its grace.”
The Emperor asked, “Then for what crime would execution be fitting? And what should be done now?”
Yang Xing replied: “In my foolish view, he may be granted the title of Marquis Within the Passes with a fief of three hundred households, but he should not be permitted to manage affairs of state. A wise lord does not cast away the grace of his mentors; this would be the best course.”
Colonel of Capital Inspectorate Zhuge Feng of Langya had first gained renown at court for his exceptional uprightness and integrity, often offending the powerful. Many officials spoke of his faults. Later, for imprisoning people during the spring and summer months, he was punished and transferred to serve as City Gate Colonel. Zhuge Feng then submitted a memorial accusing Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng of crimes, but the Emperor did not accept it. Instead, he issued an edict to the Censorate:
“City Gate Colonel Zhuge Feng, in former days when serving together with Grand Chamberlain Zhou Kan and Grandee of Merit Zhang Meng, often praised them in court. When he was Colonel Supervising the Capital, he failed to observe the seasons, altered laws arbitrarily, and acted with excessive severity to seek false renown. I could not bear to send him for judgment, and therefore appointed him City Gate Colonel. Yet rather than reflect upon himself, he harbored resentment toward Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng, seeking vengeance by making unfounded accusations and openly spreading unverifiable charges. His slander and his praise alike follow his whim, disregarding what he formerly said—thus he is gravely untrustworthy. I pity Zhuge Feng for his age and cannot bear to impose further punishment; therefore he is dismissed and made a commoner.”
The Emperor further said: “Zhuge Feng claims that Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng are untrustworthy. Out of pity, and reluctant to prosecute, and because their talents have not yet borne fruit, I demote Zhou Kan to Prefect of Hedong and Zhang Meng to Magistrate of Huaili.”
Sima Guang commentary:Zhuge Feng’s conduct toward Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng—first praising them, then slandering them—was not born of a desire to promote the good and remove the evil for the court; he merely sought advancement for himself. He is of the same kind as Zheng Peng and Yang Xing. How can he be called upright or honest?
For the ruler, to distinguish good from evil, to discern right from wrong, to reward in order to encourage goodness and to punish in order to deter wickedness—these are the essentials of governance. If Zhuge Feng’s accusations were true, then Zhuge Feng ought not to have been dismissed. If they were false, then what fault had Zhou Kan and Zhang Meng have? Now the Emperor blames and discards both sides—how then can good and evil, right and wrong, be distinguished?
Jia Juanzhi was a friend of Yang Xing. Because Jia Juanzhi often spoke ill of Shi Xian, he was prevented from obtaining office and seldom had the opportunity to appear at court. Yang Xing, by contrast, had recently gained favor on account of his talent and ability. Jia Juanzhi said to Yang Xing, “The post of Intendant of Jingzhao is vacant. If I may gain audience with the Emperor and speak on Junlan(Yang Xing’s courtesy name)’s behalf, you could at once obtain the office.”
Yang Xing replied, “Junfang(Jia Juanzhi’s courtesy name)’s writing and eloquence are unmatched under Heaven; if you were made Director of the State Secretariat, you would far surpass Wulu Chongzong.”
Jia Juanzhi said, “If I were to replace Wulu Chongzong, and you were to become Intendant of Jingzhao, Jingzhao being the head of all commanderies and principalities, and the Director of the State Secretariat being the root of all officials—then the realm would truly be well governed, and men of talent would no longer go unrecognized!”
Jia Juanzhi continued speaking ill of Shi Xian. Yang Xing said, “Shi Xian is now in high favor, and the Emperor trusts him deeply. If you wish to advance, follow my plan: first align yourself with him, and then you may enter the inner circle.”
Thus Jia Juanzhi and Yang Xing jointly submitted a memorial recommending Shi Xian, praising his virtues and proposing that he be made Marquis Within the Passes and that his brothers be appointed to various offices. They also submitted a joint memorial recommending Yang Xing, proposing that he be tested as Intendant of Jingzhao.
When Shi Xian learned of this, he reported it to the Emperor, who ordered an investigation of Yang Xing and Jia Juanzhi, placing Shi Xian in charge. Shi Xian reported: “Yang Xing and Jia Juanzhi have harbored deceit and falsehood, praising and recommending each other to secure high office, deceiving the Emperor and acting improperly.”
Jia Juanzhi was executed in the marketplace, and Yang Xing was shaved, shackled, and made a convict laborer.
Sima Guang’s commentary: A noble man uses righteousness to oppose evil, and even then he fears he may not prevail. How much less could Jia Juanzhi, employing evil to combat evil, hope to escape unharmed!
The Prince of Qinghe, Liu Jing, was transferred to the princedom of Zhongshan.The Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye’s people grew numerous and strong, and the game of the borderlands became exhausted. His strength was now sufficient for self-defense, and he no longer feared Zhizhi Chanyu. Many of his ministers urged him to return north. After some time, Huhanye Chanyu did indeed return to his northern court, and the people gradually followed. Thus his state was made secure.
The 4th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (45 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and offered sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.
In March, he traveled to Hedong and made offerings to the Mother Earth deity; a pardon was granted to the convicts of Fenyin.
The 5th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (44 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Lord Zinan of Zhou, was appointed Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou.
In March, the Emperor traveled to Yong and offered sacrifice at the Altar of the Five Deities.
In April of summer, a comet appeared near the constellation Orion.
The Emperor, following the counsel of Confucian scholars such as Gong Yu, issued a decree stating that the Imperial Kitchen should not slaughter animals daily and should reduce its prepared provisions by half. Horses were to be kept only for the imperial carriage and essential official duties. The practices of wrestling; the seldom-used palace maids in the inner gardens; the offices overseeing the Three-Season Garment Works in Qi; the officials of the northern hunting grounds; the salt-and-iron administration; and the Fair-Price Granaries were all to be abolished.
Disciples of the Imperial Academy were no longer limited in number, so that learning might be encouraged. Any commoner proficient in one of the Confucian classics was exempted from corvée. More than seventy categories of punishment were abolished.
The Grand Master of the Censorate, Chen Wannian, passed away.
On June 20, Gong Yu, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. Gong Yu had long submitted many memorials discussing the successes and failures of state affairs. The Emperor esteemed his honesty and integrity and frequently adopted his proposals.
Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu, resenting that the Han favored Huhanye and did not aid him, and believing himself far removed from the Middle Kingdom, mistreated the Han envoys Jiang Naishi and others. He sent an envoy with tribute, requesting the return of his hostage son. The court deliberated on sending Court Guard Marshal Gu Ji to escort the prince. Imperial Counselor Gong Yu and the Erudite Kuang Heng of Donghai argued against it, saying: “Zhizhi Chanyu’s acceptance of the ways of the Central States is but superficial, and his territory lies at an extreme distance. It is fitting that the envoy delivers his son only to the frontier and there turn back.”
Gu Ji submitted a memorial, saying: “Between the Central States and the tribes, a bond has long endured without interruption. Now, having raised and nurtured his son for ten years with great kindness, if we abruptly cease and escort him no farther than the frontier border, returning without completing our purpose, it will appear as abandonment—causing him to feel discarded and bereft of allegiance, thereby nullifying past kindness and sowing future resentment. This is unwise.
“Those who advise against this, having seen the humiliations suffered earlier by Jiang Naishi and the others, imagine such dangers beforehand. I, fortunate to uphold the strength of Han and to receive the enlightened command, will proclaim our profound benevolence; they will not dare to rebel. If they harbor a beast-like heart and behave immorally toward me, then the Chanyu will incur a grave crime and must flee far away, not daring to approach our borders. To sacrifice one envoy so that the people may dwell in peace is strategy for the state and the wish of Your servant. I request permission to deliver him to the court.”
The Emperor approved his counsel.
Upon Gu Ji’s arrival, Zhizhi Chanyu flew into rage and in the end slew Gu Ji and his retinue. Knowing that he had wronged the Han, and hearing that Huhanye was growing stronger daily, he feared attack and sought to flee to a distant region.
The King of Kangju(Sogdiana), long harassed by the Wusun, conferred with his chieftains, saying: “The Xiongnu are a great nation, and the Wusun have long been subject to them. Now Zhizhi Chanyu wanders outside his domain. We may invite him to our eastern marches, join forces to conquer the Wusun, and establish him there, thereby eliminating the Xiongnu threat once for all.” They sent an envoy to Jiankun, where Zhizhi Chanyu then resided, to convey this plan.
Zhizhi Chanyu, already fearing and resenting the Wusun, was greatly delighted by Kangju’s proposal. They formed an alliance, and Zhizhi Chanyu led his forces westward. Many among his followers perished from the cold along the way, leaving but three thousand men. When they reached Kangju, the King of Kangju gave his daughter in marriage to Zhizhi Chanyu, and Zhizhi Chanyu likewise gave his daughter to the King of Kangju. The King of Kangju revered Zhizhi Chanyu greatly, intending to use his strength to overawe the neighboring states.
Zhizhi Chanyu repeatedly borrowed troops to strike the Wusun, penetrating deeply into Chigu[Red Valley, near Lake Issyk-Kul] city, killing and capturing many and driving off livestock. The Wusun did not dare to pursue. An area of five thousand square miles of western land lay desolate and uninhabited.
In winter, on December 9, Grand Master of the Censorate Gong Yu died. On December 19, Xue Guangde, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Gong Yu’s successor.
The 2nd year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (47 B.C. continued)
That year, Hong Gong died of illness, and Shi Xian succeeded him as Chief of the Palace Secretariat.
At the outset, when Emperor Wu pacified Nanyue, he established the commanderies of Zhuya and Dan’er upon an Island in the South Sea(Hainan Island). The officials and soldiers stationed there were all from the Central States and often oppressed the local people. The islanders were fierce and unruly, believing themselves cut off from the mainland; they frequently violated official prohibitions. Every few years they rose in rebellion, killing officials, and the Han repeatedly dispatched troops to quell them. In more than twenty years they rebelled six times; by the reign of Emperor Xuan, they rebelled twice more.
In the second year of the present Emperor’s reign, Shannan County of Zhuya rebelled; troops were sent to suppress it. Other counties rose likewise, and for several years unrest did not cease. The Emperor consulted his ministers, intending to mobilize a great host. Scribe-in-Waiting Jia Juanzhi remonstrated, saying:
“I have heard that the sage lords Yao, Shun, and Yu governed realms only a few thousand li across. To the west their transforming influence reached the drifting sands; to the east, the shore of the great sea, to the north and the south as well. They held that they would govern only those who were willing to receive their instruction and would not force it upon others. Thus lord and subject praised each other’s virtue, and all beings dwelt in their proper places.
“Even the great kings Wu Ding of Shang and King Cheng of Zhou, the humane rulers of their age, ruled eastward no farther than the principalities of Jiang and Huang, westward no farther than the Di and Qiang, southward no farther than the territories of the Jingman[barbarian in Jingzhou], and northward no farther than Shuofang Commandery. Songs of praise filled the land, and all creatures lived in harmony. The Yuechang tribe came from afar with tribute, passing through nine interpreters; this was not won by force of arms.
“Then came the Qin, who waged far-flung wars and exhausted their strength through greed; in the end, rebellion arose and their state was destroyed. Emperor Wen restrained his armies and cultivated civil governance; in his time, legal cases numbered only in the hundreds, and taxes and labor service were light. Emperor Wu, however, relied on arms to repel the barbarians; legal cases numbered in the tens of thousands, taxes were heavy, and banditry was rife. Soldiers were constantly mobilized; fathers died in battle, sons were wounded, women watched over the passes, orphans cried in the roads, widowed mothers wept in the streets—this all sprang from excessive expansion and ceaseless war.
“In human sentiment, none are dearer than parents, none bring more joy than husband and wife; yet men now sell their children and marry away their wives. Law cannot forbid it; righteousness cannot restrain it. This is the great peril of the state.
“Now Your Majesty, unable to bear long-standing anxieties, proposes to drive the multitude into the vast sea, relieving a moment’s concern at the cost of deepening their hunger and distress. The Book of Songs says: ‘The foolish Jingman[southern barbarian] made a great state into their foe.’ This means that when a sage arises they submit, but when the Central Plain is weak they rebel; how much more so the southern savages who dwell in distant and untamed lands!
“The people of Luoyue(Luegvet) bathe with father and son together in the same waters and drink through their noses—no different from beasts. They are not worth establishing counties over. Living alone on an island in the sea, shrouded in mist and humidity, amid poisonous plants, insects, serpents, and harmful water and soil—the soldiers die before they ever meet the enemy. Moreover, Zhuya is not the only source of pearls, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise shell. To abandon it is no loss; not to attack it does not injure our prestige. These men are like fish and turtles—not worthy of our desire.
“Seek antiquity for precedent and it gives no such counsel; apply it to the present and it yields nothing workable. Your servant, in ignorance, believes that among states, if they are not of cap and girdle—if they lie outside the territories described in the Yu Gong(The Book of Documents) and governed by the Spring and Autumn Annals—they may be set aside for now and not acted upon. I plead that the commandery of Zhuya be abandoned, and that the court turn its efforts to relieving the suffering east of Han’gu Pass.”
The Emperor consulted the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate. The Master of the Censorate, Chen Wannian, held that the rebels should be attacked; but Chancellor Yu Dingguo argued:
“In former years when troops were dispatched year after year, of the eleven commanders sent forth, only two returned. More than ten thousand soldiers and transport workers died, and over thirty million coins were expended, yet we were still unable to pacify them completely. Now the regions east of Han’gu Pass are depleted, and the people are difficult to mobilize. To abandon the enterprise, as Jia Juanzhi proposes, is sound policy.”
The Emperor accepted this counsel. Jia Juanzhi was the great-grandson of Jia Yi.
The 3rd year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (46 B.C.)
In the spring, an edict was issued, stating:
“The barbarians of Zhuya have slain officials and people, turned their backs upon us, and risen in rebellion. Now among those who deliberate in court, some urge attack, some urge defense, and some wish to abandon the territory; their reasons differ. Day and night We ponder their words. Ashamed that Our authority is not upheld, We would like to punish them; wavering and fearing peril, We would like to hold firm and settle them by garrison-farms; accommodating to the circumstance, We would like to grieve for the myriad people.
“Between the hunger of the multitude and the failure to chastise distant barbarians, which danger is the greater? Moreover, in a year of ill omen, even the sacrifices at the ancestral temples cannot be fully prepared; how then could We show no concern for the disgrace of neglecting distant threats?
“Now the lands east of the Passes are sorely afflicted; granaries and treasuries stand empty and cannot sustain one another. To raise armies again would not only weary the people but bring disaster upon the year. Let the Commandery of Zhuya be abolished. If any among the people admire righteousness and desire to submit and come within, then settle them; if they do not wish it, do not compel them.”
In the summer, on April 29, the White Crane Palace at Maoling, the tomb of Emperor Wu, caught fire; a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
In the summer, there was a drought.
The younger brother of the late Prince Yang of Changsha(Liu Dan), Liu Zong, was elevated as the Prince of Changsha to succeed him.
The Treasurer of Changxin Palace, Gong Yu, submitted a proposal stating: “The guards at the various detached palaces and the Changle Palace can be reduced by more than half to lighten the labor burdens.”
In June, an edict was issued: “We have been contemplating the hunger and cold suffered by the common people, who are far from their parents, wives, and children, laboring on tasks not their own, guarding palaces they do not inhabit. We fear this does not align with the principles of supporting the balance of yin and yang. Therefore, disband the guards at the Ganquan and Jianzhang Palaces and let them return to farming. Each palace should reduce its expenses. Submit detailed plans without concealment.”
That year, the Emperor reappointed Zhou Kan as the Chamberlain. Zhou Kan‘s disciple, Zhang Meng, was appointed as a Grand Master of Merit and a Palace Liaison, receiving great trust and favor.
The 2nd year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (47 B.C. continued)
On February 27, the Emperor invested his younger brother Liu Jing as Prince of Qinghe.
On February 28, an earthquake struck Longxi Commandery, toppling walls and buildings and crushing many people.
In March, Liu Ba, son of Prince Li of Guangling (Liu Xu), succeeded as Prince of Guangling.
An edict ordered the discontinuation of palace carriages and the keeping of dogs and horses for the eunuchs. The inner gardens of the imperial parks under the Water Management Bureau, the Yichun Lower Garden, and the pools outside the Archer Training Office under Privy Treasury and the royal archery grounds were to be closed, cutting expenditure for the benefit of the poor. A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm, and men of exceptional talent and those who spoke with candor and remonstrated directly were to be recommended.
In April of summer, the Emperor appointed his son Liu Ao as Crown Prince.
Scribe-in-waiting Zheng Peng recommended Zhang Chang, Prefect of Taiyuan, saying he had been a distinguished minister under the late Emperor and was suited to instruct and assist the Crown Prince. The Emperor consulted Xiao Wangzhi regarding this. Xiao Wangzhi replied that although Zhang Chang was a capable administrator, able to manage difficult affairs, he lacked the gravitas befitting a tutor or preceptor to a prince.
The Emperor nonetheless dispatched an emissary to summon Zhang Chang, intending to make him Intendant of Pingyi. Before he arrived, Zhang Chang fell ill and died.
An edict granted Xiao Wangzhi the title Marquis Within the Passes and appointed him Palace Steward, permitting him to attend court audiences at the new and full moons, instead of being there everyday.
East of Hangu Pass famine prevailed, and in the Qi region the people turned to cannibalism.
In autumn, on July 27, another earthquake occurred.
The Emperor once more summoned Zhou Kan and Liu Gengsheng, intending to appoint them as Grandees of Remonstration. Hong Gong and Shi Xian advised against it, recommending instead that they be made Palace Gentlemen.
The Emperor continued to hold Xiao Wangzhi in high esteem and intended to raise him to the Chancellorship. But Hong Gong, Shi Xian, the Xu and Shi clans, together with other attendants and officials, regarded Xiao Wangzhi and his associates with suspicion and hostility.
Liu Gengsheng had a maternal kinsman in the palace submit a memorial, saying: “The earthquake is doubtless due to Hong Gong and his faction, not stirred by the three obstinate men alone. Your servant, in dullness, believes that Hong Gong and Shi Xian should be dismissed, thus displaying the punishment for those who obscure and conceal the worthy, and that Xiao Wangzhi and his associates should be advanced, thus opening the way for the virtuous. If this be done, the Gate of Great Peace will be opened, and the sources of calamity and anomaly will be stopped.”
When this memorial was presented, Hong Gong and Shi Xian suspected Liu Gengsheng of instigating it. They requested an inquiry into the deceit, and Liu Gengsheng’s relative confessed. Liu Gengsheng was arrested and imprisoned, then dismissed from office and reduced to the status of a commoner.
The son of Xiao Wangzhi, Xiao Ji, serving as Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary and Palace Gentleman, together with others, also submitted a memorial appealing his father’s earlier prosecution. The matter was referred to the judicial authorities, who again reported: “The charges against Xiao Wangzhi were clear, and no accusations were born of slander; yet he instructed his son to submit a memorial citing the verse on ‘The Exoneration of the Guiltless,’ thereby failing to exhibit the deportment of a great minister and acting with disrespect. We request that he be arrested.”
Hong Gong, Shi Xian, and their associates knew Xiao Wangzhi to be a man of noble character who would not endure humiliation, and thus they proposed: “Xiao Wangzhi was fortunate to escape punishment, and moreover received title and land, yet he does not repent but nurses deep resentment. He instructed his son to submit a petition that reproaches the Emperor, believing that, as a former imperial tutor, he would not be punished. Unless he is imprisoned to quell his discontent, His Majesty’s further grace will not be felt by him.”
The Emperor said, “Master Xiao is known for his firmness and loftiness; he will not submit to the officials!”
Shi Xian and the others replied, “Human life is the weightiest of all considerations. Xiao Wangzhi’s offense is but a minor one of speech; there is no cause for concern over his life.”
Thus the Emperor approved their proposal.
In December of winter, Shi Xian and his faction sealed the edict and delivered it to the usher, ordering him to present it directly to Xiao Wangzhi. Shi Xian instructed the Minister of Rites to summon the Bearer of the Mace, and cavalry guards were dispatched to encircle Xiao Wangzhi’s residence.
Xiao Wangzhi sought counsel from his disciple Zhu Yun of Lu, a man of lofty virtue. Zhu Yun advised him to take his own life. Xiao Wangzhi looked up to Heaven and sighed: “I have held high offices and am now past sixty. To be imprisoned in old age, seeking only to cling to life—what a disgrace is this!”
He then said to Zhu Yun, “Fetch the poison quickly; do not let me languish in death!” He drank the poison and died.
When the Emperor heard this, he was shocked and struck his hands together, saying: “I feared he would not go to prison, and now you have killed my virtuous tutor!” He happened to be taking his meal, but pushed his food aside and wept, moving all who attended him. He summoned Shi Xian and the others for questioning; they removed their caps and pleaded forgiveness. After a long while, the matter was settled.
The Emperor, missing Xiao Wangzhi, never forgot him; each year he dispatched envoys to offer sacrifices at his tomb, and this practice continued throughout his reign.
Sima Guang’s commentary:How grievous it is that Emperor Yuan, as a ruler, was easy to mislead yet hard to awaken! The slanders that Hong Gong and Shi Xian wove against Xiao Wangzhi—wicked in argument and deceitful in design—were indeed difficult to penetrate. At first they suspected Xiao Wangzhi would not willingly enter prison, yet claimed there was no need for concern; when he then took his own life, the deceit of Hong Gong and Shi Xian was laid bare. For a ruler of even median wisdom, who would not be moved to punish such treacherous attendants?Emperor Yuan was not so. Though he wept and set aside his meal in sorrow for Xiao Wangzhi, he could do no more than bid Hong Gong and Shi Xian remove their caps and apologize. How can treacherous ministers be checked in this way? Thus Hong Gong and Shi Xian were left to indulge their evil hearts without fear or restraint.
King Cheng of Zhou and Duke of Shao. Photo by Vitsuha
The 2nd year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (47 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and performed the suburban sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.
The Marquis of Leling, Shi Gao—being a maternal kinsman of the Emperor—supervised the affairs of the State Secretariat, with General of the Van Xiao Wangzhi and the Grandee of Merit Zhou Kan as his deputies. Xiao Wangzhi, renowned for his learning in Confucianism, together with Zhou Kan, was trusted by the Emperor for their former service as tutors. The Emperor relied upon them, frequently hosting banquets at which they discoursed on governance, the restoration of order, and other affairs of state.
Xiao Wangzhi recommended Liu Gengsheng—learned in the Confucian classics and a virtuous member of the imperial clan, then serving as Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary and Grandee of Remonstration—to serve as Palace Steward together with the Privy Counselor Jin Chang, two of the Emperor’s closest advisors. These four men, sharing a common purpose, advised the Emperor in accordance with ancient precedent and sought to rectify many disorders. The Emperor esteemed and embraced their counsel. Shi Gao, however, merely held his office without meaningful contribution, whereby estrangement grew between him and Xiao Wangzhi.
The Chief of the Palace Secretariat, Hong Gong, together with his deputy, Shi Xian, had long overseen confidential and weighty affairs since the reign of Emperor Xuan. Both were eunuchs versed in statutes and regulations. When the present Emperor ascended the throne, he was frequently afflicted with illness. Because Shi Xian had long administered affairs, possessed no external ties or relatives, and was considered dependable in his expertise, the Emperor entrusted him with the conduct of government. All matters, great or small, were conveyed through Shi Xian to receive the Emperor’s decision. His favor and authority overshadowed the court, and all officials deferred to him.
Shi Xian was quick-witted and deft in managing affairs, keenly discerning the Sovereign’s slightest inclinations. Yet in nature he was malicious, skilled in calumny and sophistry; those who gave him the least offense were subjected to harsh reprisals under the law. He was also closely aligned with the General of Chariots and Cavalry(Shi Gao), forming a powerful nexus between the inner court and the army. In deliberations, they clung rigidly to established practice and would not heed the proposals of Xiao Wangzhi and his associates.
Xiao Wangzhi and the others were greatly troubled by the unchecked conduct of the Emperor’s maternal kin—the Xu and Shi clans—and were likewise concerned at the outsized influence held by Hong Gong and Shi Xian. They submitted a proposal, saying: “The Palace Secretariat is the pivot of governance and the vital mechanism of the state; it must be administered by upright and judicious ministers. Emperor Wu, because he often feasted and lingered in the rear chambers, employed eunuchs as his assistants; this was not in accord with ancient practice. The eunuchs serving in the Palace Secretariat should be dismissed, that we may conform to the ancient principle which forbids the mutilated from holding office.”
This recommendation brought them into sharp conflict with Shi Gao, Hong Gong, and Shi Xian. At the beginning of his reign, the Emperor was humble and averse to sweeping change, wavering long without decision. Liu Gengsheng was transferred to the post of Minister of the Imperial Clan.
Xiao Wangzhi and Zhou Kan frequently recommended eminent scholars and worthy men to serve as advisers. Zheng Peng of Kuaiji, seeking to attach himself to Xiao Wangzhi, submitted a memorial accusing the General of Chariots and Cavalry of dispatching agents to the commanderies and principalities to extort for private gain, and enumerating the crimes of the Xu and Shi clans. The memorial was handed down to Zhou Kan, who reported: “Let Zheng Peng be a scribe-in-waiting at the Jinma[gold horse] Gate.”
Zheng Peng then wrote to Xiao Wangzhi, saying: “General, whom do you take as your examples? Are they like Guan Zhong and Yan Ying, who retired from court at midday? Or like the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao, who toiled past midday and forgot their meals, remaining at their posts until twilight? If you follow the way of Guan Zhong and Yan Ying and retire at noon, then I, a trifling man, shall return to the fields of Yanling and live out my days there like Ji Zha of Wu. But if you uphold the legacy of the Dukes of Zhou and Shao—working past sunset in attending state affairs, and listening broadly to all opinions—then I, a trifling man, am willing to devote the whole of my strength to but a ten-thousandth share of your exertions.”
At first Xiao Wangzhi received him warmly, but when he discerned Zheng Peng’s deceitful nature, he broke off all contact. Zheng Peng, being of Chu origin, grew resentful and sought alliance with the Xu and Shi factions, disclosing to them all he had spoken previously, saying: “It was Zhou Kan and Liu Gengsheng who taught me these things; how would one from east of Hangu Pass know such matters on his own?” Because of this, the Privy Counselor Xu Zhang summoned him for questioning.
Afterward, Zheng Peng publicly declared: “I have pointed out five lesser faults and one great crime of the General of the Van.” Hua Long, a scribe-in-waiting of sullied reputation, also sought to join Zhou Kan and his circle; when they refused him, he allied himself with Zheng Peng.
Hong Gong and Shi Xian instructed Zheng Peng and Hua Long to accuse Xiao Wangzhi and his circle of conspiring to depose the General of Chariots and Cavalry and to expel the Xu and Shi clans. They awaited a day when Xiao Wangzhi was absent from court and had Zheng Peng and Hua Long present their charges. The case was then committed to Hong Gong for inquiry. When interrogated, Xiao Wangzhi said, “The imperial kinsmen in office are often extravagant and wanton. My intent is to rectify the state, not to do harm.”
Hong Gong and Shi Xian memorialized: “Xiao Wangzhi, Zhou Kan, and Liu Gengsheng form factions, praising and promoting one another. They ceaselessly slander the high ministers, sow discord among the imperial relatives, and seek to monopolize authority. They are disloyal as ministers and deceitful toward the Throne. We request that palace heralds summon them to the Minister of Justice.”
At this time, the Emperor had only recently ascended the throne and did not understand that being summoned to the Minister of Justice meant imprisonment. He approved their memorial. Later, when the Emperor sent for Zhou Kan and Liu Gengsheng, the reply was: “They are in prison.” The Emperor was greatly alarmed and said, “Is not the Minister of Justice merely conducting an inquiry?”
The Emperor rebuked Hong Gong and Shi Xian; both knelt in supplication and begged forgiveness. The Emperor said, “Let them resume their duties.”
Hong Gong and Shi Xian then had Shi Gao propose: “His Majesty has newly ascended the throne and has not yet manifested his virtue to the world; let us display it first to the Grand Tutor. Since the Minister of the Imperial Clan and the Grandee of Merit have already been imprisoned, it is fitting to pardon them through formal adjudication.”
Thus an edict was issued to the Chancellor and the Imperial Censor: “General of the Van Xiao Wangzhi has served as my tutor for eight years and has no other transgressions. Now, as time has passed and clarity is hard to obtain, let him be pardoned. He shall be relieved of the offices of General of the Van and Chamberlain; his seal and ribbons shall be rescinded; and Zhou Kan and Liu Gengsheng shall be dismissed and reduced to commoners.”
Zhucheng, Gong Yu’s hometown, Shandong Province. Photo by Rolfmueller
The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (48 B.C.)
In the spring, on January 4, Emperor Xuan was buried at Duling, and a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.
On March 10, Empress Wang Zhengjun was established; her father, Wang Jin, was ennobled as Marquis of Yangping.
The surplus yield from the public lands of the Three Metropolitan Districts(Jingzhao, Pingyi, Fufeng), the office of the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, and the public fields of the commanderies and principalities was allocated to aid the impoverished; those whose assets were worth less than a thousand coins were granted seed and grain loans.
Attendant-in-Ordinary Xu Jia, nephew of the Emperor’s maternal grandfather, Marquis Dai of Ping’en Xu Guanghan, succeeded to the marquisate of Ping’en.
In June of summer, as epidemic afflicted the people, the Emperor ordered the Imperial Kitchen to reduce meals, diminished the number of performers in the Music Bureau, and curtailed the horses of the imperial stables, saving expenditure to relieve those in distress and want.
In September of autumn, eleven commanderies and principalities east of Hangu Pass suffered great inundation, leading to famine, and some among the people turned to cannibalism. Funds and grain were dispatched from neighboring commanderies to provide relief.
The Emperor had long heard that Wang Ji and Gong Yu of Langya were learned in the classics and of upright conduct; he therefore sent envoys to summon them. Wang Ji died of illness on the road. When Gong Yu arrived, he was appointed Grandee of Remonstration. The Emperor frequently humbled himself to inquire of him regarding affairs of state.
Gong Yu presented his counsel, saying: “In antiquity, rulers were frugal, taking but a tenth of the people’s produce, and imposing no other levies; thus households were well supplied and the people had abundance. Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wen, and Emperor Jing of Han kept no more than a dozen palace women and only a hundred horses in their stables. In later generations extravagance increased, and ministers followed in its wake. In my humble view, though it is difficult to return wholly to ancient ways, one should strive to emulate them in part for the sake of self-restraint. The palaces now stand completed and cannot be altered, yet other expenditures may certainly be reduced.”
He continued: “In former times, the Three-Season Garment Officer of Qi produced no more than ten hampers of apparel. Now, the Three-Season Officer commands several thousand artisans, expending vast sums each year to fashion garments for the three seasons of spring, summer, and winter; and the nearly ten thousand horses in the royal stables consume enormous stores of grain. In the reign of Emperor Wu, countless beauties, numbering in the thousands, were taken to fill the harem. At his death, much gold, treasure, and rare curios—birds, beasts, fish, turtles, in all one hundred and ninety items—were sealed away; moreover, palace women were confined to garden lodges and tomb precincts. When Emperor Xuan was buried, the same was done. Your Majesty dislikes being reproached for altering precedent, and thus ministers cleave to this practice. This is deeply lamentable.
“Moreover, to reform the realm and foster a new way of life, taking so many women into the palace is exceedingly excessive. The princes keep several hundred wives and concubines, and wealthy officials and commoners maintain dozens of female entertainers, so that resentful women crowd the inner chambers, while celibate men fill the outer quarters. Further, at their burials, the wealthy and renowned hollow the earth above to fill below, exhausting the land for their tombs. These excesses all arise from the upper ranks and are the ministers’ fault for clinging to outworn customs.
“May Your Majesty diligently examine the ways of antiquity and adopt their frugality. Greatly reduce imperial carriages, personal garments, and luxurious goods by two-thirds; choose twenty worthy women to remain in the harem and dismiss the rest, including the childless women kept in mausoleum gardens. Let the stables maintain no more than several dozen horses, and preserve only the hunting park south of Chang’an. In this time of famine, it is fitting sharply to cut and diminish expenditures, to save the people and accord with Heaven’s intent. Heaven raises sages for the benefit of the people, not for their private pleasure.”
The Emperor approved his counsel, issued an edict halting repairs on palaces rarely used, reduced the grain-fed horses of the imperial stables, and curtailed the meat-fed beasts kept by the Water Management Bureau, which oversaw the royal menagerie.
Sima Guang’s commentary: When a loyal minister serves his sovereign, he must first address matters that are difficult, that the easier may thereafter be corrected without exertion; he must remedy what is lacking, that what is strong may proceed without further admonition. At the beginning of Emperor Yuan’s reign, His Majesty humbly sought counsel from Gong Yu. Gong Yu ought to have placed what was urgent before what was secondary. Yet Emperor Yuan lacked firmness and resolve in rectifying governance, allowing slanderous and deceitful officials to grasp authority—this was the great peril of the age—yet Gong Yu spoke not of it. Reverence, caution, and frugality were ever Emperor Yuan’s forte, yet Gong Yu again and again urged him only in these—why so? If Gong Yu’s insight was insufficient to perceive the greater matters, how could he be deemed worthy? And if he knew them yet failed to speak, then his fault is all the heavier.
The Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye again submitted a memorial, declaring that his people suffered hardship and want. An edict ordered the transport of twenty thousand bushels of grain from Yunzhong and Wuyuan Commanderies to supply their needs.
In that year, for the first time, the office of Wuji Colonel was established, assigned to garrison the former territory of the Jushi kingdom and in charge of military farming.
Duling Tomb of Emperor Xuan of Han, Shaanxi Province
The 4th year of Emperor Xuan’s Ganlu Era (50 B.C.)
In summer, the Prince of Guangchuan, Liu Haiyang, was deposed and exiled to Fangling for engaging in lascivious and incestuous behavior and the unjust killing of innocent people.
In October of winter, a fire broke out in the Xuanshi Hall of the Weiyang Palace.
In this year, Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xiao was relocated and became the Prince of Chu.
Both Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye and Zhizhi sent envoys to the Han court with tributes. The Han treated the envoys of Huhanye with extra respect.
The 1st year of Emperor Xuan’s Huanglong Era (49 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor went on a journey to Ganquan and performed a suburban sacrifice at the Taizhi altar.
Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye came to the Han court; in February, he returned to his country.
Zhizhi Chanyu thought that Huhanye‘s forces were weak and, subjugated by the Han, would not return to his territory. He then led his people westward, intending to annex the west region. Additionally, the younger brother of Tuqi Chanyu, who originally served Huhanye Chanyu, also fled to the west territory, gathered the remaining troops of his two brothers, and with several thousand men, declared himself Yilimu Chanyu. On the way, he encountered Zhizhi Chanyu, and they fought; Zhizhi Chanyu killed him and consolidated his forces, gaining more than fifty thousand men.
Zhizhi Chanyu heard that the Han had sent troops through the valley to assist Huhanye and decided to remain in the west territory. Realizing that he could not establish control over all the Xiongnu, he moved further west, closer to Wusun, intending to form an alliance. He sent envoys to the Junior Kunmi, Wujiutu, but Wujiutu killed his envoys and dispatched eight thousand cavalry to confront Zhizhi Chanyu. Zhizhi Chanyu detected their plan, mobilized his troops, and attacked Wusun, defeating them. He then moved north to attack Wujie, Jiankun, and Dingling, conquering the three nations. He repeatedly sent troops to attack Wusun and always emerged victorious. Jiankun was seven thousand li east of the Chanyu court and five thousand li south of Jushi. Zhizhi Chanyu established his capital at Jiankun.
In March, a comet appeared in the constellations of Wangliang(Beta Cassiopeia) and Gedao(Epsilon Cassiopeiae), entering the constellation of Purple Forbidden Enclosure.
The Emperor fell gravely ill and assembled his trusted senior ministers. He summoned his maternal relative and Privy Counselor, the Marquis of Leling Shi Gao, the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince Xiao Wangzhi, and the Junior Tutor Zhou Kan to the forbidden inner palace. He appointed Shi Gao as Grand Marshal and General of Chariots and Cavalry, Xiao Wangzhi as General of the Van and Chamberlain, and Zhou Kan as Grandee of Merit. They all received the Emperor’s posthumous edict to assist in governance and oversee the State Secretariat.
In winter, on December 7, the Emperor Xuan passed away in Weiyang Palace.
Ban Gu’s praising commentary: During Emperor Xuan’s reign, rewards and punishments were delivered with certainty, reputation and performance were meticulously examined. Those involved in administration, literature, and law enforcement were all highly competent. In terms of technical skills, craftsmanship, and tools, few subsequent reigns such as Emperor Yuan and Emperor Cheng’s could match the standards set during the eras of Emperor Xuan, which demonstrated what may look like when officials fulfilled their duties and the people lived in peace.
Encountering the time when the Xiongnu were riven by discord, He pressed down the one with lost moral compass and secured the one with moral standing, and with trusted might overawed the northern barbarians. The Chanyus, admiring his virtue, bowed their heads and declared themselves vassals.
His merit illumined the ancestors, his enterprise descended to his heirs; he may be said to have wrought a mid-renaissance era comparable in virtue to that of King Gaozong of Shang and King Xuan of the Zhou.
On December 26, the Crown Prince(Liu Shi) ascended to the throne. He paid worship at the Emperor Gaozu Temple, honoring the Empress Dowager as the Grand Empress Dowager and the former Empress as the Empress Dowager.
Reflection by Rio Grande 