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Tag: Zhang Tang

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 156): Taste of His Own Medicine

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 12 Scroll 20 (continued)

    A Stele Marked Zhang Tang’s Tomb, inside Northwest University of Political Science and Law

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’ding Era (116 B.C.)

    In September of autumn, a general amnesty was declared across the nation.

    The Prince of Jidong, Liu Pengli, was haughty and unruly. One evening, he, along with several dozen of his slaves and runaway youths, engaged in robbing and killing people, plundering others belongings for sport. More than a hundred murders were uncovered. As a result, Liu Pengli was deposed from his position and exiled to Shangyong.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’ding Era (115 B.C.)

    In November of the winter, Zhang Tang committed suicide after being found guilty of crimes.

    A rift had developed between the Director of the Censorate, Li Wen, and Zhang Tang. Zhang Tang’s favored official, Lu Yeju, secretly urged someone to report to the Emperor, accusing Li Wen of misconduct. The case was assigned to Zhang Tang, who sentenced Li Wen to death. Zhang Tang was fully aware that the accusation had been instigated by Lu Yeju. When the Emperor asked, “Where did this accusation originate?” Zhang Tang feigned surprise and replied, “This is likely the result of grievances from those who were wronged by Li Wen in the past.”

    Lu Yeju fell ill, and Zhang Tang personally massaged his feet. The Prince of Zhao, Liu Pengzu, who harbored a grudge against Zhang Tang, wrote to the Emperor, saying, “Zhang Tang, a minister, is seen massaging a lowly official’s feet, raising suspicions of a major conspiracy.” The case was referred to the Minister of Justice.

    When Lu Yeju died from illness, his brother was implicated and placed in a detention center. Zhang Tang visited the detention center to investigate other prisoners. Upon seeing Lu Yeju’s brother, he put up a front of ignorance in an attempt to exonerate him later, pretending not to remember him. Lu Yeju’s brother, unaware of Zhang Tang‘s intentions, took offense and lodged a complaint, accusing Zhang Tang of conspiring with Lu Yeju to frame Li Wen.

    The case was passed to Jian Xuan, as there had been a previous feud between Zhang Tang and Jian Xuan. Upon discovering this new information, the entire affair was thoroughly investigated, though it had not yet been finalized or reported to the Emperor.

    At the same time, a burglary of buried treasure in Emperor Wen’s Mausoleum was uncovered. Chancellor Zhuang Qingzhai, along with Zhang Tang, in accord to offer apologies to the Emperor and took full responsibility. However, when they met with the Emperor, Zhang Tang did not offer his apology. The Emperor ordered an investigation of the Chancellor by the Censorate. Zhang Tang aimed to implicate the Chancellor, intending to accuse him of “conniving” in the robbery. The Chancellor was deeply troubled by this.

    The Chief of Staff in the Chancellor’s office—Zhu Maichen, Wang Chao, and Bian Tong—were all former ministers of 2,000-picul rank, higher than Zhang Tang’s rank earlier in his career. Frequently acting as Chancellor and knowing that the three Chief of Staffs were held in high esteem, Zhang Tang sought to humble and insult them, treating them as mere staff. The three Chief-of-Staffs, harboring deep resentment, wished for his downfall. They conspired with the Chancellor to have officials arrest businessmen like Tian Xin, accusing him of having been tipped off by Zhang Tang about new policies before they were presented to the Emperor. Tian Xin had become wealthy by hoarding goods and selling them at inflated prices, sharing his profits with Zhang Tang. The accusation spread quickly.

    The Emperor asked Zhang Tang, “Whenever I take action, these businessmen seem to know beforehand and profit from it. It appears someone is informing them of my plans.” Zhang Tang did not confess, playing dumb again, “Indeed, it seems there is someone.” Jian Xuan also reported on Lu Yeju’s case. The Emperor, sensing Zhang Tang‘s deceit and manipulation, ordered Zhao Yu to sharply rebuke Zhang Tang. In response, Zhang Tang wrote a letter of apology, claiming, “The three Chief-of-Staffs are the ones who have plotted against me.” Subsequently, he took his own life.

    After Zhang Tang‘s death, his estate amounted to no more than five hundred gold coins. His younger brothers and nephews wished to give him an elaborate burial, but Zhang Tang‘s mother said, “Zhang Tang was a minister of the Emperor, yet he died amid vile rumors. Why should we give him an extravagant burial?” 

    She had his body transported on an ox-cart without a coffin. When the Emperor heard of this, he ordered a full investigation and the execution of the three Chief-of-Staffs. On December 25, Chancellor Zhuang Qingzhai was imprisoned and, like Zhang Tang, committed suicide.

    In the spring, the construction of the Bailiang Terrace began. A Dew-Collecting Plate made of bronze stood twenty zhang (60 meters) tall, with a circumference so large that it required seven grown men to embrace it. At the top of the plate was a statue of an immortal, holding out palms to collect dew. It was believed that drinking the dew droplets mixed with jade powder would grant longevity. From this day onward, the construction of palaces and edifices flourished.

    In February, Zhao Zhou, the Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince, was appointed as Chancellor.

    On March 10th, Shi Qing, the Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince, was appointed as the Grand Master of the Censorate.

    There was heavy rain and snow.

    In the summer, severe flooding occurred, causing the deaths of thousands due to starvation east of the Hangu Pass.

    During this year, Kong Jin was appointed as the Minister of Agriculture, while Sang Hongyang became the Assistant Minister of Agriculture. They gradually established transportation offices in the commanderies and principalities to facilitate the exchange and distribution of commodities.

    The value of silver decreased, causing the people to cease valuing and using it, leading to its eventual discontinuation as currency. Since then the minting of coins in the principalities and commanderies was completely prohibited. Only the three offices(bronze casting, copper analysis, technique) in Shanglin Park under the office of the Water Conservancy Commandant were allowed to mint coins, and no other coins, aside from those issued by the Three Offices, were permitted to circulate. Consequently, private coin production by the people dwindled significantly, as the cost outweighed the benefits. Only skilled craftsmen and major counterfeiters continued to engage in clandestine coin minting.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 155): Silent Badmouthing

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 12 Scroll 20

    Duration of 9 years

    Huo Qubing’s Tomb, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (118 B.C.)

    On March 11 of spring, Chancellor Li Cai was accused of appropriating empty land from Emperor Jing‘s Garden for the burial of his family. He was subsequently put on trial and, unable to endure the shame, committed suicide.

    The three-zhu coins were discontinued, and five-zhu coins were minted in their place. This change led to a rise in counterfeiting, especially in the Chu region.

    The Emperor appointed Ji An as the new Prefect of Huaiyang, located on the outskirts of the Chu region. Despite Ji An‘s humble refusal to accept the seal of authority, the decree was repeatedly insisted upon until Ji An reluctantly acquiesced. With tears in his eyes, Ji An spoke to the Emperor: “I have always thought of myself as being cast aside in ditches and valleys, never expecting to be employed by Your Majesty again. I often suffer from ailments, like dogs and horses, that rendered me incapable of handling the duties of a commandery. I am only fit to serve as a Palace Attendant, assisting in the rectification of mistakes and oversights within the imperial court.”

    The Emperor responded, “Do you disdain the position of Prefect of Huaiyang? I will call you back soon enough, but the officials and people of Huaiyang are not in their rightful places. I rely solely on your renown and stature. You will surely manage it, even from your bed.”

    After Ji An bid farewell and departed, he encountered Li Xi, the Grand Usher, and said, “By being exiled and accepting the commandery post, I have lost the opportunity to engage in state affairs with the court. The Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhang Tang, is shrewd enough to counter objections, deceptive enough to conceal faults, and skilled in the art of flattery and rhetoric. However, he refuses to speak truthfully for the good of the world, instead catering solely to the Emperor’s desires. If the Emperor dislikes something, Zhang Tang disparages it; if the Emperor likes something, Zhang Tang praises it. He eagerly engages in petty matters, using convoluted arguments to sway the Emperor’s thoughts, and employs corrupt officials to strengthen his own authority. You, being one of the Nine Ministers with access to the Emperor, must speak out early; otherwise, you will fall with him and be destroyed.”

    Li Xi, fearing Zhang Tang, dared not oppose him. Later, when Zhang Tang was prosecuted, the Emperor accused Li Xi of complicity.

    Ji An was assigned to govern Huaiyang with the salary of a minister of a feudal lord (2000 picul), where he remained for ten years until his death.

    An edict was issued to relocate corrupt officials and lawbreakers to the border regions.

    In the summer, On April 2, the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince, Marquis Wuqiang, Zhuang Qingzhai, was appointed as Chancellor.

    The Emperor fell gravely ill at Dinghu Palace. Despite the efforts of sorcerers and physicians, there was no improvement. Youshui Fagen mentioned a shaman in Shangjun Commandery who could communicate with spirits and cure illnesses. The Emperor summoned the shaman and allowed him to preside over sacrifices at Ganquan Palace.

    As the illness worsened, an emissary was sent to consult the demigod(i.e. the shaman) for advice. The demigod responded, “The Emperor’s illness is not a cause for concern; it will soon subside. You should come to meet me at Ganquan despite how you feel.” Soon after, the Emperor’s condition improved, and he visited Ganquan Palace, recovering quickly.

    Once the illness had fully subsided, a banquet was arranged at the Shou Hall, where the demigod resided. Though the demigod could not be directly seen, his words were heard by others and sounded human. He appeared and then disappeared, accompanied by a solemn wind, and resided within curtained chambers. His words, which the Emperor received, were recorded as “The Plan.” While his advice contained nothing extraordinary and was rooted in common knowledge, the Emperor took great pleasure in it. The details were kept secret, and no one outside the palace knew of them.

    While traveling to Ganquan Palace, the Emperor passed through the Right Interior Minister’s jurisdiction and discovered many paths were neglected and poorly maintained. Enraged, the Emperor exclaimed, “Does Yi Zong think I would never use this road again?” He bit his own lip in anger.

    The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (117 B.C.)

    In October of winter, it rained, though there was no ice.

    The previous year, the Emperor issued the min coinage edict, urging people to declare their assets and donate in the manner of Bu Shi. However, the people refused to contribute their wealth to support the county officials. As a result, Yang Ke dispatched agents to report on those who hid their assets and violated the min coinage laws. Yi Zong, seeing the agents’ actions as disruptive to the people’s lives, arrested them. The Emperor considered this an act of defying imperial orders and interfering with law enforcement, leading to Yi Zong‘s public execution.

    Chamberlain Li Gan, harboring resentment for the death of his father, Li Guang, at the hands of the Grand General Wei Qing, attacked and wounded Wei Qing. The General concealed the incident. Shortly thereafter, Li Gan accompanied the Emperor to Yong and arrived at the hunting grounds of Ganquan Palace. There, General of the Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, shot and killed Li Gan. At that time, Huo Qubing enjoyed great favor and held a high rank, so the Emperor covered up the killing, claiming that Li Gan was killed by a rampaging deer.

    On April 28 of the summer, in a ceremony at the Grand temple, Prince Liu Hong was named the Prince of Qi, Liu Dan as the Prince of Yan, and Liu Xu as the Prince of Guangling. This marked the precedence of the initial enunciation of the prince titles by imperial written certificates.

    Since the minting of silver and five-zhu coins, tens of thousands of officials and civilians who were caught counterfeiting coins had been executed. The number of undetected cases was countless, and practically throughout the entire country, there was no one who had not been somehow involved in the casting of metal coins. The offenders were numerous, and the officials could not execute them all.

    In June, an edict was issued to send six erudites, including Chu Da and Xu Yan, to thoroughly investigate the states and commanderies. They were tasked with identifying those engaged in illegal annexation of private properties or farm land, as well as officials, governors, and others guilty of crimes.

    In September of the autumn, the Marquis of Guanjun [Champion] and Marquis of Jinghuan, Huo Qubing, passed away. The Emperor mourned his death deeply and had a tomb constructed in his honor, shaped like Qilian Mountain.

    Huo Qubing’s father, Huo Zhongru, had completed his government service and returned home. There, he married and had a son named Huo Guang. As Huo Qubing grew older, he learned that Huo Zhongru was his father. While serving as the General of Agile Cavalry and battling against the Xiongnu, he passed through Hedong. He sent officials to invite Huo Zhongru to meet him and bought land, houses, slaves, and maidservants before departing. Upon his return, Huo Qubing brought Huo Guang with him to Chang’an, appointing him as an attendant-gentleman. Huo Guang was gradually promoted to the rank of Colonel of Royal Carriages and Grandee of Chamberlain.

    During this year, the Minister of Agriculture, Yan Yi, was executed.

    Yan Yi was renowned for his integrity and gradually rose to the position of one of the Nine Ministers. When the Emperor inquired about the creation of the white deerskin coins with Zhang Tang, Yan Yi expressed his opinion, saying, “Now, when princes and marquises offer tribute in the form of black jade discs, worth only a few thousand, the jade discs are wrapped in deerskins valued at hundreds of thousands. That is like putting the cart before the horse.” The Emperor was displeased with this response.

    Later, Zhang Tang had a personal conflict with Yan Yi. When someone accused Yan Yi of another offense, the Emperor ordered Zhang Tang to decide on his punishment. On one occasion, Yan Yi‘s retainer remarked that an edict had certain improprieties, and Yan Yi responded with a slight movement of his lips, without speaking a word. Zhang Tang reported this, “Yan Yi, one of the Nine Ministers, noticed an inappropriate decree but failed to speak out about it, instead silently expressing his negative view. He is to be sentenced to death.” This incident established a criminal precedent in the law regarding “silent badmouthing” (Silence Disaccord), leading three excellencies and ministers to flatter and seek favor by speaking in a subservient manner.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 154): Favorability Contest

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Gobi Desert, Mongolia

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C. continued)

    Another office of Grand Marshal was established. Both the Grand General and the General of Agile Cavalry were appointed as Grand Marshals. A decree was issued, establishing the salary and status of the General of Agile Cavalry equivalent to that of the Grand General. From then on, while Grand General Wei Qing gradually receded in prominence, the General of Agile Cavalry Huo Qubing became increasingly esteemed.

    Many of Grand General Wei Qing‘s former associates and scholars from his circle departed to serve under the General of Agile Cavalry, and they swiftly obtained official ranks and titles, except for Ren An, who refused to do so.

    The General of Agile Cavalry was a man of few words, not revealing much, yet possessing courage and a daring spirit. The Emperor once wanted to instruct him in the military strategies of Sun Wu and Wu Qi, to which he responded, “Wars are more concerned about battle strategies than learning ancient military tactics.”

    When the Emperor was constructing a palace for Huo Qubing, he asked the General of Agile Cavalry to inspect it. The general replied, “As long as the Xiongnu remain unconquered, what is the need of building a home for?” Due to such responses, the Emperor increasingly valued and favored him. 

    However, Huo Qubing rose to high positions when he was young. He didn’t pay much attention to the welfare of his soldiers. During military campaigns, the Emperor would send several tens of carriages loaded with supplies and delicacies from imperial kitchens, but upon their return, the vehicles would still be filled with leftover meat and grains, while some soldiers would suffer from hunger. When they were stationed outside the borders, the troops often lacked provisions, and sometimes they were underfed and displayed low morale, while the General of Agile Cavalry indulged in leisurely sports such as playing a ball game taju [similar to soccer], building a field for the game.  Many instances similar to these occurred.

    On the other hand, the Grand General was known for his benevolence, favoring soldiers who displayed humility and deference, endearing himself to the Emperor with his gentle and accommodating demeanor. Both individuals had such distinctive characters and principles, yet quite different.

    The Han Dynasty had slain around 80,000 to 90,000 Xiongnu, while several tens of thousands of Han soldiers had also perished. Subsequently, the Xiongnu retreated far away, and there were no more royal courts of Xiongnu to the south of the Gobi desert.

    The Han Dynasty crossed the river from the Shuofang region to the west towards Lingju, establishing canals for back and forth communication, setting up military farm offices, and deploying around 50,000 to 60,000 officers and soldiers. They gradually encroached northward into Xiongnu territory. However, due to the scarcity of horses, they ceased large-scale offensives against the Xiongnu.

    The Xiongnu employed Zhao Xin’s strategy and sent envoys to Han, using conciliatory language to request peace and marriage alliance. The Emperor sought counsel on this matter—some advocated for marriage alliance, while others proposed subjugation.

    The Chief staff of the Chancellor, Ren Chang, suggested, “The Xiongnu, having just suffered a defeat and hardship, might be made to become tributaries, visiting the court and seeking audience at the borders.”

    The Emperor dispatched Ren Chang as an envoy to the Chanyu. However, the Chanyu became greatly enraged and detained him.

    Erudite Di Shan proposed that seeking peace would be advantageous. The Emperor discussed the matter with Zhang Tang, the Grand Master of Censorate. Zhang Tang dismissed Di Shan‘s proposal, calling him an ignorant foolish scholar. 

    Di Shan retorted, “I might be foolish, but I am a faithful fool. As for the Grand Master of Censorate Zhang Tang, he is a deceitful loyalist.”

    This made the Emperor furious, and he asked, “If I were to let you be a prefect of a commandery, would you prevent the enemy from invading?” 

    Di Shan replied, “No, I could not.” 

    “How about in a county?” Di Shan replied similarly. 

    Finally, the Emperor asked, “How about in a small fortress?” 

    Di Shan, realizing the futility of arguing further and fearing the consequences of being court-martialed, replied, “I can.”

    Consequently, the Emperor sent Di Shan to a small fortress. After a month’s time, the Xiongnu beheaded Di Shan and departed. From then on, the courtiers were terrified and dared not oppose Zhang Tang.

    During this year, Ji An was dismissed from his position due to violation of laws. Yi Zong, the Prefect of Dingxiang, was appointed as the Right Interior Minister, replacing Ji An, and Wang Wenshu, the Prefect of Henei, was appointed as the Commandant of the Capital Guard.

    Before this, Ning Cheng held the post of Commandant at the Hangu Pass. People said, “One would rather encounter a nursing tiger, than face a raging Ning Cheng.” When Yi Zong became the Prefect of Nanyang, upon arriving at the Pass, Ning Cheng personally welcomed him, showing great respect. When Yi Zong reached the commandery, he put Ning’s family on trial and exterminated Ning Cheng‘s household. The people of Nanyang were terrified, all standing on one foot.

    Later, Yi Zong was transferred to be the Prefect of Dingxiang. Upon his arrival, he immediately took more than 200 people on various charges from the prison. Additionally, he arrested over 200 of relatives and friends who visited the prison, claiming they relieved shackles for prisoners on death row. On that day, more than 400 people were reported killed. This sent shockwaves through the commandery, and fear spread throughout the region.

    Around this time, Zhao Yu and Zhang Tang were known for their severity as the highest ranking Ministers. However, they emphasized legal governance in their administration. Yi Zong, on the other hand, solely focused on using oppressive methods to govern, particularly through punitive strikes like eagles on preys.

    Wang Wenshu, initially serving as the Commandant of Guangping, carefully selected around  a dozen bold and resolute officials from the commandery, using them as his henchmen. He overlooked their serious past offenses, using these crimes as leverage, and allowed them to  hunt thefts and criminals to their desire. As long as these individuals gratified his desires for more captives, they were not prosecuted, even if they had committed numerous crimes. If someone did not do his bidding, he would use their previous offenses against them, even wiping out their families. Due to his methods, the bandits and criminals from the borders of Qi and Zhao dared not approach Guangping. The reputation of Guangping became such a place that no one picks up lost articles in the street.

    Later, when Wang Wenshu was appointed as the Prefect of Henei, he arrived in September. He ordered the commandery to provide fifty privately owned horses as express couriers. He arrested numerous powerful and dishonest figures in the commandery, involving more than a thousand families implicated by association. He submitted memorials to the Emperor requesting punishment: the major offenders were executed together with their whole clans, while the minor ones were put to death, and their families’ assets were confiscated to compensate for the crimes. The edict of approval came down swiftly within two or three days, and the resulting blood flow extended for over ten li (approximately 5 kilometers), causing awe among the people of Henei for his memorial due to their rapid response. 

    By the end of December, the commandery fell silent, and people dared not travel at night. There were no thieves that dared to disturb the peace, and even in the fields, no dogs barked. For the few who managed to escape, they were pursued in neighboring commanderies and princedoms. When spring arrived, Wang Wenshu sighed and said, “Alas! If only the winter months were extended by one more month, I would have enough time for completing my initiative!”

    Upon hearing of Yi Zong, Wang Wenshu‘s actions, the Emperor considered them able administrators and promoted them to senior minister of 2000 picul salary.

    There was a man from Qi called Shaowong, known for his skills in dealing with spirits and ghosts, which attracted the Emperor’s attention. When the Emperor’s favored Madame Wang passed away, Shaowong used his methods to summon the deceased’s spirit, taking on the appearance of the deceased Madame. The Emperor glimpsed this from behind a curtain, watching this shadow play. 

    Shaowong was appointed as General Wencheng and received considerable rewards and honors, being treated with the courtesy reserved for a guest of the Emperor. General Wencheng also advised the Emperor to construct the Ganquan Palace, establishing chambers and halls within, painting images of various spirits and deities of Heaven, Earth, and the North Star, arranging offerings, and inviting celestial beings. After residing there for over a year, The magic of Shaowong‘s methods began to decline, and the spirits ceased to appear. 

    Shaowong fed a piece of silk with writing to a cow, then pretending ignorance, and said, “There’s something unusual in this cow’s belly.” When the cow was slaughtered, the silk was found, containing strange writings. The Emperor recognized the handwriting and interrogated the Shaowong, confirming that it was a forged artifact by him. Subsequently, General Wencheng was executed, but this episode was kept secret.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 152): Monopolizing Salt And Iron Production

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Dian Lake, Kunming, Yun’nan Province. Photo by Emitchan

    The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (120 B.C.)

    In the spring, a comet appeared in the eastern sky.

    In May, during the summer, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    During the rebellion of the Prince of Huainan, the Prince of Jiaodong, Liu Ji, had heard rumors of the matter and, sensing danger, secretly made preparations for defense. When government officials investigated the Huainan case, some testimonies implicated Prince Liu Ji. His mother, Madame Wang, the younger sister of the Empress Dowager, had a close relationship with the Emperor. Distressed by the circumstances, Liu Ji fell ill and passed away, daring not to leave a will regarding his heir.

    When the Emperor heard of his death, he was moved with compassion and appointed Liu Ji’s eldest son, Liu Xian, as the new Prince of Jiaodong. In addition, the Emperor enfeoffed Liu Ji’s younger son, Liu Qing, as the Prince of Liu’an, granting him the land that had once belonged to the Prince of Hengshan.

    In the autumn, the Xiongnu invaded the regions of Youbeiping and Dingxiang, each with several tens of thousands of cavalry. They killed and plundered over a thousand people.

    A severe flood struck the region east of Mount Xiao, causing widespread famine and scarcity among the populace. In response, the Emperor dispatched envoys to empty the granaries of various counties and commanderies, providing relief to the impoverished. However, the supplies were insufficient. The wealthy, officials, and notable individuals were encouraged to lend aid to the poor, with their names recorded on an honor roll to be presented to the court. Yet, even this was not enough to alleviate the suffering. As a result, over seven hundred thousand destitute individuals were relocated west of the passes and southward to regions around Shuofang and the Xinqinzhong area. These people were entirely dependent on the government for their clothing and sustenance, receiving assistance for several years. Officials were appointed to oversee their welfare, and their carriages moved along the road in a continuous procession. The expenses incurred in this relief effort amounted to billions, a sum beyond calculation.

    After Han acquired the territory of the Hunye King, incursions by the nomadic tribes into the Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun Commanderies significantly decreased. In response, an edict was issued to reduce the garrison troops in these three commanderies by half, thereby alleviating the burden of conscription across the empire.

    The Emperor then set his sights on pacifying Kunming. As Kunming was home to Dian Lake, which spanned approximately three hundred square lis(one li is half a kilometer), the Emperor ordered the construction of Kunming Pond to serve as a site for naval warfare exercises. 

    During this time, the laws grew more stringent, leading to the dismissal or banishment of many officials. Military drafts became more frequent, and commoners often managed to buy their way out of service by purchasing the rank of Fifth Grandee, which led to a shortage of conscripts. Those exempted from service through the chiliarch or Fifth Grandee ranks were summoned to serve as low-ranking officials. Those unwilling to accept these positions were required to donate horses. Officials who manipulated the laws were sentenced to penal labor at the Royal Shanglin Park, where they were tasked with reclaiming wasteland and digging the Kunming Pond.

    A wonder horse was obtained from the depths of the Wowa pond, an oasis in the far Northwest. The Emperor, having recently established a music bureau, commissioned Sima Xiangru and others to compose poetry and lyrical compositions to celebrate the horse. Li Yannian, an eunuch, was appointed as Commandant of Harmony, wearing the seal of 2000-picul ranking. The poems were crafted to harmonize with the eight musical tones and often contained language drawn from the “Erya” (a classical Chinese dictionary). Scholars, familiar only with one branch of Confucius classics, found the language in these compositions incomprehensible and had to gather experts in Five Classics and study them together to decipher their meaning.

    When the wonder horse was obtained, it was incorporated into a song. Ji An, observing this, remarked, “Whenever a king creates music, it should honor the ancestors above and educate the people below. Your Majesty has obtained a horse, and now you’re turning poems into songs. But will the ancestor kings and the common people understand the meaning of these songs?” The Emperor, though silent, was clearly annoyed by the remark.

    The Emperor constantly sought scholars and officials, seemingly never satisfied with their numbers. Yet, his nature was stern and severe. Even those courtiers who had once been trusted and favored, if they committed minor offenses or engaged in trivial deceit, were swiftly punished or executed without leniency.

    Ji An, ever the voice of caution, remonstrated, saying, “Your Majesty, you exhaustively seek out talents, yet before they can be fully utilized, you have them executed. By indiscriminately punishing those with limited capabilities, I fear the pool of talented individuals throughout the realm will dwindle. Who then, will assist Your Majesty in governing?”

    Ji An spoke with indignation, but the Emperor smiled and explained, “Why worry about a scarcity of talent? It’s merely a matter of not being able to recognize them. If one could, would there be a lack of capable individuals? Talent is like a tool; if one possesses it but refuses to make the most of it, it is as good as not having it. If they are not put to death, what other way would you have me deal with them?”

    Ji An responded, “Although I cannot convince Your Majesty with my words, I still believe this approach is inappropriate. I hope Your Majesty will consider this matter carefully and rectify it moving forward. Do not dismiss my reasoning simply because I am a foolish man.”

    The Emperor turned to the courtiers and, with a wry smile, said, “If Ji An claimed to be sycophantic, that would have not been the case. He claims he is a foolish man, and that is certainly true!”

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C.)

    In the winter, officials reported, “Local officials have overly expansive expenditures, while wealthy merchants and great traders engage in metal smelting and salt boiling, accumulating fortunes amounting to tens of thousands of gold, yet they do not assist in the urgent needs of the state. We request that a currency reform to mint new coins, to meet the demands of the treasury, and that actions be taken to suppress the extravagance and those who exploit the system for personal gain.”

    At this time, within the Imperial Park, there were white deer, and the Privy Treasury possessed a surplus of silver and tin. With these resources, they created leather currency from the hides of the white deer, each piece measuring a square foot, with edges embroidered in colorful patterns. These leather notes were valued at 400,000 copper coins. Princes, dukes, and other relatives of the imperial family were required to present jade discs on top of the leather notes as part of court tributes and ceremonial offerings.

    Additionally, three types of silver coins were minted: the largest, circular in shape, bore a dragon design and was valued at 3,000 copper coins; the next size, square, featured a horse design and was valued at 500 copper coins; and the smallest, oval-shaped, bore a turtle design and was valued at 300 copper coins. The government ordered the county treasuries to withdraw half-tael coins and replace them with three-zhu (1/24 tael) coins. Counterfeiting any of these metal coins was punishable by death. Yet, despite the severity of the penalty, countless cases of both officials and commoners engaging in the counterfeiting of silver coins were reported.

    To manage these economic reforms, Dongguo Xianyang and Kong Jin were appointed as treasurers in the Ministry of Agriculture (Revenue), overseeing salt and iron affairs. Sang Hongyang rose to prominence for his adeptness in accounting. Dongguo Xianyang was a major salt-boiling operator in Qi, while Kong Jin managed large-scale smelting operations in Nanyang. Both scaled their production, generating profits worth thousands of catties of gold. Sang Hongyang, the son of a merchant from Luoyang, exhibited remarkable mental arithmetic skills from a young age, and began serving as an attendant at the age of thirteen. The trio’s influence on economic affairs was paramount, and they meticulously analyzed financial matters, down to the smallest figures.

    An edict was issued forbidding the populace from privately forging iron tools or boiling salt, under penalty of fettering the left big toe and confiscating their tools. Furthermore, ministers demanded that all merchants and craftsmen declare their assets. One thousand coins were counted as one min (also known as Guan, or one string of coins equaling one tael of silver), and a tax of 120 coins was imposed on every 2,000 min in possession. Any individual owning a carriage or boat longer than five zhang (approximately 15 meters) was also subject to this levy. Failure to declare assets resulted in a year of military service on the borders and the forfeiture of the undeclared coins. Those who brought to light on undeclared assets received half of the seized coins. This policy was primarily proposed by Zhang Tang, the Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Zhang Tang presented memorials to the court daily, discussing national expenditures to the point of exhausting the Emperor; at times, the Emperor would forget to eat. The Chancellor, Li Cai, occupied his position but refrained from engaging in governance, leaving Zhang Tang to make all decisions regarding national matters. The populace, feeling unrest and discontent, largely blamed Zhang Tang for their hardships.

    Bu Shi of Henan repeatedly offered to donate his wealth to the county authorities to support the border defenses. The Emperor, curious about Bu Shi’s motivation, sent an envoy to inquire.

    The envoy asked, “Do you wish to become an official?”

    Bu Shi replied, “I am a humble farmer and shepherd. I am not accustomed to serving in official positions, nor do I desire such a role.”

    The envoy then asked, “Is there any injustice or grievance in your family that you wish to report?”

    Bu Shi responded, “I have no disputes with anyone. I assist those in need among my fellow townspeople and educate those who lack virtue. The people in my village all live in harmony with me. Why would I feel wronged by anyone? I have nothing to report.”

    The envoy, intrigued, asked, “If that is the case, what do you wish for?”

    Bu Shi answered, “If the Emperor is punishing the Xiongnu, I believe that wise men should sacrifice themselves at the borders, and the wealthy should contribute their resources. This way, the Xiongnu can be annihilated.”

    Impressed by his words, the Emperor appreciated Bu Shi’s character and wished to set him as an example for the people. Consequently, Bu Shi was summoned and appointed as a Gentleman of the Household, bestowed with the title of Left Chief Councilor (ranked 10 out of 20 orders of merit), granted ten hectares of land, and a public announcement was made to demonstrate the Emperor’s recognition. Shortly after, Bu Shi was further promoted to the Grand Tutor of the principality of Qi.

    In the spring, a meteor was seen in the northeast. During the summer, a long comet appeared in the northwest.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 146): Early Journey to The West

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 10 Scroll 18 (continued)

    Yuezhi Prince, Khalchayan

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (127 B.C. continued)

    The Prince of Yan, Liu Dingguo, violated the rites by engaging in illicit relations with the consort of his father, King Kang, and further transgressed the bonds of kinship by forcibly taking his brother’s wife as his concubine. He slew the Magistrate of Feiru County, a man named Yingren. Thereupon, Yingren’s brothers submitted a memorial, exposing the prince’s crimes. Zhufu Yan also took part in presenting the truth before the court.

    The court officials petitioned for the execution of Prince Liu Dingguo, and the Emperor gave his assent. Liu Dingguo thereupon took his own life. His princedom was abolished.

    Prince Li of Qi, Liu Cichang, committed incest with his elder sister, Princess Ji(her mother’s maiden name). Zhufu Yan sought to wed his daughter to Liu Cichang, but the Queen Dowager of Qi, mother of the prince, opposed the match. Thereafter, Zhufu Yan addressed the Emperor, saying, “The city of Linzi, capital of Qi, encompasses one hundred thousand households, and its market revenues exceed a thousand catties of gold. It is a land of wealth and population, exceeding even the capital of Chang’an in splendor. Only Your Majesty’s nearest kin and most favored sons ought to govern such a place. Now, the bond between Qi and the Throne grows faint, and moreover, I have heard of the Prince’s incestuous conduct with his sister. I entreat Your Majesty to rectify this impropriety.”

    The Emperor then appointed Zhufu Yan as the Prime Minister of Qi, commanding him to investigate and set affairs in order. Upon arriving in Qi, Zhufu Yan swiftly interrogated the prince’s consorts and palace attendants. Their confessions implicated Prince Liu Cichang. The prince, in fear, drank poison and died.

    In former days, Zhufu Yan had traveled throughout the principalities of Qi, Yan, and Zhao. When later elevated to high office, he successively dismantled the principalities of Yan and Qi. Alarmed, the Prince of Zhao, Liu Pengzu, memorialized the Throne, accusing Zhufu Yan of accepting bribes of gold from feudal lords in exchange for bestowing marquisates upon their sons.

    When the Emperor received word of the suicide of the Prince of Qi, he flew into a rage. He suspected that Zhufu Yan had coerced the prince into taking his own life, and thus had him arrested. Zhufu Yan admitted to accepting gold but denied that he had compelled the prince to die.

    Though the Emperor was reluctant to order his execution, Gongsun Hong remonstrated, saying, “Now that the Prince of Qi has perished and left no heir, his princedom shall be abolished and absorbed as a commandery under direct rule. Zhufu Yan stands at the root of these upheavals. If Your Majesty does not punish him, resentment will spread across the realm.”

    Thus, Zhufu Yan and his entire clan were executed.

    At that time, the Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhang Ou, was dismissed. The Emperor appointed Kong Zang, Marquis of Liao, to the post. Kong Zang declined, saying, “My family has, for generations, devoted itself to the pursuit of scholarship. I humbly request to be appointed Minister of Ceremonies, so that I may continue the scholarly path alongside my cousin Kong Anguo, who now serves as Palace Attendant. In this way, the teachings of the ancients may be preserved for posterity.”

    The Emperor granted his request, appointing him Minister of Ceremonies, and bestowed upon him honors and stipends equal to those of the Three Excellencies.

    The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (126 B.C.)

    In winter, the Chanyu of the Xiongnu, Junchen, passed away. His younger brother, the Left Luli King Yizhixie, declared himself Chanyu and led troops to attack the Crown Prince Yudan, defeating him. Yudan fled south and surrendered to the Han court.

    Gongsun Hong was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. At that time, the Emperor was planning to extend the realm into the southwestern frontiers, establishing Canghai Commandery in the east and constructing Shuofang Commandery in the north. Gongsun Hong repeatedly memorialized the throne, urging that the Middle Kingdom’s resources not be exhausted on far-flung and unprofitable ventures, and petitioned to abandon the plan. The Emperor sent Zhu Maichen and others to present ten arguments in favor of the Shuofang expansion. Gongsun Hong did not contest their points but replied: “I am a coarse and ignorant man from east of the Xiao Mountains, unfamiliar with such intricate calculations. However, I respectfully propose that the southwestern expansion and the Canghai Commandery be abandoned, so that efforts may focus on the construction of Shuofang.” The Emperor accepted his counsel.

    In January of spring, the establishment of Canghai Commandery was canceled.

    Gongsun Hong led a life of frugality, dressing in coarse garments and partaking of simple meals with only a single dish of meat. Ji An denounced him, “Gongsun Hong is one of the Three Excellencies and receives a high salary, yet he lives as a pauper—surely a performance to court praise.”

    The Emperor, upon inquiry, summoned Gongsun Hong, who replied, “It is as Ji An says. Among the Nine Ministers, there is none more familiar with me than Ji An. Today, he has exposed my pretense. For a high official to feign the life of a commoner is deceitful, a ploy to pursue reputation. Without Ji An’s loyalty and honesty, Your Majesty would not have known this.” The Emperor was moved by his frankness and held him in greater esteem.

    In March, a general amnesty was declared across the realm.

    On April 7, Crown Prince Yudan of the Xiongnu was granted the title of Marquis of She’an. He died within the same year.

    Previously, Xiongnu defectors recounted: “The Yuezhi people once dwelled between Dunhuang and the Qilian Mountains. They were strong, but were crushed by Modu Chanyu. Later, Laoshang Chanyu slew their king and fashioned his skull into a drinking cup. The Yuezhi survivors fled far to the west, harboring hatred yet lacking power to retaliate.”

    The Emperor desired to open relations with the Yuezhi and sought envoys. Attendant Cadet Zhang Qian of Hanzhong volunteered. Departing from Longxi, he entered the heart of Xiongnu lands but was captured and detained for over a decade. Eventually escaping, he reached Dayuan. The people of Dayuan, eager to trade with Han, received him with favor and provided guides and interpreters to accompany him to Kangju. From there, Zhang Qian arrived at Greater Yuezhi. A new king had just been enthroned, and their conquest of Daxia was complete. The land was rich and secure, and the people were content. They harbored no will to avenge the Xiongnu.

    Zhang Qian remained for over a year and did not make inroads with the King of Yuezhi, then resolved to return. Passing through the southern ranges and the land of the Qiang, he was again seized by the Xiongnu and imprisoned for another year. During a time of disorder caused by the power wrangling between Chanyu Yizhixie and Crown Prince Yudan, Zhang Qian escaped with a nomad slave named Tangyi Ganfu(a.k.a. Tangyi Fu). He had departed with over a hundred men; after thirteen years, only he and Tangyi Ganfu returned.

    The Emperor appointed Zhang Qian as Grandee of the Palace and Tangyi Ganfu as Ambassador-at-large.

    In summer, tens of thousands of Xiongnu horsemen raided the northern frontier, killing the Prefect of Dai, Gong, and capturing over a thousand people.

    On June 2, the Empress Dowager(Wang) passed away.

    In autumn, the government relinquished control of most southwestern territories, retaining only two counties—Nanyi and Yelang—and one commandant. Qianwei Commandery gradually consolidated its own defenses. The court shifted its focus to fortifying Shuofang.

    The Xiongnu again raided Yanmen, killing and capturing over a thousand.

    In the same year, Zhang Tang, Grandee of the Palace, was promoted to Minister of Justice. He was a cunning man, skilled in manipulation. Observing the Emperor’s enthusiasm for the classics, he feigned devotion to Confucianism and associated with Dong Zhongshu and Gongsun Hong.

    Zhang Tang appointed Ni Kuan of Qiansheng as transcriber to present legal cases, deciding difficult cases following ancient statutes and classic doctrines. Zhang Tang interpreted the law in accordance with the Emperor’s wishes: assigning harsh judges to cases where punishment was desired, and lenient ones where mercy was intended. Thus he won imperial favor.

    Zhang Tang, while rigid, vindictive, and sometimes biased in legal affairs, showed extraordinary attention to his former acquaintances’ descendants and paid visits to high officials in all seasons rain or shine. Though strict to a fault, his public image remained favorable.

    Ji An frequently criticized Zhang Tang, saying, “As one of the Nine Ministers, you fail to honor the virtues of past rulers, nor do you suppress the wickedness of men. You should bring peace to the state and lighten the prisons, yet you distort the statutes of Emperor Gaozu. These actions shall leave you with no descendants.”

    In debate, Ji An upheld principles but could not prevail against Zhang Tang’s legalist hair-splitting. Frustrated, he exclaimed, “It is said that clerks should not be made ministers—and now I understand why! If one governs as Zhang Tang does, men will stand one-legged and cast sidelong glances, and the world will be gripped by fear!”

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (125 B.C.)

    During winter, the Emperor made a trip to Ganquan Palace.

    In summer, the Xiongnu invaded three commanderies: Dai, Dingxiang, and Shangjun, each with thirty thousand cavalry. They killed and captured several thousand people.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 142): A Mind Reader

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 10 Scroll 18 (continued)

    Zibo, f.k.a. Zichuan the hometown of Gongsun Hong, Shandong Province

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’guang Era (130 B.C.)

    The Emperor appointed Zhang Tang as Grand Palace Grandee. Together with Zhao Yu, he codified statutes and ordinances, multiplying their intricacies. They enforced strict observance of official duties, and promulgated the Law of Misprision, whereby subjects were urged to denounce one another and overseers were bound to scrutinize their subordinates. From that time forth, the rule of law grew ever more exacting.

    In August, rice borers afflicted the fields.

    In that same year, persons among the officials and common folk who possessed knowledge of current statecraft or were versed in the teachings of the ancient sages were summoned to the capital. They were grouped according to their native counties, provisioned food along the way, while traveling with the provincial officers who reported statistics to the court.

    Gongsun Hong of Zichuan, in his memorial submitted during the official selection examination, wrote:

    “I have heard that in high antiquity, under the reigns of Emperor Yao and Shun, rank and reward were not esteemed, yet the people urged one another toward virtue. Punishments were not severe, yet transgressions were few. This was because the sovereigns were upright, and their virtue inspired trust among the people. But in the decline of later ages, high honors failed to encourage good conduct, and harsh laws could not restrain evil. This was because the ruler lacked righteousness, and the people no longer believed in him. Therefore, one cannot govern by rewards and punishments alone; the essential matter is that the people place their trust in the state.

    “The government, then, must employ the worthy in their proper stations, entrusting them with the management of affairs. Idle discourse must be silenced, lest it hinder execution. Superfluous production must be curtailed, that taxation may be eased. The people must not be robbed of their time or labor, that they may enrich themselves through their own efforts. Those of virtue must be raised up; the unworthy must be cast down, that authority may be honored. Those of merit must be rewarded; the idle and ineffectual dismissed, that rank may be justly ordered. If punishments fit the crime, corruption will cease; if rewards accord with service, ministers will be diligent. These eight measures form the foundation of good government.

    “The people are the root. When occupied with their tasks, they do not contend; when given proper guidance, they do not harbor resentment; when treated with ritual and propriety, they do not rebel; when cherished by their superiors, they respond with loyalty. These are the urgent concerns of statecraft. Rites and righteousness are the bonds that hold the people. When reward and punishment accord with these, the laws would not be transgressed.

    “I have also heard it said: ‘Like nature attracts; harmonious tones respond in kind.’ Thus, when the ruler above cultivates harmony and virtue, the people below dwell in concord. When the heart is harmonized, the vital energies are balanced; when the energies are balanced, the body is sound; when the body is sound, the voice is in tune; and when the voice is in tune, Heaven and Earth respond in accord. When yin and yang are in harmony, the winds and rains arrive in season, sweet dew descends, the five grains flourish, the six livestock prosper, fields yield in abundance, auspicious plants appear, the mountains remain verdant, and the marshes do not dry—such is the ultimate fruit of harmony.”

    At that time, more than a hundred men presented themselves for examination. The Minister of Ceremonies ranked Gongsun Hong’s memorial among the lower entries. Yet the Emperor, discerning its worth, raised it above all others, appointed Gongsun Hong as Erudite, and ordered him to await summons at the Golden Horse Gate.

    There was another man, Yuan Gu of Qi, over ninety years of age, who was likewise summoned to the capital as one of the Worthies. Renowned for his virtue and learning, he was held in esteem by many. Gongsun Hong regarded him only with a sidelong glance. Yuan Gu reproached him, saying, “Master Gongsun, one must speak the truth in accordance with the Confucian Way. To please the current populace is to stray from righteousness.”

    Many among the Confucians harbored resentment toward Yuan Gu and maligned him in secret. Thereafter, he withdrew from service, citing the infirmities of old age.

    In those years, the imperial court sought to open the mountain roads leading to the four commanderies of the southwest—Guanghan, Qianwei, Ba, and Shu. Provisions for the laborers were borne over thousands of li. For several years, the roads remained impassable; soldiers perished in great numbers from hunger, pestilence, and the miasmic climate. Moreover, the tribes of the southwestern barbarians rose in frequent rebellion, consuming the empire’s wealth with no gain in territory nor submission.

    The Emperor was disquieted and dispatched Gongsun Hong to investigate the matter. Upon his return, Gongsun Hong memorialized the court, reporting the misery of the southern marches and declaring that the tribes were of no benefit to the state. But the Emperor set aside his counsel and did not act upon it.

    In court deliberations, Gongsun Hong was ever measured in speech, laying forth the essential facts and leaving judgment to the Emperor. He refrained from contentious disputation and did not press his views. This comportment pleased the Emperor, who deemed him prudent in conduct, skilled in argument, well-versed in law and governance, and adept in citing the Classics of the Sage. Rejoicing in his comportment, the Emperor within the year appointed him Left Interior Minister.

    At court, Gongsun Hong never openly opposed the Emperor. He and Ji An often requested private audiences. Ji An would raise the matter, and Gongsun Hong would follow with further remarks. The Emperor found Gongsun Hong’s manner agreeable, often adopted his counsel, and favored him ever more. On several occasions, though he had earlier expressed a contrary view in council, Gongsun Hong would later amend his position to accord with the Emperor’s will.

    During one such session, Ji An rebuked Gongsun Hong before the assembled ministers, saying, “Men of Qi are known for their cunning ways. In our early consultations, you agreed with my proposal. Now, before His Majesty, you reverse your stands entirely. You are evasive and untrustworthy!”

    The Emperor turned to Gongsun Hong for a reply. Gongsun Hong bowed and said, “Those who know me well regard me as honest and loyal. Those who do not may hold doubts.” The Emperor accepted his words in good faith. Though there were those at court who spoke ill of him, the Emperor’s trust in Gongsun Hong only deepened.