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Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang 

Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)

After Peng Yue accepted his titles from the Empire of Han, Tian Heng of Qi, who had taken refuge under Peng Yue, feared for his life. He, along with 500 followers, fled to an island in the ocean. The emperor saw Tian Heng and his brothers as potential rebel threats, given their previous control over the Kingdom of Qi. He sent an envoy to offer amnesty to Tian Heng and his followers, summoning him to the capital.

Tian Heng thanked the envoy but declined the invitation, saying, “I boiled His Majesty’s envoy, Mr. Li Yiji, to death, whose brother is a general of Han. I am too afraid to answer His Majesty’s call. I prefer to defend this island as a commoner.”

When the envoy reported back, the emperor issued a decree to General Li Shang, commander of the capital security forces: “Tian Heng is coming. Anyone who dares harm Tian Heng or any of his followers will be executed along with their entire clan.” The emperor then sent the envoy back with his royal insignia and the decree, summoning Tian Heng again. He promised, “Tian Heng will be awarded the title of king at best, or marquis at worst, if he comes voluntarily. If he does not, an armed force will be sent to capture him.”

Tian Heng and two of his attendants traveled toward the capital, Luoyang, in a government vehicle. They stopped for the night at a lodge about thirty miles from the capital, in a town called Shixiang. Tian Heng insisted on staying overnight, telling the envoy, “I need to take a bath before I meet the emperor.” Then, speaking privately to his attendants, he said, “The King of Han and I were both kings in our own right. We both sat facing south and referred to ourselves as ‘we.’ Now, the King of Han is emperor, and Tian Heng is a fugitive. I must face north and serve as his subject. The humiliation is unbearable. Moreover, I boiled the brother of Li Shang alive, and now I am expected to serve the same lord alongside him. Even if Li Shang spares me out of respect for the emperor’s decree, don’t I feel guilt in my own heart? As for the emperor wanting to see me, he likely just wants to see what I look like. If you sever my head and rush it to him, my face won’t change much in thirty miles, and His Majesty will still see me.”

With that, Tian Heng slit his own throat. His attendants severed his head and, along with the envoy, rushed to present it to the emperor. Upon seeing it, the emperor was moved and said, “Ah! Though lowborn, Tian Heng and his three brothers each became Kings of Qi, one after another. Are they not remarkable men?” The emperor shed tears and appointed Tian Heng’s two attendants as commanders, assigning them two thousand soldiers to conduct a funeral with the rites of a king.

After the burial, the two attendants dug their own graves beside Tian Heng‘s tomb. They slit their throats and followed their lord in death. Upon hearing the news, the emperor was astonished and declared that all of Tian Heng‘s attendants were honorable and worthy men. He sent the emissary back to the island to summon Tian Heng’s five hundred remaining followers. However, upon learning of Tian Heng’s death, all of his followers committed suicide en masse.

Ji Bu, a native of the Kingdom of Chu, had served as a general under Xiang Ji. Over the course of his career, he had cornered the emperor several times, causing him significant distress. After Xiang Ji‘s downfall, the emperor placed a bounty of a thousand ounces of gold on Ji Bu’s head, declaring that anyone harboring him would face the extermination of their entire family.

To escape this fate, Ji Bu shaved his head, donned an iron neck collar, and sold himself into slavery to a nobleman named Zhu Jia, who knowingly purchased him despite recognizing who he was. Zhu Jia hid Ji Bu in his country estate and traveled to Luoyang, where he sought the assistance of Duke Teng, Xiahou Ying. Zhu Jia argued, “What crime has Ji Bu committed? He was simply loyal to his lord and did his duty. Are you going to execute every subject of Xiang Yu? His Majesty has just unified the country—how magnanimous would it be to settle old grudges against a single man? Ji Bu is talented, and if pushed too far, he may flee north to join the nomads or south to join the Yue tribes. Forcing a warrior into the arms of your enemies out of personal resentment would be as senseless as driving Wu Zixu away, who led troops of Wu back, dug up the tomb of King Jingping of Chu and whipped his corpse. Why not speak to His Majesty on Ji Bu’s behalf?”

Duke Teng relayed Zhu Jia’s words to the emperor when the opportunity arose. The emperor, moved by the argument, granted Ji Bu a pardon and appointed him as a guard of the royal court. Zhu Jia, having secured Ji Bu‘s safety, would never see him again.

Ji Bu’s half-brother, Ding Gong, also served as a general under Xiang Yu. He had cornered the emperor west of Pengcheng, and they were about to engage in a duel when the emperor made eye contact and desperately pleaded, “Why should two good men fight each other?” Moved by this, Ding Gong withdrew with his soldiers back to camp. After Xiang Yu‘s defeat, Ding Gong requested an audience with the emperor. However, the emperor publicly humiliated him, having him dragged through the camp, declaring, “Ding Gong did not show loyalty while serving King Xiang Yu. It was officers like him who caused King Xiang Yu’s failure to conquer the country.” He then ordered Ding Gong’s execution, warning, “New officers must not follow Ding Gong’s example.”

Sima Guang’s commentary: Emperor Gaozu had been recruiting talent and accepting many deserters and defectors since he rose from Feng town in Pei County. Why did he execute only Ding Gong for disloyalty after becoming the emperor? Because conquest and preservation are different situations. When multiple strongmen were competing for supremacy, no one knew who would prevail, so it was wise to gather anyone who came your way. Once he became the supreme sovereign, however, everyone in the country became his subject. If people are not educated in propriety and righteousness, and if they all pursue their own interests, could the country remain peaceful? That is why the emperor judged Ding Gong based on higher principles. He made it clear to the people that disloyalty was unacceptable. Even though Ding Gong had done him a personal favor by sparing his life, it was not a righteous act. The emperor considered the long-term impact: by executing one man to warn millions, didn’t he think profoundly? It is not difficult to see his descendants ruled the country for four hundred years.

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang 

Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11

The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)

The King of Han returned from the front and stopped by the city of Dingtao. He rushed into the camp of the King of Qi, Han Xin, and forcefully stripped him of his commander’s seal.

The King of Linjiang, Gong Wei, refused to surrender, so the King of Han sent General Lu Wan and Liu Jia to attack his kingdom, eventually capturing him.

In January of that spring, Han Xin’s title was changed from King of Qi to King of Chu. He was given reign of the area to the north Huai river, with his capital in the city of Xia’pi. Marquis Jiancheng and the prime minister of Wei, Peng Yue, was granted the title of King of Liang. He ruled mostly over the former kingdom of Wei, with his capital in the city of Dingtao.

The King of Han issued an edict: “The incessant wars have lasted for eight years, and the soldiers have had no respite. The people are also suffering and exhausted. Now that the war is over, all convicts, except those sentenced to death, are granted amnesty.”

The kings all submitted requests to honor the King of Han as the emperor. On February 3, the King of Han was inaugurated as the emperor on the north bank of the Si River. The Queen of Han became the empress, and their eldest son was made the crown prince. The emperor’s late mother was posthumously honored with the title Lady Zhaoling.

The emperor issued a proclamation: “The former King of Hengshan, Wu Rui, led troops from Baiyue to join the coalition against the brutal Qin Empire. He made great contributions, and the allied forces honored him as a king. Xiang Yu seized his land and insultingly called him ‘Lord of Aliens.’ We now restore his title as King of Changsha.”

Another proclamation followed: “The former King of Yue, Wuzhu, maintained the ancestral shrine of the Yue people for generations. The Qin Empire invaded their land and deprived their state deity of sacrifices. When the allied forces fought against Qin, Wuzhu led troops from Minzhong to help overthrow Qin rule. Xiang Yu abolished the Qin government but did not establish a new one. We now honor Wuzhu as King of Minyue, ruling the land of Minzhong.”

The emperor moved the capital westward to the city of Luoyang. 

In May, during the summer, a massive disarmament took place, and a large number of soldiers returned home.

The emperor’s decree stated: “During the war, many people fled to mountains and lakes, living in hiding and were not properly registered. Now that the country is at peace, you are ordered to return to the county where you lived before the war. Your previous ranks and properties, as recorded in the registry, will be restored to you. Government officials are instructed to educate discharged servicemen with laws and reason, avoiding corporal punishment or insults. Veterans of the seventh rank and above will receive government stipends for food, while veterans below the seventh rank and their households will be exempted from taxes and mandatory public service.”

The emperor hosted a banquet with wine in the south palace of Luoyang. He began a conversation with the guests, saying, “Gentlemen and generals, speak freely and do not avoid the question! Why do I rule the country, and why did Mr. Xiang lose it?”

Gao Qi and Wang Ling responded, “When Your Majesty sent someone to seize a city or conquer land, the one who succeeded was rewarded with that city or land. Your Majesty shared the spoils of victory with everyone. Xiang Yu did the opposite—he was jealous of those who achieved great things and suspicious of those with exceptional talents. That’s why he lost the country.”

The emperor replied, “You have identified one reason, but you missed a more important one. In the art of strategizing from the headquarters and predicting the outcome of battles fought thousands of miles away, I was not as skilled as Zifang (Zhang Liang’s courtesy name). In the task of managing government affairs and maintaining a supply chain to support the war, I was not as capable as Xiao He. In commanding a million soldiers, winning every battle, and breaking through every stronghold, I was not as talented as Han Xin. These three are extraordinary masters, and I employed them—that’s why I won the realm. Xiang Yu had Fan Zeng, but he did not heed his advice, which is why I was able to entrap him.”

All the attendants were captivated by his remark.

Han Xin returned to his homeland of Chu as king. He summoned the old laundry woman who had once helped him and rewarded her with a thousand caddies of gold. He also called for the young man who had humiliated him by forcing him to crawl between his legs and promoted him to the position of captain of the court guards. Addressing his officers, Han Xin said, “This man has guts. I could have killed him when he insulted me, but there was no point in taking the life of someone insignificant at the time, so I endured it.”

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10 (continued)

The 4th year of the Emperor Gaozu(203 B.C. continued)

Scholar Kuai Che, seeing that Han Xin held the key to the outcome of the war, approached Han Xin with an elaborate analogy disguised as physiognomy: “When I observe your face, I see the fortune of a marquis, which is insecure and perilous. But when I look at your back, I see a great destiny indescribable.”

Han Xin, puzzled, asked, “What are you talking about?”

Kuai Che explained, “At the outset of the rebellion the goal was to overthrow the Qin Empire. Now, the conflict between Chu and Han has devastated the central region of the country. The dead litter the land, and the bones of fathers and sons lie exposed in the fields. The people of Chu, from their uprising in Pengcheng, battled as they pursued the retreating enemy, took advantage of their victories to sweep forward, and shook the world with their might. But now, the Chu army is stuck between Jing County and Suocheng town, pressing against the western mountains but unable to advance for three years. While the King of Han, commanding hundreds of thousands, holds the defensive positions of Gong County and the Luo River, protected by natural barriers of mountains and rivers, fights multiple battles daily but gains not an inch of land, retreating to the north barely saving themself. The courageous and the shrewd are caught in a stalemate.”

“The common people are exhausted and resentful, with no one to rely on. In my estimation, under such circumstances, it is not possible for anyone but a truly wise and holy person to bring an end to the calamities of the world. The fate of both rulers now hangs on your decision: if you support Han, Han will win; if you side with Chu, Chu will win. If you heed my advice, it would be best to ensure mutual benefit and preserve both. By dividing the world into three, standing like the legs of a tripod, no one will dare to make the first move. With your wisdom and virtue, the armed forces under your command, the stronghold of Qi, and alliances with Zhao and Yan, you could advance through the vulnerable regions and control the rear, responding to the people’s desires by marching west to demand justice for them.  The entire world would rally behind you—who would dare not listen?”

“By weakening the strong and strengthening the weak, you could establish vassal lords. Once the vassal lords are established, the world will submit, and Qi will receive their loyalty. Given Qi‘s historical influence over the lands of Jiao River and Si River, if you humbly bow and yield to other lords, the kings of the world will follow suit and come to pay tribute to Qi.”

“Remember the saying: ‘Heaven offers but is not taken, one will instead incur its blame; the time arrives but action is not taken, one will instead suffer its misfortune.’ The time has come, and if you don’t act now, you might regret it forever.”

However, Han Xin remained unmoved and replied, “The King of Han has treated me with immense kindness. How could I betray him for my own gain?”

Kuai Che pressed further: “Look at the King of Changshan (Zhang Er) and Lord Cheng’an (Chen Yu). They were once close friends, but after the incident involving Zhan Yan and Chen Ze, they fell out. In the end, Zhang Er killed Chen Yu near the Zhi River and severed his head. Their friendship was once the best in the world, yet they became enemies. Why? Human nature and ambition are unpredictable. You may think your loyalty to the King of Han will protect you, but it might not.”

“Consider the case of Wen Zhong, the minister who saved the Kingdom of Yue and helped King Gou Jian become a hegemon. After his achievements, Wen Zhong was put to death. As the saying goes, ‘The hunting dogs are cooked when all the prey are caught.’ In terms of trust, your relationship with the King of Han is not as deep as the friendship between Zhang Er and Chen Yu. In terms of loyalty, you are not as close to the King of Han as Wen Zhong was to King Gou Jian. These are clear signs.”

“I urge you to think carefully. There’s another saying: ‘A man’s power becomes dangerous when it overshadows his lord’s, and his merits bring no reward when they surpass all others.’ You are now so powerful that you make your lord feel small, and your achievements are unmatched. The people of Chu won’t trust you if you go to Chu, and the people of Han will fear you if you stay with Han. With so much at stake, where will you go?”

Han Xin thanked Kuai Che, “Professor, there’s no need to say more. I will think about it.”

Kuai Che returned a few days later and said: “Listening to advice shows you what comes next; making a plan tells you when to act. It’s rare for someone who refuses to listen or plan to last long. Understanding leads to swift decisions; hesitation brings mishaps. Being caught up in minor pros and cons while missing the bigger picture, or delaying action when you already foresee the future, are common pitfalls. Execution is difficult and prone to failure; opportunities are rare and easily missed. A chance is here, it won’t come again!”

Han Xin was still indecisive. He couldn’t bear to turn his back on the King of Han. He believed his merits were so significant that the king would not take the Kingdom of Qi from him. Ultimately, he ignored Kuai Che‘s advice. After that, Kuai Che left Han Xin. He pretended to be insane and made a living as a shaman.

In July of that autumn, the King of Han granted the title of King of Huainan to Ying Bu.

In August, the northern tribe of Beihe and the Kingdom of Yan sent cavalry to support the King of Han.

The King of Han issued an edict requiring local officials to inter the remains of fallen soldiers and ensure their coffins return home. This edict received widespread accolades throughout the country.

The King of Han promoted Zhou Chang from his position as court security chief to the role of grand master of censorate. Zhou Chang was a cousin of Zhou Ke.

Xiang Yu sensed his isolation. His troops were facing food shortages and attacks from Han Xin, and he was deeply concerned. The King of Han sent his envoy, Hou Gong, to Xiang Yu, requesting the return of his father. Xiang Yu agreed to a treaty with the King of Han, dividing the country into two: the land west of Honggou (Great Gulch, a canal dug in the Qin dynasty) would belong to the Kingdom of Han, while the land to the east would belong to the Kingdom of Chu.In September, Xiang Yu sent back King of Han‘s father and Queen Lü. He withdrew his troops and retreated to the east. The King of Han was preparing to return to the west when Zhang Liang and Chen Ping advised against it: “The Kingdom of Han controls more than half of the country and has the support of other monarchs. The Chu troops are exhausted and starving. This is a rare opportunity. If we don’t strike now, it will be like feeding a tiger back to full strength and leaving a threat for the future.” The King of Han followed their advice.

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10 (continued)

The 4th year of the Emperor Gaozu(203 B.C. continued)

Han Xin had already taken control of the capital of Qi and was pursuing the King of Qi to the east. In response, Xiang Yu sent his general, Long Ju, with an army reportedly two hundred thousand strong, to aid the King of Qi. They joined forces in Gaomi County.

An advisor approached Long Ju, cautioning him: “The Han soldiers have come a long way and are riding the wave of victory. It would be unwise to confront them head-on. The Qi and Chu soldiers are fighting on their homeland, and they are more likely to falter and flee. It would be better to hold them back from behind defensive walls. Then, we can ask the King of Qi to send his trusted envoys to rally the cities of Qi that have fallen to the Kingdom of Han. Once these cities learn that the King of Qi is still alive and that Chu is coming to help, they will revolt against Han. The Han army is far from home, without local support, and once the people rise up against them, they will have no food supply. They will be forced to surrender without a fight.”

Long Ju, however, dismissed this advice: “I’ve known Han Xin for a long time. He’s weak. He couldn’t even make a living on his own and had to rely on an old laundry woman for food. He was publicly humiliated, crawling between a man’s legs, showing no courage beyond a common person. Don’t worry about him. What glory would there be for me in saving the Kingdom of Qi if we win without fighting? If I defeat them on the battlefield, I might be rewarded with half the Kingdom of Qi.”

In November, the combined forces of Qi and Chu pressed against the Wei River, while the Han army held the opposite side. Han Xin ordered his soldiers to prepare ten thousand sandbags and secretly dammed the river upstream during the night. The next morning, they crossed the riverbed and attacked Long Ju‘s troops. Feigning a collapse, Han Xin‘s forces retreated. As expected, Long Ju, excited, exclaimed, “I knew Han Xin was a coward!” and led his troops in pursuit.

At this moment, Han Xin signaled his soldiers to break the dam upstream. A flash flood swept down as half of Long Ju‘s army was still crossing the river. Han Xin‘s troops launched a powerful attack on the portion of Long Ju‘s forces left on the west bank, killing Long Ju. The soldiers stranded on the east bank collapsed after losing their commander, and the King of Qi, Tian Guang, fled.

Han Xin pursued Tian Guang northward to Chengyang and captured him. Meanwhile, General Guan Ying of Han tracked down Tian Guang‘s minister of charge d’affaires, and imprisoned him before advancing to occupy Boyang. When Tian Heng, hearing that the King of Qi was captured, declared himself king and launched a counterattack against General Guan Ying, his forces were defeated in Ying city. Tian Heng fled to the kingdom of Wei and placed himself under General Peng Yue‘s command.

General Guan Ying then moved on to defeat Tian Xi, a Qi general, at Qiansheng, while General Cao Shen attacked and killed another Qi general, Tian Ji, at Jiaodong. With these victories, the entire territory of Qi came under Han control.

In recognition of his services, the King of Han appointed Zhang Er as the King of Zhao.

The King of Han fully recovered from his wound and re-entered the Hangu Pass. He arrived at Yueyang, where he publicly displayed the decapitated head of Sima Xin, the King of Sai. After staying in Yueyang for four days, he returned to his army headquarters in Guangwu.

Around this time, Han Xin sent a messenger with a letter to the King of Han, stating: “The kingdom of Qi is a dishonest and unstable regime. It shares a border with the kingdom of Chu to the south. I request to be appointed as the Deputy King of Qi to govern it.” Upon reading the letter, the King of Han flew into a rage and began swearing: “I am trapped in this quagmire, pleading for you to rescue us day and night, and now you want to crown yourself king?”

Zhang Liang and Chen Ping discreetly kicked the King’s feet and whispered to him: “The Kingdom of Han is in a precarious position. We are not in a position to refuse Han Xin’s request. It would be wiser to grant him the title. If you treat him well, he will defend his territory. Otherwise, he might revolt.” The King of Han, realizing his outburst was unwise, tempered his response, though he continued ranting: “A big man conquers a kingdom to become a real king—what is this nonsense about being a deputy king?”

In February of the following spring, the King of Han sent Zhang Liang to meet Han Xin, carrying the seal of the King of Qi, officially granting him the title. Han Xin was then called to mobilize his troops to attack the army of Chu.

King Xiang Yu, alarmed by the death of Long Ju, sent a man from Xuyi, Wu She, to persuade Han Xin to turn against the King of Han. Wu She approached Han Xin with a message: “The Qin Empire made life miserable for everyone, which is why we united to overthrow it. Now that Qin is gone, we should divide the land according to our contributions and claim our rightful titles as kings, allowing the soldiers to rest. But the King of Han continues his eastern campaign, seizing land from others. He has already taken control of the Three Kingdoms of Qin, and yet, he emerged from the Hangu Pass and rallied other states to attack Chu. His ambition will not stop until he devours the entire country. This is how greedy he is—he cannot be trusted.”

“Several times his life was in King Xiang Yu‘s hands, and each time, Xiang Yu spared him. Yet, as soon as he escaped, he broke his word and attacked King Xiang Yu. This shows how devious he is. You think your alliance with the King of Han is strong, and you fight for him with all your might, but in the end, your honor will be his prisoner. The only reason you enjoy your current freedom is because King Xiang Yu still stands. Your honor holds the balance between these two kings. If your honor turns right and side with Han, the King of Han will win. If your honor turns left and side with Xiang Yu, he will win. But if Xiang Yu is defeated, you will be the next to fall. You had a prior relationship with Xiang Yu. Why not make peace with him and turn your back on the King of Han? The three of you could divide the land and rule as kings. If you miss this chance and follow the King of Han into battle against Xiang Yu, is that what a wise man does?”

Han Xin listened to Wu She and responded apologetically: “I once served King Xiang Yu. The highest position I held was captain of his personal guard, and at best, I was a mere sentinel. No one listened to me, and none of my strategies were adopted. That’s why I left Chu and joined Han. The King of Han appointed me Grand Marshal and gave me command over tens of thousands of soldiers. He took off his own clothes to clothe me and shared his food with me. He listened to my plans and approved them. That is how I have achieved what I have today. It would be a disgrace to betray someone who has treated me so well. My loyalty will not waver until my death. Please convey my apologies to King Xiang Yu!”

Wu She departed disheartened. 

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10 (continued)

The 3rd year of the Emperor Gaozu (204 B.C. continued)

The King of Han managed to sneak out through the Yu Gate of Chenggao with only Duke of Teng(Xiahou Ying) on a wagon. They headed north and crossed the Yellow River, eventually staying at an inn in a town called Small Xiuwu. In the early morning, they infiltrated the Zhao army’s camp, posing as Han envoys. Zhang Er and Han Xin were still asleep when the King of Han entered their sleeping quarters and seized their commander seals and tallies. He then used the tallies to summon all the officers for a meeting and announced a reorganization of command.

When Zhang Er and Han Xin woke up, they were stunned to hear of the King of Han’s presence. The King of Han took command of the army from them, sending Zhang Er to travel throughout Zhao to strengthen its defenses. He promoted Han Xin to Chancellor of Zhao and tasked him with leading a campaign against the Kingdom of Qi, using the forces Zhang Er had left behind. Before long, the other Han generals who had fled Chenggao reunited with the King of Han. Meanwhile, the Chu army captured Chenggao and advanced further west, but the King of Han dispatched troops to hold Gong County and halt their progress.

In July, during the autumn, a meteor was sighted near Uranus. 

The King of Linjiang, Gong Ao, passed away, and his son Gong Wei succeeded him.

The King of Han, now in control of the troops previously commanded by Han Xin, regained his confidence and morale. He led his forces to the bank of the Yellow River, setting up camp at the town of Small Xiuwu with plans to move south and engage the Chu army. However, Zheng Zhong, one of his advisers, advised him to focus on building fortifications and digging trenches rather than engaging in direct combat. The King of Han followed this counsel. He ordered Generals Liu Jia and Lu Wan to lead twenty thousand soldiers and several hundred cavalry across the Yellow River at Baima crossing. They entered Chu territory to support General Peng Yue in burning the Chu army’s grain storage and disrupting Xiang Yu‘s supply lines. When the Chu forces retaliated, Liu Jia held firm behind the defensive walls, refusing to engage in open battle. He coordinated with General Peng Yue’s forces, ensuring mutual protection.

General Peng Yue continued his campaign, conquering more of the Kingdom of Wei, capturing seventeen cities, including Suiyang and Waihuang. In September, Xiang Yu instructed his Grand Marshal, Cao Jiu, saying: “Defend the city of Chenggao carefully. Be cautious, and do not engage in battle with the King of Han if he challenges you. Preventing them from advancing further east will be sufficient. I will resolve the issues in the Kingdom of Wei and return in fifteen days.” Xiang Yu then led his troops eastward, recapturing the cities of Chenliu, Waihuang, and Suiyang.

The King of Han was considering abandoning the territory east of Chenggao and focusing on defending against Chu’s aggression along the line between Gong County and Luoyang. Li Yiji, however, offered him a different perspective: “I’ve heard it said, ‘He who knows the mandate of Heaven will be enthroned as a king.’ For a king, the people are his Heaven. For the people, food is their Heaven. Ao’cang is the nation’s hub for food transportation, and I have learned that a large stockpile of grain remains stored underground there. After the Chu army seized Xingyang, they did not guard Ao’cang steadfastly, moving east and leaving only a small detachment to defend Chenggao. This presents a golden opportunity for the Kingdom of Han. I believe it would be a grave mistake to hold back and rob ourselves of the chance to exploit Chu‘s error.”

“Currently, two dominant forces cannot coexist. The ongoing seesaw conflict between Chu and Han has left the country in turmoil. Farmers have abandoned their fields, and women have stopped working their looms. I urge Your Majesty to move swiftly to retake Xingyang. By doing so, we can access the grain stores in Ao’cang, secure the strategic pass at Chenggao, control the roads through Taihang mountains, hold up Feihu Pass and defend Baima crossing. If we demonstrate that we have secured a stronger position, the people will know whom to side with.”

The King of Han took Li Yiji‘s advice and began planning actions to reclaim Ao’cang.

Li Yiji also advised the King of Han: “The Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao have been settled, but the Kingdom of Qi remains unresolved. The Tian clan is powerful, backed by the ocean and Mount Tai, with the Yellow River and Ji River as natural barriers. They neighbor Chu to the south and are unreliable. Conquering Qi would take months, even with tens of thousands of troops. I volunteer to deliver Your Majesty’s edict to the King of Qi and persuade him to become your vassal in the east.”

The King of Han approved the plan and sent Li Yiji as an ambassador to Qi. When Li Yiji met with the King of Qi, he asked, “Do you know who will take over the country?” The King of Qi responded, “I don’t know. Who will it be?” Li Yiji answered, “The Kingdom of Han.”

The King of Qi asked, “Why do you say that, Professor?” 

Li Yiji explained: “The King of Han was the first to enter Xianyang. Xiang Yu broke his agreement, making him only the King of Hanzhong. Xiang Yu then drove the Honorary Emperor into exile and later killed him. Upon hearing this, the King of Han rallied his troops from Shu and Hanzhong, conquered the Three Kingdoms of Qin, and came out of the Hangu Pass to look into what happened to Honorary Emperor. He called on all forces in the country to take action, reinstated the descendants of former monarchs, rewarded generals who surrendered by making them marquises, and distributed land to those who helped his cause. He shared the benefits widely, attracting the best and brightest from across the country to his side.”

“In contrast, Xiang Yu has earned a bad reputation for breaching agreements and murdering the Honorary Emperor. He keeps no record of those who have achieved great feats for him, shows no forgiveness to those who have erred, offers no rewards to those who have won battles for him, and grants no fiefdoms to those who have conquered cities for him. No significant promotions come to those outside the Xiang family. Talented individuals across the country resent him, refuse to work for him, and are abandoning him in droves. Just from these facts, we can infer that the country will belong to the King of Han.”

“The King of Han mobilized the commanderies of Shu and Hanzhong and launched a campaign to retake the Three Kingdoms of Qin. He crossed the Yellow River from the west and conquered the Kingdom of Wei in the north. He passed through Jingjing Pass and killed Lord Cheng’an. These victories are surely blessed by Heaven, as they are beyond human effort alone. Now, he possesses the grain of Ao’cang, controls the strategic pass at Chenggao, guards Baima Crossing, holds the roads along the slopes of Taihang Mountains and seizes Feihu Pass.”

“The last kingdom to join his campaign will be the first to fall. Your Majesty must submit to the King of Han quickly if the Kingdom of Qi is to survive. Otherwise, your kingdom is in grave danger as we speak.”

The King of Qi, aware that Han Xin was advancing eastward to invade his kingdom, ordered Generals Hua Wushang and Tian Jie to lead a large force to Lixia county to counter Han Xin’s advance. However, after taking Li Yiji‘s lobbying to heart, he sent an envoy to the King of Han, seeking a truce. He ordered the troops at Lixia to stand down and began spending his days wining and dining with Li Yiji.

Meanwhile, Han Xin led his army eastward, halting just before crossing the Pingyuan Crossing. Upon hearing that Li Yiji had successfully persuaded the King of Qi to submit to the authority of the King of Han, Han Xin was about to call off the campaign. However, a contrarian, Kuai Che intervened, arguing, “General Han’s raid on the Kingdom of Qi was authorized by an edict from the King of Han. Even though the King of Han sent an ambassador to Qi, has he issued a new edict to stop your campaign? Why are you hesitating? Li Yiji is merely a scholar. With his words, he convinced seventy or so cities in Qi to yield to the Kingdom of Han, just by leaning on a wagon rail and speaking with his four-inch tongue. Your honor commands tens of thousands of soldiers. You conquered fifty cities in Zhao after more than a year of hard fighting. You’ve served as grand marshal for several years—would it be acceptable if your merits paled in comparison to those of a petty Confucianist?”

Convinced by Kuai Che’s reasoning, Han Xin resumed the campaign and crossed the Yellow River.

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10

The 3rd year of the Emperor Gaozu (204 B.C. continued)

The King of Han asked Chen Ping, “The country is in turmoil—when will this chaos end?” Chen Ping replied, “There are only a few of Xiang Yu’s subordinates who speak their minds, such as Uncle Fan Zeng, Zhongli Mo, Long Ju, and Zhou Yin. If Your Majesty spends tens of thousands of kilograms of gold to sow discord between Xiang Yu and his lieutenants, he will lose trust in them. Xiang Yu is naturally distrustful and easily swayed by disinformation. He will likely kill his closest aides due to internal strife, and then the kingdom of Chu will fall when Han’s forces strike.” The King of Han liked the idea: “A good plan!” He gave Chen Ping twenty thousand kilograms of gold with no string attached.

Chen Ping used the gold to bribe and spread disinformation among the officers of Chu. He circulated rumors, saying, “Generals like Zhongli Mo have achieved great feats for Xiang Yu, yet they have not been rewarded with fiefs or the title of kings. They are conspiring with Han to destroy the Xiang family and divide the land.” When Xiang Yu heard the murmurs, he stopped trusting Zhongli Mo and the other generals.

In April of that summer, King Xiang Yu encircled the King of Han at Xingyang. The King of Han, panicked, pleaded for a truce, offering to take only the land west of Xingyang. Fan Zeng urged Xiang Yu to seize the city without delay. Meanwhile, the King of Han, wary of Fan Zeng‘s influence, devised a plan with Chen Ping. When Chu’s envoy arrived for negotiations, Chen Ping arranged an elaborate banquet, serving beef, mutton, and pork together—a sign of utmost respect. Upon meeting the envoy, Chen Ping feigned surprise: “I thought you were Uncle Fan’s envoy, but you’re actually sent by King Xiang Yu, aren’t you?” He then had the extravagant meal removed, replacing it with lower-quality food.

When the envoy reported back, Xiang Yu began to mistrust Fan Zeng. Despite Fan Zeng’s repeated urges to take Xingyang immediately, Xiang Yu ignored him. Sensing the king’s suspicion, Fan Zeng, furious, said, “The fate of the country has been decided. Your Majesty can handle it alone. Please let me retire.” On his journey home, an abscess on his back burst, and he died of infection before reaching Pengcheng.

In May, General Ji Xin approached the King of Han and said, “The situation is urgent. I beg your permission to pose as Your Majesty so that you can escape the city in disguise.” Chen Ping then sent two thousand women out of the east gate under cover of night. The Chu army attacked them from all sides. Ji Xin, seated in the King of Han’s wagon with a yellow silk canopy and a yak tail banner on the left, drove out of the gate, announcing, “The city has run out of food. The King of Han surrenders to Chu.” The Chu soldiers cheered and rushed to the east gate to witness the event.

Meanwhile, the real King of Han, accompanied by a small cavalry force, broke out of the west gate, leaving Zhou Ke, Wei Bao, and Cong Gong to defend Xingyang. When Xiang Yu captured Ji Xin, he asked, “Where is the King of Han?” Ji Xin replied, “He has already escaped.” Xiang Yu then immolated Ji Xin.

Afterward, Zhou Ke and Cong Gong conferred, saying, “Wei Bao, the former king of West Wei, has betrayed us before. It will be difficult to defend the city with him around.” They proceeded to kill Wei Bao.

The King of Han retreated from Xingyang and moved into Chenggao before entering the Hangu Pass. He reorganized his scattered troops, intending to fight back to the east. One of his advisers, Yuan Sheng, advised against this: “The Han and Chu armies have been locked in a stalemate at Xingyang for years, and the Han forces have often been at a disadvantage. I suggest Your Majesty heads south through Wu Pass. Xiang Yu will likely move south to counter you, but you should hold the fortifications there without engaging in battle. This will give the war-torn regions of Xingyang and Chenggao time to recover, and Han Xin will have time to secure the territory he gained from the Kingdom of Zhao north of the Yellow River. We can then coordinate with the Kingdoms of Yan and Qi. Once the Chu army is forced to defend multiple fronts, their forces will be stretched thin, and the Han army—rested and ready—will defeat them in the next battle.”

The King of Han accepted Yuan Sheng’s strategy. He led his troops out of Wu Pass and stationed them in the counties of Yuan and She, where he and Ying Bu recruited additional soldiers. When Xiang Yu learned that the King of Han was in Yuan County, he led his army south as predicted. The King of Han, however, held his position in the citadel, refusing to engage Xiang Yu in battle.

When the King of Han fled west from Pengcheng, General Peng Yue lost control of the cities he had conquered. He repositioned his forces north of the Yellow River and waged guerrilla warfare, disrupting the Chu army’s supply lines. In May, Peng Yue crossed the Sui River and engaged the Chu forces, led by Generals Xiang Sheng and Xue Gong, at the city of Xiapi. Peng Yue defeated the Chu army, killing General Xue Gong. In response, Xiang Yu moved east to confront Peng Yue, leaving his general Zhong Gong to defend Chenggao. Seizing the opportunity, the King of Han led his forces north, defeated Zhong Gong, and broke into the city, eventually camping his troops at Chenggao.

In June, Xiang Yu drove out Peng Yue and turned back westward to break into the city of Xingyang after learning that the King of Han had returned to Chenggao. He captured Zhou Ke and offered him a position: “You will be a top general and awarded a fief with thirty thousand households if you serve me.” Zhou Ke retorted, “You will be captured soon if you don’t surrender to the Kingdom of Han now. You are no match for the King of Han!” Enraged, Xiang Yu had Zhou Ke boiled to death. He also killed Cong Gong and imprisoned Xin, the King of Hán. He then laid siege to Chenggao.