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  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 147): The Right To Bear Arms

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19

    Duration of 6 years

    A Crossbow, Terra Cotta Warrior Museum

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (124 B.C.)

    In winter, on November 5, Xue Ze was relieved of his office. In his place, Gongsun Hong was appointed Chancellor and ennobled as the Marquis of Pingjin. From that time forth, the custom of conferring noble titles upon those who held the chancellorship began with Gongsun Hong.

    The Son of Heaven set his heart upon vast enterprises and the glory of national achievement. Gongsun Hong, opening the Eastern Gate of the Chancellor’s Office, summoned worthies and men of counsel, discoursing with them on state affairs. Whenever he entered court to present matters for deliberation, he would bring up proposals aimed at the benefit of the realm. The Emperor, esteeming his words, would summon scholars of the court to contend in debate with him.

    On one occasion, Gongsun Hong memorialized, saying: “Let it be forbidden for the people to bear bows and crossbows. For the sake of public safety, such arms must be restrained. Ten brigands with crossbows may cause a hundred officials to shrink in fear and not step forward.”

    The Emperor commanded the court to deliberate upon this proposal.

    Thereupon Yuqiu Shouwang, an Attendant-in-waiting, stepped forth and replied: “I have heard that the Five Arms—spear, halberd, bow, sword, and dagger-axe—were not devised to bring harm, but to subdue evil and restrain violence. In the time of Qin, when the empire was first united, weapons were cast into molten cauldrons and swords were blunted. Thereafter, the people fought each other with hoes, riding crops, and clubs. Crimes multiplied, banditry spread, and rebellion ensued. In the end, the state fell to ruin.

    “Thus, the sage kings of old taught the people by virtue and governed by rites, knowing that prohibitions alone could not suffice. The Book of Rites records: ‘When a male child is born, raise the mulberry-wood bow, and shoot arrows of reed to Heaven, to Earth, and to the four directions’—signifying that the man is destined to serve in arms throughout his life. The Grand Archery Rite, practiced from the Son of Heaven to the commoner, has been a ceremony passed down since the Three Dynasties.

    “I have heard of kings instructing the people through archery rites, but never of those who banned bows and arrows. What is forbidden is intended to prevent theft and assault; yet though death is decreed as punishment, still such crimes do not cease. This shows that even the severest law does not check the greatest of transgressions. If evil men conceal arms in secret while honest men are stripped of means to defend themselves, the law serves not justice but misfortune. I humbly submit: this measure is ill-advised.”

    This memorial was entered into the official record and submitted for imperial consideration. The Sovereign summoned Gongsun Hong and inquired of him regarding the matter, but Gongsun Hong could offer no rebuttal.

    Gongsun Hong was by nature suspicious and inwardly vindictive. All who had once opposed him, whether near or distant, though they might appear on cordial terms, would in time meet with his concealed vengeance.

    Dong Zhongshu, a man of upright character and moral resolve, regarded Gongsun Hong as sycophantic and insincere. Gongsun Hong, harboring envy, bore ill will toward him. The Prince of Jiaoxi, Liu Duan, indulged in lawlessness and brought about many deaths, including the demise of several officials of the 2,000-picul rank. Gongsun Hong, seeking to distance Dong Zhongshu from the Emperor, recommended him to serve as prime minister of the Principality of Jiaoxi. Yet Dong Zhongshu, pleading illness, did not assume the post.

    Ji An, who often voiced criticisms of Confucian doctrine, had long held differences with Gongsun Hong. Desiring to entrap him, Gongsun Hong seized upon an opportunity to destroy him. He memorialized the Emperor, saying: “The jurisdiction of the Right Interior Minister(intendant of Right Fufeng) is replete with nobles and high ministers. It is a post fraught with difficulty, and only one of great stature may govern it. I propose the transfer of Ji An to serve as Right Interior Minister.” The Emperor approved this request.

    In January of spring, a great drought afflicted the land.

    At that time, the Right Tuqi King of the Xiongnu made repeated incursions into Shuofang Commandery, harassing the border regions. The Sovereign dispatched the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Wei Qing, with thirty thousand cavalrymen departing from Gaoque Pass. Su Jian, Commandant of the Palace Guard, was appointed as Guerrilla General; Li Zu, the Left Interior Minister, was made Strong Crossbow General; Gongsun He, Grand Coachman, was named Cavalry General; and Li Cai, Prime Minister of Dai, was appointed Light Chariot General. All were placed under the overall command of Wei Qing. They departed from Shuofang to strike the enemy.

    In addition, the Grand Usher Li Xi and the Marquis of Antou, Zhang Cigong, were each appointed as generals and marched from Youbeiping. Altogether, the expeditionary force exceeded one hundred thousand men, advancing in concert against the Xiongnu.

    The Right Tuqi King, believing the Han troops too distant to pose a threat, indulged in wine and became inebriated. But Wei Qing led his men swiftly by night, advancing six to seven hundred li without pause, and fell upon the Right Tuqi King’s encampment. Caught unawares, the Right Tuqi King was seized with panic. In the dead of night, he broke through the encirclement and fled northward with but a few hundred elite riders.

    The Han forces captured more than ten subordinate kings under the Right Tuqi King, and seized over fifteen thousand men and women. Livestock taken numbered in the hundreds of thousands. With their objectives achieved, the army withdrew in good order and returned in triumph.

    When the army reached the border pass, the Son of Heaven dispatched an envoy bearing the seal of the Grand General, and in the field conferred upon Wei Qing the title of Grand General. All other generals were henceforth subordinated to his command.

    In April of summer, Wei Qing was further rewarded with an increase of fief comprising 8,700 households. His three sons—Wei Kang, Wei Buyi, and Wei Deng—though yet in infancy, were each ennobled as marquises.

    Wei Qing respectfully declined, memorializing thus: “By the grace of Heaven and the favor of Your Majesty, I have received fortune beyond measure. The great victory of the army was due to the valor and exertions of all the colonels and officers. The generous increase of my fief, and the enfeoffment of my sons with marquisates, though they are yet swaddled in cloth, is not the example I had hoped to set for those soldiers who risked their lives in the field.”

    The Emperor replied, “I have not forgotten the meritorious deeds of all the colonels.”

    Thereafter, the Emperor granted titles and honors to the various officers of distinction:
    Gongsun Ao, Colonel of Army Protectors, was made Marquis of Heqi;
    Han Yue, Commandant, was made Marquis of Long’e;
    Gongsun He, Commandant, was made Marquis of Nanjiao;
    Li Cha, Commandant, was made Marquis of Le’an;
    Li Shuo, Colonel, was made Marquis of Shezhi;
    Zhao Buyu, Colonel, was made Marquis of Suicheng;
    Gongsun Rongnu, Colonel, was made Marquis of Congping.

    In addition, Li Zu, Li Xi, and Colonel Dou Ruyi were each granted the title of Marquis Within the Passes.

    At this time, Wei Qing stood in highest favor among all court officials and ministers; none within the realm equaled his prestige. From the Three Excellencies down through the Nine Ministers, all bore themselves with deference before him. Only Ji An alone treated Wei Qing as an equal, neither yielding nor posturing.

    Some among the court cautioned Ji An, saying, “Now that the Son of Heaven commands all officials to bow before the Grand General, and the Grand General’s rank is exalted beyond compare, how can you refrain from bowing?”

    Ji An replied, “When the Grand General salutes his peer, does his status thereby lessen?”

    When these words reached the ears of the Grand General, he held Ji An in even greater esteem. Thereafter, Wei Qing often consulted Ji An concerning affairs of state and matters of court, treating him with a respect greater than he accorded others.Though Wei Qing’s position was lofty, when he came into an audience, the Emperor would recline upon his couch and receive him with ease. When Chancellor Gongsun Hong was summoned for informal audiences, the Son of Heaven at times dispensed with donning his imperial crown. Yet on one occasion, when Ji An came to request an audience, the Emperor, seated in the armory tent without his crown, glimpsed Ji An’s approach, and at once withdrew to the rear tent. He dispatched an attendant to grant Ji An’s petition in full, without requiring his presence. Thus was the reverence accorded to Ji An.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 120): Feng Tang: A General’s Prerogative

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 7 Scroll 15 (continued)

    General Li Mu of Zhao

    The 14th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (166 B.C.)

    In the winter, Laoshang Chanyu of the Xiongnu led 140,000 cavalry and invaded Chaona County and Xiao Pass, killing the Commandant of Beidi Commandery, Sun Ang, and capturing a large number of people and livestock. They advanced to Pengyang County and sent elite troops in a surprise attack to burn down the Huizhong palace. Their reconnaissance cavalry even reached Yong County and Ganquan County. 

    The Emperor appointed Zhou She, the Commandant of the imperial guard, and Zhang Wu, the Chamberlain, as generals. They mobilized a force of 1,000 chariots and 100,000 cavalry to guard the outskirts of Chang’an, preparing to defend against the Xiongnu invaders. The Emperor also appointed the Marquis of Chang, Lu Qing, as General of Shangjun; the Marquis of Ning, Wei Chi, as General of Beidi; and the Marquis of Longlü, Zhou Zao, as General of Longxi, stationing them in the three commanderies of Beidi, Shangjun, and Longxi. The Emperor personally visited the troops, issued military orders, and bestowed rewards upon the officers and soldiers, intending to lead an expedition against the Xiongnu himself. His ministers’ advice against it, he did not listen. Only after the Empress Dowager strongly objected did he relent. As a result, Zhang Xiangru, the Marquis of Dongyang, was appointed Grand General, while Dong Chi, the Marquis of Cheng, and Luan Bu, the Minister of Interior, were also appointed as generals to lead the attack on the Xiongnu. The Chanyu remained within the borders for over a month before departing. The Han forces pursued them beyond the borders but returned immediately, unable to inflict any casualties.

    As he passed by the office of the gentlemen-in-waiting, the Emperor asked the Director of the gentlemen-in-waiting, Feng Tang, “Where is your venerable ancestral home?” 

    Feng Tang replied, “My grandfather was from Zhao, and my father moved to Dai.” 

    The Emperor said, “When I lived in Dai, the chief of the imperial kitchen, Gao Qu, often praised the talented Zhao general Li Qi, who fought in the Battle of Julu. Even now, whenever I have a meal, my thoughts always turn to Julu. Do your venerable know Li Qi?” 

    Feng Tang replied, “Li Qi was not as accomplished a general as Lian Po or Li Mu.” 

    The Emperor, clutching his thigh, exclaimed, “Alas! If only I had Lian Po and Li Mu as my generals, would I still worry about the Xiongnu?” 

    Feng Tang responded, “Even if Your Majesty had Lian Po and Li Mu, you would not be able to utilize them.”

    The Emperor was offended, stood up, and entered the Forbidden Chamber. After some time, he summoned Feng Tang and reproached him, saying, “How dare you insult me in front of so many people? Couldn’t you find a private moment to say that?” 

    Feng Tang apologized, replying, “I, a lowly person, did not realize what was inappropriate.”

    Still concerned about the Xiongnu, the Emperor eventually asked Feng Tang again, “How do you know that I cannot use Lian Po and Li Mu effectively?” 

    Feng Tang responded, “I have heard that in ancient times, when kings dispatched generals, they would kneel and push the axle of the chariot, saying, ‘The things within the palace gates, I control them; those outside, the general commands.’ Military achievements, their merits, and the rewards were all determined by the generals in the field, not reviewed by central authorities.  The rewards were only reported to the court when they returned from action. This is not mere hearsay.

    “My grandfather said that when Li Mu served as a general of Zhao, he governed the border and used the proceeds from the military markets to feast with the soldiers. Rewards and gifts were distributed within the camp without interference from the central government. By entrusting him with responsibility and holding him accountable for success, the king fully utilized Li Mu‘s intelligence and abilities. Li Mu selected 1,300 chariots, 13,000 cavalry, and recruited 100,000 skilled soldiers. With this force, he drove the Xiongnu Chanyu out of the north, defeated the Donghu, annihilated the Danlin (also known as Chanlan) tribe, restrained the strong Qin forces to the west, and supported Han and Wei to the south. At that time, Zhao was on the verge of dominance.

    “However, after King Zhao Qian ascended the throne, Guo Kai spread slanderous rumors, leading to Li Mu‘s execution, and Yan Ju took his place. As a result, the army was defeated, and the soldiers were captured and annihilated by Qin.”

    “I have heard that Wei Shang used the proceeds from the military market to provide for the soldiers during his tenure as Prefect of Yunzhong Commandery. He slaughtered a cow every five days to reward guests, military officers, and attendants from his own salary. As a result, the Xiongnu kept their distance and did not approach the borders of Yunzhong. When the enemy invaded, Wei Shang personally led the cavalry in a counterattack and killed a great number of them. The soldiers, being sons of farming families, left their fields to serve in the army. How can they be expected to understand the military merit book and team registry? They fight all day, beheading enemies and capturing prisoners. Yet, when they submit their merits to the military headquarters, they are subject to judicial scrutiny if their reports cannot be verified. The civil officials, bound by law, must enforce it, and while the soldiers’ rewards are delayed, their punishments are promptly carried out. In my humble opinion, Your Majesty’s rewards are too meager, and the punishments too severe. 

    “Furthermore, when Wei Shang, the Prefect of Yunzhong, was accused of a discrepancy of merely six head counts in the recognition of enemy kills, Your Majesty handed him over to the judicial officers, stripped him of his rank, and imposed a one-year prison sentence. Based on this, even if Your Majesty had Lian Po and Li Mu, you would not be able to fully utilize them!”

    The Emperor was pleased by the critique. That very day, he ordered Feng Tang to carry the imperial insignia to pardon Wei Shang, releasing him from prison and reinstating him as the Prefect of Yunzhong. Feng Tang was also appointed as the Commandant of the Chariots and Cavalry.

    In the spring, a decree was issued to significantly expand the altars and ceremonial offerings of jade and silk for various sacrificial rituals. The decree stated, ‘We have heard that the officials in charge of sacrificial ceremonies attribute blessings solely to mine and not to the people. We are deeply ashamed of this. It reflects my own lack of virtue to enjoy exclusive blessings while the people are left out. Therefore, We command the sacrificial officials to pray without making any specific requests for mine.’

    That same year, Prince Wen of Hejian, Liu Piqiang, passed away.

    Initially, Chancellor Zhang Cang believed that the Han Dynasty was aligned with the essence of water, while Gongsun Chen of Lu believed it should be associated with the essence of earth, citing the sighting of a yellow dragon as evidence. However, Zhang Cang dismissed this, arguing it was senseless and rejecting the proposal to adopt yellow official gowns.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 117): Military-Agriculture Colony

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 7 Scroll 15 (continued)

    Gold Belt Buckle Depicting A Xiongnu Hunter, Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen

    The 11th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (169 B.C. continued)

    Chao Cuo then composed another memorandum:

    “I have heard that when Qin raised an army to attack the Nomads and Yue, it was not to defend the borders or save lives but out of greed and a desire for expansion. As a result, no achievements were secured, and the world descended into chaos. Moreover, raising an army without understanding the situation leads to soldiers being captured in battle or starving to death in besieged camps.

    “The people of the northern Nomads and Yemaek tribes are accustomed to cold weather, while those of the Yangzhou and Yue tribes are accustomed to heat. Qin soldiers on the borders could not tolerate these environments. The garrisoned troops perished beyond the borders, while the laborers transporting supplies died on the roads. When Qin citizens saw these men depart, it was as if they were being sent to a public execution. They were sent away as punishment, labeled ‘ousted frontiers.’

    “Banished officials, uxorilocal sons-in-laws, registered merchants, and those who had once been merchants were the first to be sent away. Later, the selection extended to those whose grandparents or parents had been merchants, and then to the poor and lowly in the community. The selection process was disorganized, and those chosen felt bitterness. They faced great danger, yet received no compensation if they were injured or killed in battle. Even with the death of soldiers, their families received not even a head tax refund for a year. People throughout the land knew that violent tyranny was imposed on them.

    “Chen Sheng led troops on a garrison mission at Daze Township and became the first to lead an uprising. Soon, people across the realm followed him like flowing water. That was a direct consequence of Qin‘s oppressive conscription and threatening people with violence.”

    “The livelihood of the nomads is not tied to the land, allowing them to easily disrupt the borders by constantly moving back and forth. This is the nomadic way of life and also the reason the people of the Middle Kingdom have abandoned their farms. The nomads often roam and hunt near the border, waiting for an opportunity to attack when the guard is weak. If the emperor does not send aid, the people on the border will lose hope and may surrender to the enemy. If aid is sent in insufficient numbers or arrives too late, the nomads would already have fled.

    “Continuously gathering and dispersing troops is costly, but if the troops are disbanded, the nomads will return. Year after year, this will impoverish the Middle Kingdom and make the people discontent. Your Majesty’s concern for the border is a great kindness, and sending officials and troops to manage it is commendable. However, the troops stationed there are rotated annually and are unfamiliar with the nomads’ capabilities. It would be wiser to select people who already live in the border regions, grant them land for cultivation, and prepare them for defense. Build high walls and deep moats, establish cities and towns in strategic locations and at river confluences, but settle no fewer than a thousand households in any place.

    “First, provide them with housing and farming tools, and then recruit more settlers. Those who enlist will receive pardons, ranks, and titles, and their inland families would receive tax and corvee exemptions. They will be given winter and summer clothing, as well as enough food until they are self-sufficient. If the people on the border do not have a greater income, they cannot remain in such dangerous places for long. If the nomads drive them away and steal their livestock, those who fight back and recover the spoils will keep half. The other half will be bought by the county government and returned to their original owners.

    “If the people on the border are treated this way, the villages will support each other and risk their lives to resist the barbarians. This is not due to their virtue, but to protect their families and wealth. Compared to soldiers from the east, who are unfamiliar with the terrain and fearful of the nomads, this strategy is ten thousand times more effective. By relocating people to the border during your reign, you can eliminate the need for distant garrisons. Fathers and sons living on the border will protect one another and their families, removing the fear of captivity. Your wise policies will benefit future generations and earn you the reputation of a just and enlightened ruler—one far different from Qin‘s, whose people were full of grievances.”

    The emperor adopted Chao Cuo’s advice and recruited people to settle the border areas. 

    Chao Cuo wrote again:

    “Your Majesty’s decision to recruit and relocate people to the frontier is of great benefit. It will reduce the need for military garrisons and lower the costs of transportation and supplies. If local officials follow the law, care for the elderly and weak kindly, and treat the young and strong well without oppressing them, the first settlers will be comfortable and content, and they will not long for their old homes. Then, the poor will be motivated to follow by envy, encouraging one another to relocate.

    “I have heard that in ancient times, when people were relocated, they would first balance the yin and yang, test the water and springs, and then build towns, establish cities, divide the land, and allocate house sites. They would construct houses first and acquire the necessary tools. Once the people had a place to live, they could work and put those tools to use. This is why people were willing to leave their hometowns and move to new settlements. The government must send doctors and priests to the colonies to help with illness and worship. They assisted in arranging marriages, raising children, and conducting burials. They planted trees and herded livestock. The houses were secure and fully equipped, fostering a love for the new homes and a desire to stay.

    “I have also heard that in ancient times, to defend against enemies, five families formed a team, and the team had a leader. Ten team leaders formed a neighborhood, led by a lieutenant sergeant. Four neighborhoods formed a company, with a lieutenant captain (deputy 500). Ten companies formed a town, overseen by a deputy commander. These leaders were chosen from among the talented and responsible, those who knew the terrain and understood the people. They trained the residents in archery at home and prepared them for going to battle when engaging with the enemy. Their rank and file was internally formed already, so when the army was mobilized to defend against external threats, military and political orders were executed seamlessly. The soldiers were well-trained and disciplined, not allowed to migrate to other places. They played together in youth and worked together as adults. In night battles, they could recognize each other by sound, and in day battles, by sight. Their mutual loyalty was so strong that they were willing to die for one another.

    “With encouragement and rewards, along with strict punishments, they never turned back in battle. However, those who are not strong and capable should not be relocated to the border, as it would waste resources. Even if they are strong, without good officials, their efforts will be in vain.

    “Your Majesty, if you refuse to make peace with the Xiongnu, I humbly believe they will invade southward during the winter. Securing the border will leave a lasting impression. If you choose to punish their harassment, it should be a fatal blow. To establish your authority, preparations must begin in autumn. If they are allowed to escape, they will regain strength and become even more difficult to conquer in the future.”

    Chao Cuo, known for his sharp and abrasive nature, earned the favor of the Crown Prince through his debating skills. The Crown Prince’s family affectionately referred to him as “the master mind.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 116): Play off One Barbarian Against Another

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 7 Scroll 15

    Duration of 15 years

    Didao, a.k.a. Lintiao, Gansu Province

    The 11th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (169 B.C.)

    In November of winter, the Emperor traveled to the principality of Dai, returning to the capital in January of spring.

    In June, during the summer, Prince Huai of Liang, Liu Yi, died without an heir. Jia Yi once again presented a memorial to the Emperor:

    “If your Majesty does not establish a clear policy on the vassal states now, the situation will continue to worsen. The principalities, with only one or two generations of succession, act independently and are not constrained by the central court. As they grow stronger and more assertive, the laws of Han will no longer be enforced. Your Majesty’s barriers and the Crown Prince’s foundation rest with two key principalities: Huaiyang (Liu Wu) and Dai (Liu Can).

    “Dai borders the powerful Xiongnu in the north, and would have done more than its due if it could defend itself. However, compared to the other powerful princedoms, Huaiyang is like a mole on the face—significant enough to tempt larger states but not strong enough to resist their advances. Your Majesty holds all the power, yet you allow your son’s fief to serve as bait for these larger princedoms. This is not a sound strategy.

    “I humbly propose this: Take land from the princedom of Huainan to strengthen the princedom Huaiyang and establish a successor for the Prince of Liang. You could grant two or three cities in northern Huaiyang, along with the Dongjun Commandery, to the Princedom of Liang, thereby enlarging it. Alternatively, you could relocate the Prince of Dai to Suiyang as the new capital of Liang. The Principality of Liang would then stretch from Xinqi county to the Yellow River in the north, while Huaiyang would encompass the old Chen kingdom, reaching the Yangtze River in the south.

    “If this plan is implemented, the other princes will be too intimidated to rebel against the empire. The principality of Liang will be able to defend against the principalities of Qi and Zhao, and Huaiyang will be able to shield the empire from the principalities of Wu and Chu. This strategy will ensure Your Majesty can rest easy, free from worries in the east, and will provide stability for at least two generations.

    “Your Majesty currently enjoys a time of peace while the princes are still young, but in a few years, the threat they pose will become evident. Qin worked tirelessly to eliminate the problems posed by the six states, and now, Your Majesty directs the empire to your satisfaction with your fingers or facial expression, holding all the power to act. But if you idly allow the princedoms to grow into six powerful states once again, it would be difficult to say that your Majesty was a wise ruler.

    “Even if nothing happens in Your Majesty’s lifetime, the troubles are simmering beneath the surface, and by doing nothing, you will leave them for your elderly mother and young children to grapple with after your passing. This is not the act of a benevolent ruler.”

    The Emperor followed Jia Yi‘s advice and relocated the Prince of Huaiyang to become the Prince of Liang. He was granted over forty large counties, including Mount Tai in the north and Gaoyang County in the west. Jia Yi passed away a year later at the age of 33.

    The Emperor also relocated the Prince of Chengyang, Liu Xi, appointing him as the new Prince of Huainan.

    Meanwhile, the Xiongnu have begun invading Didao county.

    At this time, the Xiongnu posed a frequent threat to the border. The Crown Prince’s majordomo, Chao Cuo, submitted a military proposal:

    “The Art of War says, ‘There are commanders who are certain to win, but there is no such nation which is sure to win.’ From this, we understand that to defend the border and achieve military success, it is essential to select capable commanders.

    “I have also heard that three factors are crucial in winning a battle: the terrain, the training of the troops, and the quality of their armory. The Art of War teaches that different terrains require different strategies for infantry, cavalry, archery, pikes, spears, swords, and shields. Ten soldiers using the wrong tactics are no match for one soldier using the right tactics.

    “If officers are not selected from the best, and soldiers do not willingly practice; if they are careless in their daily routines and lack proper training; if they cannot move swiftly to seize opportunities or retreat in an organized manner when necessary; if the front engages in battle while the rear is in disarray; if they fail to respond to the signals of drums and trumpets from their commanders, then it is a failure of discipline and training. A hundred such untrained soldiers are no match for ten well-trained ones.”

    “If the weapons are not of good quality, they are as useless as empty hands. If the armor is not strong and secure, it is as ineffective as wearing no protection at all. If bows and arrows cannot hit their targets, they are no better than daggers, and if arrows cannot penetrate the enemy’s armor, they are as ineffective as arrows with no heads. This is the greatest danger for commanders who neglect the upkeep of their weaponry and equipment. Five ill-equipped soldiers are no match for one well-equipped soldier.

    “Moreover, the Art of War states: ‘If the equipment is inadequate, the soldiers are lost to the enemy; if the troops are not well-trained, the general is lost to the enemy; if the general is ignorant of military affairs, the ruler is lost to the enemy; and if the ruler fails to select capable generals, the state is lost to the enemy.’ These four factors are the most critical in warfare.

    “I have also heard that states of different sizes adopt different styles, states with varying strengths and weaknesses take different positions, and defending regions with different geographical features requires different preparations. Humbly serving a larger state is a self-preserving strategy for smaller states. Defending against a stronger enemy with a coalition of weaker forces is the position of a state of equal strength. Driving barbarians to attack other barbarians is a strategy of the Middle Kingdom, like Han.

    “The Xiongnu‘s terrain and tactics differ greatly from those of the Middle Kingdom. They excel in navigating mountains and hills, crossing streams and gorges, and their horses are faster than ours. On difficult terrain, whether riding or shooting, the Han cavalry cannot compare to the Xiongnu. When facing fatigue from wind and rain, or enduring hunger and thirst, the people of the Middle Kingdom are no match for the Xiongnu.

    “These are Xiongnu‘s strengths. However, they are vulnerable on open plains to sudden attacks by chariots and cavalry ambushes. They cannot withstand strong bows or long spears used for long-range attacks, nor can they resist the disciplined formations of the Middle Kingdom’s troops—organized into groups of five soldiers and teams of ten, moving in unison, equipped with a mix of long and short weapons and wearing metal armor. The detachments of crossbowmen and archers can easily overpower their leather outfits and wooden shields as our skilled artisans produce powerful bows and precise arrows; The Xiongnu are no match for the Middle Kingdom’s foot soldiers in close combat or the cavalry’s charge. These are the strengths of the Middle Kingdom.

    “Considering all of this, the Xiongnu possess three key strengths, while the Middle Kingdom has five. Your Majesty plans to deploy hundreds of thousands of troops to defeat the Xiongnu, who number only in the tens of thousands. This is a strategy of overwhelming force.

    “However, war is a dangerous and unpredictable endeavor. Sometimes, what is large becomes small, and what is strong turns weak in an instant. The risk of losing lives in battle is great, and once they are lost, there is no chance of recovery. The way of an emperor and a king is to take every precaution and ensure full preparation.

    “Currently, there are thousands of people from the Nomads, Yiqu, and other barbarian tribes who have surrendered to us. They share the lifestyle and skills as the Xiongnu. We should equip them with sturdy armor, warm clothing, strong bows, and sharp arrows, reinforcing them with the elite cavalry from the border regions. Experienced generals who understand their customs and can unite their hearts should be appointed by Your Majesty.

    “In treacherous terrain, these forces should bear the brunt of the fighting. On flat terrain, the empire’s chariots and skilled archers should be deployed. Both armies should use their respective strengths, complementing each other with reinforcements. This is a fail-safe strategy.”

    The Emperor appreciated Chao Cuo‘s advice and wrote back to him as encouragement. 

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 112): Zhou Bo’s Run-in with The Law

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 6 Scroll 14 (continued)

    A Deng Tong Coin

    The 4th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era(176 B.C.)

    In December of winter, the Marquis of Yingyin, Guan Ying, passed away.
    In spring, on January 4, Zhang Cang of Yangwu County, the Grand Master of the Censorate, was appointed Chancellor. Zhang Cang had a deep fondness for books and was particularly knowledgeable in the fields of musical temperament and chronometry (calendar system).

    The Emperor summoned Ji Bu, the Prefect of Hedong Commandery, intending to appoint him as Grand Master of the Censorate. However, there were rumors that, although brave, Ji Bu enjoyed drinking and was unfit to serve closely with the Emperor. After staying at the imperial residence for a month, Ji Bu was finally granted an audience with the Emperor and assigned to his original post. He then spoke up, “Your Majesty, I have not accomplished any meritorious deeds and have been awaiting punishment in Hedong. Your sudden summons must have been the result of someone’s deception. Now that I have arrived, I have not been given any tasks or promoted—this must be due to slander. You summoned me based on someone’s praise and now dismiss me based on someone’s slander. I fear that those with insight will hear of this and question Your Majesty’s wisdom.”

    The Emperor remained silent for a long time, feeling ashamed, and finally said, “The Hedong commandery is as critical to my reign as arms and thighs to my body, which is why we summoned you specifically.”

    The Emperor proposed appointing Jia Yi to a high-ranking position in the court. However, many ministers criticized him, claiming he was a young man from Luoyang who was just beginning his studies and was overly ambitious, hungry for power and likely to disrupt state affairs. Consequently, the Emperor began distancing himself from Jia Yi and did not adopt his proposals. Instead, Jia Yi was appointed Grand Tutor to the Prince of Changsha.

    After the Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo, returned to his state, he lived in constant fear of execution. Whenever the prefect of Hedong or the Jiang county magistrate visited him, Zhou Bo would wear armor and have his family members armed to greet them. Later, someone submitted a memorial accusing Zhou Bo of plotting rebellion, which was handed over to the magistrate. The magistrate arrested Zhou Bo and put him on trial. Terrified and at a loss for words, Zhou Bo was mistreated by the officials. He bribed the jailer with a thousand catties of gold. The jailer then wrote on the back of his wooden tablet and showed it to Zhou Bo, which read: “Mention the princess in your testimony.” The princess referred to the Emperor’s daughter, who had married to Zhou Bo‘s eldest son, Zhou Shengzhi.

    Empress Dowager Bo also believed in Zhou Bo‘s innocence. One day, when the Emperor visited her, she threw her scarf at him and scolded: “When the Marquis of Jiang executed the Lü clan, he took the Emperor’s seal and led troops to the northern army. If he wanted to rebel, wouldn’t he have done it then? Now he lives in a small county—why would he rebel?” 

    By this time, the Emperor had already read Zhou Bo’s attestation from the jailer. He apologized to the empress dowager: “He will be released when the officials finish their investigation.” The Emperor then sent a messenger with the imperial insignia to pardon Zhou Bo and restore his rank and fief.

    After his release, Zhou Bo remarked: “I once commanded an army of a million soldiers, but who would have thought that a jailer could be so privileged?”

    The temple of Gucheng had been built.

    The 5th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (175 B.C.)

    In February of the spring, there was an earthquake. 

    The Qin Empire initially used half-tael coins, but Emperor Gaozu found them too heavy and impractical, so he introduced the “pod coins” as a replacement. This caused prices to soar, with rice reaching ten thousand coins per picul. In April, four-zhu(a fraction of one tael) coins were minted, and a decree was issued abolishing the law against counterfeiting, permitting the people to mint their own coins.

    Jia Yi advised the Emperor on the issue of debased coinage: “By law, the government is permitted to hire workers to mint copper and tin coins. Anyone who adulterates the metal with lead or iron is guilty of a crime punishable by branding their faces. However, the art of coin casting requires a degree of skillful mixing to be profitable. A small alloy can yield great profit. Unintended trouble may arise, and poorly designed laws can tempt people into misconduct. If the government allows ordinary people to mint coins, each will do so secretly, using obscure trickery to maximize profits. Even if offenders are branded daily, this will not stop the practice.

    “As a result, countless commoners face charges, with some counties seeing hundreds of accusations. Many officials will grow suspicious, resorting to corporal punishment and abuse, driving even more people into exile. Such county laws entrap people more than anything else. Furthermore, different regions have varying standards for currency. Some use lighter coins, requiring more coins to complete exchanges for 100 coins; others use heavier coins that aren’t accepted due to a lack of 1-to-1 exchangeability. Without uniform standards, how can officials manage consistently? Local authorities will be overwhelmed by enforcement, or the markets will fill with varied currencies, leading to chaos. Without an effective policy, which path should local officials follow?

    “Today, more people are abandoning agriculture to mine copper, neglecting their farming tools and using furnaces and charcoal for smelting. Counterfeit coins are becoming widespread, creating food shortages. Honest people are tempted into wrongdoing, while cautious people who commit crimes are punished or executed. Severe punishment of the populace is not a sign of good governance. What a dilemma!

    “The government recognizes this problem, and officials will surely propose a ban. But if the ban is poorly implemented, it will cause even greater harm. If coin minting is forbidden, coin values will rise, driving higher profits. Counterfeiting will increase, and even public executions won’t suffice to deter it. The number of offenders will overwhelm the law enforcement, as the root of the issue is copper. Copper is widely available across the country and its potential harm is considerable. It would be better to confiscate all copper mines.”

    Jia Shan agreed with Jia Yi‘s assessment: “Money is a tool without a specific usage, but it can be used to gain wealth and power. Wealth and power are the levers of the ruler, but if rulers allow common people to mint money, they are essentially sharing that leverage, which cannot last.” However, the Emperor did not heed their advice.

    At that time, Deng Tong, the Grandee of the Palace, was highly favored by the Emperor, who wished to make him wealthy. Deng Tong was granted the Yandao copper mine in the state of Shu Commandery to mint coins. Meanwhile, the Prince of Wu, Liu Pi, controlled the Yuzhang copper mine and employed fugitives from across the country to mint coins. He also boiled seawater from the eastern ocean to produce salt, allowing him to exempt his Principality from head tax, while maintaining a well-funded treasury. Consequently, coins minted by Wu and Deng Tong were widely circulated throughout the country.

    Earlier, the Emperor had divided the state of Dai into two principalities, establishing his son Liu Wu as the Prince of Dai and his son Liu Shen as the Prince of Taiyuan. In this year, Liu Wu was relocated and made the Prince of Huaiyang, while Liu Shen became the Prince of Dai, restoring the kingdom’s original territory.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 111): Minister of Justice Zhang Shizhi

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 6 Scroll 14

    Shanglin Park, attr. Qiu Ying (1494–1552)

    The 3rd year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (177 B.C.)

    In winter, on October 29, there was a solar eclipse. 

    On November 30, there was an eclipse of the sun. 

    The imperial edict declared: “In the past, marquises sent to their fiefs may have refused to go. I hold the Chancellor in high regard, and I want him to lead the marquises back to their fiefs!” In December, Zhou Bo, the Chancellor, was dismissed and sent to his fief. 

    On December 14, Grand Commandant Guan Ying was appointed Chancellor, and his former position was abolished, with its duties merged into the Chancellor’s office. 

    In April of that summer, Prince Jing of Chengyang, Liu Zhang, passed away.

    Earlier, Zhang Ao, the Prince of Zhao, presented Consort Zhao to Emperor Gaozu as his companion, and the emperor impregnated her. When Guan Gao’s plot was uncovered, Consort Zhao was implicated and imprisoned in Henei. Her younger brother, Zhao Jian, appealed to Marquis Piyang, Shen Yiji, asking him to plead with Empress Lü in hopes of securing his sister’s release. However, Empress Lü, out of jealousy, did not raise the matter with the emperor. Consort Zhao had already given birth to a son, but out of bitterness, she committed suicide. Officials brought her son to the emperor, who regretted what had occurred. He named the boy Liu Chang and instructed Empress Lü to raise him, while the woman was buried in Zhending. Later, Liu Chang was granted the title of Prince of Huainan.

    The Prince of Huainan lost his mother at a young age and was always close to Empress Lü, so during the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Lü, he was trouble free. However, he resented Marquis Piyang, Shen Yiji, blaming him for failing to persuade Empress Lü, which he believed led to his mother’s death in desolation. After Emperor Wen ascended the throne, the Prince of Huainan, the emperor’s only surviving brother, became increasingly imperious and defiant, frequently violating the law with impunity. The emperor often pardoned him. That year, when the Prince of Huainan visited the court and went hunting with the emperor in the royal park, he rode in the same carriage as the emperor and addressed him as “big brother.”

    The Prince of Huainan, a man of great strength who could lift a cauldron, visited Marquis of Piyang and struck him with an iron mace concealed in his sleeve, then ordered his lackey, Wei Jing, to decapitate him. Afterward, the Prince of Huainan rushed to the palace, bared his back, and apologized to the emperor.  Encumbered by their familial connection, the emperor forgave him without punishment. At this incident, Empress Bo, the crown prince, and other high-ranking officials feared the Prince of Huainan. Emboldened by his pardon, the Prince of Huainan grew even more insolent upon returning to his fief, clearing the roads when he traveled, much like the emperor. He called his orders “Zhi,” mimicking imperial decrees, and proclaimed himself the “Son of Heaven,” a title reserved for the emperor. Yuan Ang warned the emperor that such a domineering vassal would inevitably cause trouble, but the emperor ignored the warning.

    In May, the Xiongnu‘s Right Tuqi King entered the south of the bend of Yellow River, raiding and plundering the border nomads in Shangjun Commandery, killing and capturing many. The Emperor traveled to Ganquan County and ordered Chancellor Guan Ying to lead an army of 85,000 cavalry to attack the Tuqi King in Gaonu County. He also commanded the officers under the Central Commandant to report to the Guard General and defend Chang’an. The Right Tuqi King fled beyond the borders.

    After arriving in Ganquan, the Emperor visited Gaonu and Taiyuan, where he met with his former ministers, presenting them with gifts. He also granted a three-year tax exemption to the people of Jinyang County and Zhongdu[the capital of the Principality of Dai]. The Emperor stayed in Taiyuan for more than ten days, enjoying his time there.

    Earlier, during the purge of the Lü family, the Marquis of Zhuxu made significant contributions. The ministers promised to grant him all the land of the Principality of Zhao and to give the Marquis of Dongmou all the land of the Principality of Liang. However, after the Emperor ascended the throne, he learned that the Marquis of Zhuxu and the Marquis of Dongmou had intended to enthrone their eldest brother, the Prince of Qi[Liu Xiang]. Suspicious of their motives, the Emperor deprived them of the full reward for their contributions. Reluctantly, he enfeoffed two commanderies of Qi to the Marquis of Zhuxu and the Marquis of Dongmou, respectively. Feeling unjustly treated, the Marquis of Dongmou, Liu Xingju, grew resentful. Upon hearing that the Emperor was preparing to campaign against the Xiongnu, Liu Xingju believed the Emperor would leave the capital for war and took the opportunity to rebel.

    When the Emperor learned of this, he recalled the Chancellor and withdrew the troops back to Chang’an. He appointed the Marquis of Jipu, Chai Wu, as Grand General, leading four generals and 100,000 soldiers to suppress the rebellion of the Marquis of Dongmou, Liu Xingju. The Marquis of Qihou, Zeng He, was also appointed as a general to lead troops in Xingyang. In July of autumn, the Emperor returned to Chang’an from Taiyuan and issued a decree: “The people of Jibei who surrender before the army arrives will be pardoned and their official positions restored. Those who conspired with Prince Liu Xingju will also be pardoned.” In August, the Prince of Jibei, Liu Xingju’s army was defeated, and he committed suicide.

    Zhang Shizhi from Nanyang had served as a cavalry attendant for ten years without reassignment and sought to resign and return home. However, Yuan Ang recognized his talent and recommended him, resulting in Zhang Shizhi being appointed as the Director of Internuncios.

    While accompanying the emperor on a tour, they visited the tiger menagerie. The Emperor asked the Shanglin Park Commandant several questions about the registry of birds and beasts in the Imperial Hunting Park. After more than ten questions, the commandant, looking around nervously, was unable to answer any of them. A warden in charge of the tiger menagerie stepped forward and answered on behalf of his superior, providing detailed responses to all the questions about the number of birds and beasts in the park. 

    Impressed, the Emperor continued asking more detailed questions, and the warden responded fluently and with great detail. 

    The Emperor remarked, “Shouldn’t every official be like this warden? We cannot rely on this commandant!” He then ordered Zhang Shizhi to replace the commandant with the warden as the new Shanglin Park Commandant.

    Sometime later, Zhang Shizhi approached the Emperor and asked, 

    “Your Majesty, what do you think of the Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo?” 

    The Emperor replied, “He is a respected elder.” 

    “And the Marquis of Dongyang, Zhang Xiangru?” 

    The Emperor answered, “They are both respected elders.” 

    Zhang Shizhi continued, “These two men are regarded as esteemed elders, yet they cannot express themselves fully. How can they compare to this park warden, who is quick-witted and eloquent? In the Qin dynasty, officials skilled with pen and paper were highly valued, competing to be the quickest and most detail-oriented clerks. But this led to nothing more than superficial reports while real issues were neglected, with problems hidden until they resulted in the dynasty’s collapse. By promoting this glib-tongued park warden, I fear the entire world will follow suit, competing to be the most eloquent while lacking substance. When those below influence those above, it creates noise rather than harmony. Therefore, selecting and promoting officials must be done carefully and not in haste.”

    The Emperor was pleased with Zhang Shizhi‘s advice and decided not to promote the park warden. Upon returning to his carriage, the Emperor invited Zhang Shizhi to join him as an assistant driver. As they moved along slowly, the Emperor asked Zhang Shizhi for his views on the decline of the Qin dynasty, to which Zhang Shizhi replied candidly. Upon arriving at the palace, the Emperor appointed Zhang Shizhi as the official in charge of the imperial carriage.

    Later, the Crown Prince and the Prince of Liang rode in a carriage to the court and failed to dismount at the Sima Gate, a portal guarded by officers. Zhang Shizhi stopped them from entering the palace and accused them of “failing to dismount at the public gate and showing disrespect,” which he reported. Even Empress Dowager Bo was informed of the incident. The emperor, humbled, removed his hat and apologized for not raising his son properly. Empress Dowager Bo then sent someone to pardon the Crown Prince and the Prince of Liang, allowing them to enter. The Emperor, impressed by Zhang Shizhi‘s sense of duty, appointed him as the Grandee of the Palace, and shortly thereafter, promoted him to General of the Palace.

    As they traveled to the Baling mausoleum, the Emperor said to his ministers, “Alas! My tomb is made of stones from the northern mountains. Woven oakum and lacquer fill the cracks. How could it ever be broken into?” Everyone around him agreed, but Zhang Shizhi responded, “If there is something desirable within, even if it is locked in the southern mountains, there will still be a way in. If there is nothing desirable inside, even without the stone tomb, what worry is there?” The Emperor praised his words.

    Zhang Shizhi was appointed Minister of Justice that year. On one occasion, as the Emperor was crossing the Middle Wei Bridge, a man suddenly ran out from beneath it, causing the imperial carriage horse to panic. The Emperor ordered his mounting guard to capture the man and hand him over to the Minister of Justice. Zhang Shizhi submitted a report stating, “This man violated the law of trespassing and should be punished with a fine.” The Emperor, angered, said, “This man startled my horse, and if not for its gentle disposition, it could have caused me great harm. Yet, as Minister of Justice, you only impose a fine?”

    Zhang Shizhi replied, “The law serves the common good of the people. According to the law, the appropriate punishment for this offense is a fine. If we enforce the law too harshly, the people will lose trust in it. Moreover, if Your Majesty had ordered the man’s execution at that moment, the matter would have already been resolved, and it wouldn’t have been referred to me. The Minister of Justice upholds the law of the land, and if we undermine its authority, how can we ensure justice in the future? I urge Your Majesty to reflect on this matter carefully.”

    The Emperor thought for a long time and ultimately agreed with Zhang Shizhi, “You are right. As the Minister of Justice, you have made the correct decision.”

    Later, someone stole a jade ring from the Temple of Emperor Gaozu and was caught. The emperor, furious, ordered the case to be handled by the Minister of Justice. Zhang Shizhi submitted a report stating that, according to the law, the punishment for stealing from the ancestral temple was death by beheading in a public market. The Emperor, even more enraged, said, “This person has no morals, yet he has stolen from my father! We let the Minister of Justice handle this case, meant to exterminate his entire family as punishment. But you submitted this report to the court, which does not reflect my reverence for my ancestors.”

    Zhang Shizhi bowed, removed his hat, and apologized, “This is the appropriate punishment according to the law. Furthermore, the severity of punishment for the same crime may vary depending on the context. If we were to exterminate his entire family for stealing from the ancestral temple, then, heaven forbid, should a foolish commoner take a handful of soil from the Emperor Gaozu’s tomb, how would Your Majesty punish him?”

    The Emperor then consulted Empress Dowager and was permitted to handle the case as Zhang Shizhi saw fit.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 109): Learn Your Place

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    An Idol of Zhao Tuo in Vietnam

    The 1st year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era(179 B.C. continued)

    The Emperor had been getting up to speed on state governance. One day, he asked the Right Chancellor, Zhou Bo, how many cases were resolved in a year and how much tax and grain were collected. Zhou Bo did not know the answers and felt embarrassed, sweating through his clothes on his back.

    When the Emperor asked the Left Chancellor, Chen Ping, who replied that there were officials responsible for these matters. 

    The Emperor then asked, “Who is in charge of these matters?” 

    Chen Ping responded, “Your Majesty, when you inquire about criminal cases, the Minister of Justice is responsible; when you ask about money and grain, the Secretary of the Interior for Grain is in charge.”

    The Emperor then asked, “If everyone has their own responsibilities, what is it that you are responsible for?” 

    Chen Ping apologized, “Your Majesty, you are unaware of my incompetence, yet I have been made Chancellor. The Chancellors assist the Emperor as his highest advisors, balancing yin and yang, following the four seasons, and ensuring the needs of all living things are met. We manage foreign relations, pacify the various vassal states, care for and support the people, and ensure that ministers and officials carry out their duties.” 

    The Emperor praised Chen Ping‘s answer.

    The Right Chancellor, feeling ashamed, reproached Chen Ping after leaving, saying, “Why didn’t you teach me how to respond in that situation?” 

    Chen Ping laughed and replied, “Did you not understand your role when you accepted the position? Besides, if the Emperor asked about the number of thieves and bandits in Chang’an, would you really try to guess an answer?” 

    From then on, the Marquis of Jiang realized that his administrative abilities were far below Chen Ping‘s.

    Not long after, someone warned Zhou Bo: “Since you executed the Lü clan and enthroned the Prince of Dai, you have wielded immense power and shaken the world. But you have been highly rewarded and held your position for a long time—disaster may soon befall you.” Worried, Zhou Bo pretended to be ill and requested to resign from his position as Right Chancellor, which the Emperor accepted. On August 20, Chen Ping became the sole Chancellor after Zhou Bo‘s resignation.

    As previously stated, the Marquis of Longlü, Zhou Zao, launched an attack on the Nanyue kingdom, but his forces encountered hot and humid weather, leading to a severe epidemic among the soldiers, who were unable to clear the hills. After a year, following the death of Empress Gao, the troops were withdrawn. Seizing the opportunity, Zhao Tuo used his military power and wealth to bribe the Minyue, Âu Việt, and Luoyue kingdoms into submission. He controlled a vast territory spanning thousands of miles from east to west and adopted a yellow canopy and a flag on the left to claim equal status with the Han dynasty.

    In response, the Emperor established a garrison town to honor Zhao Tuo’s ancestors and provided annual sacrifices. He also summoned Zhao Tuo‘s brothers, granting them high positions and generous rewards. The Emperor sent Lu Jia as an envoy to the Nanyue kingdom and wrote to Zhao Tuo:

    “We are the son of Emperor Gaozu‘s concubine, abandoned and raised in the state of Dai, a remote place far from the capital. The road is long and winding, and I was isolated and ignorant. I had no opportunity to send your Majesty a letter before. After Emperor Gaozu passed away, Emperor Hui ascended the throne. When Empress Dowager Lü fell ill, the Lü clan rebelled. Thanks to the efforts of loyal ministers, we quelled the rebellion and exterminated them. However, by the insistence of princes, marquises, and officials, I had no choice but to be installed as emperor.

    Now that We are on the throne, We received Your Majesty’s letter, sent to the Marquis of Longlü, General Zhou of the Han army, asking me to recall the two generals from Changsha and to seek your brothers. In accordance with your letter, We have recalled a general, Marquis of Boyang, and We have already sent someone to inquire about your relatives in Zhending and to repair your ancestors’ tombs.”

    We have heard that you have launched attacks on our borders, causing great harm. The people of Changsha have suffered, and the people of Nanjun have endured the worst of it. Even for your own kingdom, are wars truly a gain? You will have to sacrifice many soldiers and harm excellent generals and officials. Wives will become widows, sons will become orphans, and parents will be left without care. Gaining one benefit that loses ten—We cannot bear to see this happen.

    We wish to straighten out our borders, so they no longer zigzag like a dog’s bite. We asked mine officials why the border was drawn this way, and We were told it was to isolate the kingdom of Changsha. We cannot act rashly in altering the border. Even if We gained your territory, it would not significantly enhance mine empire, and even if We acquired your wealth, it would not make me rich. You may govern your lands south of the Wuling Mountains.

    Now, Your Majesty calls himself an emperor. If we both use the title of emperor without establishing a diplomatic relationship, it will inevitably lead to conflict, which is not appropriate for benevolent rulers. We hope we can put the past behind us, and from now on, we can resume normal diplomatic relations.”

    Lu Jia, the envoy from the Han dynasty, arrived in the kingdom of Nanyue, throwing the king into a panic. The king immediately apologized and expressed his willingness to obey the emperor’s orders, pledging loyalty and tribute to the Han dynasty. He issued an order to his subjects, “I have heard that two heroes cannot coexist, and two worthy men cannot live in the same era. The Han emperor is a wise ruler. From now on, we will abolish our imperial titles, the Yellow Canopy, and the Left Banner.”

    He then wrote a letter, stating: “Great and noble Emperor, your old servant Zhao Tuo respectfully kowtows and presents this letter to Your Majesty. I was once a Han official stationed in the kingdom of Yue, and the late Emperor Gaozu bestowed upon me the seal of kingship over Nanyue. When Emperor Hui ascended the throne, he too treated me kindly, generously bestowing gifts.

    However, during the reign of Empress Dowager Lü, policies were issued that discriminated against the Yue people, prohibiting trade in gold, iron, farmland, horses, cattle, and sheep. Even when trade was allowed, only male animals were permitted, not females. My horses, cattle, and sheep have since grown old, and I believed this misfortune was due to my neglect of the gods, for which I deserved punishment. I sent three delegations, led by Chief of Staff Fan, Capital Police Chief Gao, and Censor Ping, to Chang’an to apologize, but none returned. Rumors reached me that my parents’ tombs had been desecrated and my relatives executed. My officials and I then discussed the situation and decided that if we could not receive respect from the Han empire, we might as well elevate our own status. Thus, we declared ourselves an empire, though we never intended to harm the world. When Empress Dowager Lü learned of this, she grew angry and removed Nanyue from the registry, cutting off communication. I suspect the King of Changsha spread malicious lies about me, forcing me to raise an army for defense.

    I have lived in Nanyue for forty-nine years and now hold my grandchildren in my arms. Yet, I have constantly worried about the welfare of the Han dynasty, day and night. I cannot sleep or eat properly, nor enjoy music or the beauty of life. Now, Your Majesty has shown mercy, restoring my former title and allowing communication with Han. Even if I were to die today, my bones would rest in peace. I will no longer dare to proclaim myself an emperor.”

    Prince Ai of Qi, Liu Xiang, passed away. 

    The Emperor, having heard that Wu Gong, the grand administrator of Henan Commandery, was the most capable administrator in the empire, summoned him to serve as Minister of Justice. Wu Gong recommended Jia Yi, a man from Luoyang, and the Emperor summoned Jia Yi to serve as an Erudite. At the time, Jia Yi was just over twenty years old. The Emperor, impressed by his literary talent and vast knowledge, promoted him to the position of Grandee of the Household within a year. Jia Yi proposed reforms to the calendar, official gown colors, titles, and ceremonies to establish distinct Han dynasty customs, replacing the Qin rituals. However, the Emperor, being modest and frugal, did not prioritize these suggestions.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 108): Limited Social Welfare

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo

    The 1st year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era(179 B.C.)

    In the winter, on October 1, Liu Ze, the Prince of Langya, was relocated to become the Prince of Yan, while Liu Sui, the son of Prince of Zhao–Liu You, was enfeoffed as the new Prince of Zhao.

    That winter, Chen Ping requested to resign from his position due to illness. The Emperor inquired about his decision, and Chen Ping replied, “During Emperor Gaozu’s reign, Zhou Bo did not accomplish as much as I did. However, during the elimination of the Lü Clan, I did not accomplish as much as Zhou Bo did. I would like to step down as Right Chancellor in favor of Zhou Bo.” On November 8, Emperor Wen appointed Chen Ping as Left Chancellor, Zhou Bo as Right Chancellor, and Guan Ying as Grand Commandant. The territories of Qi and Chu, which had been seized by the Lü Clan, were returned to their rightful federation.

    After the execution of the various members of the Lü clan, officials, from the Chancellor down to those of lower rank, were rewarded with increases in their fief households and gifts of gold. The Marquis of Jiang was particularly pleased and left the court with great satisfaction. The Emperor, who held him in high regard, watched him depart with admiration.

    The attendant Yuan Ang from Anling remonstrated with the Emperor, saying, “The Lü clan rebelled, and all the high-ranking officials worked together to exterminate them. At that time, the Chancellor was also the Grand Commandant and in charge of the military. He was merely successful in his duties. Now the Chancellor seems to show signs of swagger, and Your Majesty remains humble and accommodating.  When ministers are disrespectful and the sovereign is permissive, It is not an appropriate relationship, in my humble opinion.”

    After this, the Emperor became more solemn, while the Chancellor grew more cautious and fearful.

    In December, an edict was issued stating, “The law is intended to govern justly. While those who violate the law have already been sentenced, it is unacceptable to us for innocent parents, spouses, relatives, and associates to be punished and enslaved as a result. Therefore, the laws concerning the punishment of children and others guilty by association will be abolished.”

    In January, during the spring, the officials requested that a crown prince be established early. The Emperor responded, “Since I lack virtue and have not been able to extensively search for virtuous and capable individuals to whom I might abdicate, establishing a crown prince prematurely would only highlight my own lack of virtue. Let us delay this matter.”

    The officials, however, insisted, saying, “Establishing a crown prince underscores the importance of ancestral temples and national altars, ensuring the country is not neglected.”

    The Emperor said, “The Prince of Chu is my uncle, the Prince of Wu is my brother, and the Prince of Huainan is my younger brother. Are they not suitable candidates for succession? If I overlook them and only consider my sons, people will think I’ve ignored virtuous and capable individuals in favor of my own children. This is not the way to care for the country.”

    The officials persisted, “In ancient times, the dynasties of Yin and Zhou thrived in peace and prosperity for over a thousand years by following this practice. Selecting a son as the heir has been the tradition for generations. When Emperor Gaozu unified the world, he became the primogenitor. His descendants have succeeded the throne ever since. It would not be appropriate to alter his will now and select an heir from among the princes of the royal family. Such a change would go against Emperor Gaozu’s precedent. Prince Liu Qi, your eldest son, is pure, kind, and benevolent. We humbly request that he be established as the crown prince.”

    The Emperor, after hearing this, agreed to their request.

    In March, the mother of the crown prince, Lady Dou, was made Empress. She was originally from Guanjin County in Qinghe Commandery. Lady Dou had a younger brother named Dou Guangguo, whose courtesy name was Shaojun (Young Lord). As a child, he had been kidnapped and sold multiple times before finally managing to return home. Upon learning that his sister had become Empress, he wrote her a letter recounting his story.

    The Empress summoned him, and after questioning him, confirmed his story was true. She then granted him land, houses, and money, allowing him and his family to settle in Chang’an alongside his older brother, Dou Zhangjun (Older Lord).

    The Marquis of Jiang and General Guan Ying said to each other, “We have just escaped death with the Lüs, but our fates now rest in the hands of these two brothers. They come from humble origins, and if they do not choose good teachers and advisers, they may end up like the Lü clan. This is a matter of great importance!” As a result, they selected virtuous and upright scholars to serve as the brothers’ teachers and advisers. From that point on, the brothers became modest and respectful, never allowing their elevated status to turn them into reckless or egoistic brats.

    The Emperor issued a decree to provide support and loans to widows, widowers, orphans, the elderly, and the destitute. He also ordered that individuals over the age of 80 would receive monthly grants of rice, meat, and wine, while those over the age of 90 would also be given silk and cotton. The county magistrate must inspect all porridge and goods for elders, and the administrator and military officer were tasked with delivering them to those over 90 years old. For those under 90, the distribution was handled by town managers and the staff of the county magistrate. High-ranking officials were assigned to monitor local officials to ensure proper execution of the distribution, with punishments in place for those who failed to dispense the grants correctly.

    The Prince Yuan of Chu, Liu Jiao, passed away.

    In April of that summer, earthquakes struck the principalities of Qi and Chu. On the same day, twenty-nine mountains collapsed, and great floods erupted.

    Around this time, someone presented the Emperor with a horse capable of running a thousand li per day. The Emperor remarked, “With imperial banners leading and baggage carts following, my procession can march no more than fifty li a day, and the army can only manage thirty li. Should I ride this thousand-li horse and leave everyone behind?” He returned the horse to the giver and compensated them for their expenses. He then issued an edict: “I will not accept any more gifts. Let it be known throughout the realm that no one should present me with further offerings.”

    Emperor Wen had long shown kindness to the people, and the monarchs and neighboring tribes, both near and far, were pleased. At last, he rewarded those from Dai who had aided in his ascension, appointing Song Chang as the Marquis of Zhuangwu.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 107): Emperor Wen, the Prudent

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    Liu Heng, Emperor Wen of Han, A portrait in Museum.

    The 8th year of the Empress Gao(180 B.C. continued)

    While in Xingyang, Guan Ying heard that Wei Bo had persuaded the Prince of Qi to raise troops. He summoned Wei Bo and questioned him. Wei Bo responded, “When a house is on fire, the family doesn’t have time to ask the host for permission before putting it out.” After speaking, he stepped back, his legs trembling with fear, and could say nothing more. General Guan Ying laughed and said, “People say Wei Bo is brave, but he’s just an overrated man who can’t accomplish anything!” He then dismissed Wei Bo. Guan Ying‘s troops also withdrew and returned from Xingyang.

    Ban Gu’s praising commentary: During the reign of Emperor Wen, the world condemned Li Ji as a traitor. A traitor is someone who prioritizes personal gain over loyalty and righteousness. However, if Li Ji had only been coerced because his father, a meritorious official, was held hostage, even if he had betrayed his friend Lü Lu to safeguard the state, his loyalty to the emperor and his affection for his father should be acceptable.

    A group of high ranking ministers conspired in secret, saying, “Emperor Shao and the Princes of Liang, Huaiyang, and Hengshan are not truly Emperor Hui’s sons. Empress Lü falsely claimed they were his sons, killed their mothers, and raised them in the imperial harem as princes to strengthen the Lü clan. Now that the entire Lü clan has been eliminated, if those established as the emperor’s sons grow older and come to power, we have no chance of survival. It is better to choose the most capable among the princes as the new emperor.” Someone suggested, “The Prince of Qi, Emperor Gaozu’s grandson, could be chosen.” The ministers responded, “The Lü clan brought chaos through the maternal family’s dominance, almost destroying the ancestral temple. If we establish the Prince of Qi, whose uncle, Si Jun, is as aggressive and greedy as a tiger, we might end up serving another Lü clan. The Prince of Dai is Emperor Gaozu’s oldest son, and he is kind, tolerant, and respectful. Moreover, his mother’s family, the Bo clan, is honest and virtuous. Choosing the eldest is the most customary option. Besides, he is renowned for his kindness and filial piety throughout the empire!” They then secretly sent someone to summon the Prince of Dai.

    The Prince of Dai asked his advisors, including the lord of chamberlain, Zhang Wu, for their opinions. They said, “The ministers of the Han dynasty were originally high-ranking generals under Emperor Gaozu, experienced in warfare and skilled in strategy and deception. Their ambitions extend beyond their current positions. They acted cautiously out of fear of Emperor Gaozu and Empress Lü, but now they may be using the pretext of welcoming the Prince to pursue their own selfish goals. We advise your majesty to feign illness and refrain from going, so that we may observe how the situation unfolds.”

    However, Commander of the capital garrison, Song Chang, spoke up, “The opinions of the courtiers are all wrong. When the Qin dynasty fell, the feudal lords and nobles rose up, each thinking they could claim the throne, with tens of thousands vying for it. Yet, in the end, it was the Liu family who ascended, leaving the rest of the world to drop out of the contention — this was the first reason. When Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed his sons and relatives, they served as checks on each other like interlocking teeth — this was the foundation of an unshakable empire. The entire world submitted to his strength — this was the second reason. When the Han dynasty was established, the harsh policies of Qin were abolished, the laws were simplified, and benevolence and kindness were extended to the people, leaving everyone feeling secure and averse to change — this was the third reason. Even though Empress Lü exercised strict control and appointed her family members as Princes, she could not prevent the Grand Commandant from inciting the Northern Army to support the Liu family and rebel against the Lü clan, leading to their downfall. This was a sign from heaven, not the result of human effort. Now, even if the ministers attempt to create upheaval, the people will not follow them, would their factions remain united? Inside the palace, there are relatives of Marquis of Zhuxu and Marquis of Dongmou, and outside, there is fear of the external power of principalities of Wu, Chu, Huaiyang, Langya, Qi, and Dai. Among Emperor Gaozu’s sons, only the Prince of Huainan and Your Majesty remain. Your Majesty is also the eldest, and your wisdom, benevolence, and filial piety are renowned throughout the world. Therefore, the ministers genuinely wish to support Your Majesty and welcome your ascension to the throne, in accordance with the people’s will. Your Majesty should not doubt their motives.”

    The Prince of Dai reported this to his mother, Empress Dowager Bo, but remained uncertain. He consulted a divination, which revealed the hexagram “Big Horizontal.” The interpretation was: “Big Horizontal represents a heavenly Prince, like the brilliance of dawn in summer.” The Prince of Dai asked, “But I am already a Prince. What other Prince is there?” The diviner replied, “The heavenly Prince is none other than the son of Heaven.”

    Following this, the Prince of Dai sent Empress Dowager’s younger brother, Bo Zhao, to meet with the Marquis of Jiang, who explained their plan to enthrone him. Bo Zhao returned with a positive response, and the Prince of Dai smiled and said to Song Chang, “It turns out you were right.”

    The Prince of Dai, accompanied by Song Chang, rode with six others, including Zhang Wu, on a government post vehicle to Chang’an. They rested at Gaoling, and Song Chang was sent ahead to observe the situation in Chang’an. When Song Chang arrived at Wei Bridge[a bridge over Wei River], he was greeted by everyone, from the Chancellor down. Song Chang returned to report his findings. The Prince of Dai then rode to Wei Bridge, where the courtiers bowed and pledged allegiance to him. The King of Dai dismounted from his carriage and returned the salutes.

    The Grand Commandant then requested an audience. Song Chang replied, “Whatever you have to say publicly, say it publicly; whatever you have to say privately, the Prince has no private affairs.” The Grand Commandant knelt and presented the imperial seal and insignia of office. The Prince of Dai thanked him and said, “Let’s discuss it further at the Dai state residence.”

    On the leap month of September 29, the Prince of Dai arrived in Chang’an and stayed at the Dai state residence. The courtiers followed him to the residence. Chancellor Chen Ping and others bowed twice and said, “Prince Liu Hong and other young men are not the true sons of Emperor Hui and are therefore not suitable to succeed Emperor Hui and serve in the ancestral temple. As the eldest son of Emperor Gaozu, you should succeed him. We implore you to ascend the imperial throne.”

    The Prince of Dai declined three times when asked to take the throne facing west, and twice when asked to face south. Eventually, he ascended the throne as emperor. The courtiers then followed the proper protocol and saluted him.

    The Marquis of Dongmou, Liu Xingju, said, “I had no merit in the execution of the Lü clan. I request to clean up the royal palace.” He entered the palace with Grand Coachman, the Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, the Marquis of Ruyin. They told the Emperor Shao, Liu Hong, “You are not a descendant of the Liu clan and should not be on the throne!” Liu Xingju then commanded the guards to put down their weapons and leave. Although some guards initially refused, Director of Internuncio, Zhang Shi, was sent to persuade them, and they eventually complied. The Duke of Teng then had the Emperor Shao carried out in an imperial carriage. Liu Hong asked, “Where are you taking me?” The Duke of Teng replied, “Outside the palace,” and took him to the privy chamber.

    The next day, they escorted the Prince of Dai in the imperial carriage to the palace and reported, “The palace is secure.” That evening, the Prince of Dai entered Weiyang Palace. At the Duan gate, ten guards armed with halberds asked, “Who goes there? What brings you here while the emperor is inside?” The Prince of Dai ordered the Grand Commandant to speak to them, and the guards put down their weapons, allowing him to enter.

    That night, the Prince of Dai appointed Song Chang as Guard General, responsible for maintaining order among the northern and southern armies, and Zhang Wu as the lord of chamberlain. Judicial officials then executed the Prince of Liang, the Prince of Huaiyang, the Prince of Hengshan, and the Emperor Shao at their residences. Emperor Wen returned to the front hall and issued a decree granting amnesty to the entire empire.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 106): The Coup d’etat

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    Express Dowager Lü

    The 7th year of the Empress Gao(181 B.C. continued)

    Chen Ping was worried about the growing power of the Lü clan and feared he might be implicated in their downfall. While Chen Ping was preoccupied with these thoughts, Lu Jia came to see him and sat down without being invited. Chen Ping didn’t even acknowledge him.

    Lu Jia asked, “What is troubling you so deeply?”

    Chen Ping replied, “What do you think is troubling me?”

    Lu Jia said, “You are extremely wealthy and have no further desires. But you are concerned about the Lü clan and the young emperor.”

    Chen Ping agreed, “Yes, that’s it. What can I do about it?”

    Lu Jia said, “When the world is at peace, the focus is on the ministers. When the world is in chaos, the focus is on the generals. When ministers and generals are in harmony, the people will follow. Even if significant events occur, power will not be divided. The balance of state power is held by two gentlemen. I often wanted to advise the Marquis of Jiang on this, but he always joked and dismissed my advice. Why don’t you befriend the Marquis of Jiang and form a deep bond with him?”

    Lu Jia then laid out plans targeting the Lü clan to Chen Ping. Following his advice, Chen Ping gave the Marquis of Jiang 500 gold coins as a birthday gift and hosted a lavish feast. The Marquis of Jiang responded in kind, and the two became close friends. As their friendship grew, the power of the Lü clan began to decline. In gratitude, Chen Ping gave Lu Jia 100 house slaves, 50 carriages, and five million coins to cover his expenses for food and drink.

    The Empress Dowager sent messengers to inform the Prince of Dai, Liu Heng, of her intention to relocate him to the principality of Zhao. The Prince of Dai expressed his gratitude but requested to remain guarding the borders of Dai. The Empress Dowager then appointed her nephew, Lü Lu, as the new Prince of Zhao and posthumously honored Lü Lu’s father, Lü Shizhi, Marquis Kang of Jiancheng, as Prince Zhao of Zhao.

    In September, the Prince of Yan, Liu Jian, passed away, leaving behind a son born to a concubine. The Empress Dowager ordered the son to be killed, bringing an end to the Principality of Yan.

    The Empress Dowager also sent the Marquis of Longlü, Zhou Zao, on a campaign against Nanyue.

    The 8th year of the Empress Gao(180 B.C.)

    In winter, on October 12, the Marquis of Dongping, Lü Tong, the son of Prince Su of Lü, was appointed Prince of Yan, while his younger brother, Lü Zhuang, became the Marquis of Dongping.

    In March, the empress dowager performed an exorcism ritual. On her return journey, as she passed through Zhidao Post, she encountered a creature resembling a gray dog, which bit her under the arm before vanishing. Divination revealed that the ghost of the Prince of Zhao—Liu Ruyi, was responsible for this, leading to the empress dowager’s illness and pain in her armpit.

    The empress dowager’s grandson, Zhang Yan, the Prince of Lu, was still young and frail. Therefore, on April 15 in the summer, she appointed Zhang Ao‘s two sons, Zhang Chi and Zhang Shou—both born of his concubine—as the Marquises of Xindu and Lechang, respectively, to assist the Prince of Lu. She also awarded the title of Marquis of Jianling to Director of Internuncio Zhang Shi, an eunuch, for his counsel in elevating the Lü clan to kingship.

    The Yangtze and Han Rivers overflowed, flooding more than ten thousand households.

    In July of autumn, as the empress dowager’s illness worsened, she appointed Lü Lu, the Prince of Zhao, as the top general to command the Northern Army, while Lü Chan, the Prince of Lü, was given command of the Southern Army. She exhorted them both, saying, “When the Lü clan was elevated to kingship, the ministers were not fully in accord. I fear that after my death, with the emperor still young, the ministers may stage a coup. You must seize control of the Palace Guards and ensure you are not distracted by the funeral procession, lest you lose grip of the army!”

    On July 30, the empress dowager passed away, leaving a will that pardoned all criminals in the empire. Lü Chan, Prince of Lü, was appointed Chancellor of State, and Lü Lu‘s daughter was made empress. After Empress Gao‘s burial, Left Chancellor Shen Yiji was appointed Grand Tutor to the emperor.

    The Lü clan plotted to take action, but hesitated due to fear of powerful ministers like the Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo, and the Marquis of Yingyin, Guan Ying. The Marquis of Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, who had married Lü Lu‘s daughter, learned of their plan and secretly informed his elder brother, Liu Xiang, the Prince of Qi. He warned that the Lü clan was preparing to act and suggested launching an attack towards the west, with the Marquis of Zhuxu and the Marquis of Dongmou as allies within the capital, to overthrow the Lü clan and enthrone the Prince of Qi as emperor.

    The Prince of Qi, along with his maternal uncle Si Jun, the Lord of Chamberlain Zhu Wu, and Commandant of the Central Guard Wei Bo, secretly conspired to launch the attack. However, the Prime Minister of Qi, Shao Ping, disapproved of the plan. In August, the Prince of Qi decided to have Shao Ping killed, but when Shao Ping discovered this, he sent troops to besiege the palace. Wei Bo deceived Shao Ping, “The Prince wished to mobilize troops but lacked the proper authorization from the Han Dynasty’s tiger tally. You did the right thing to surround the prince’s palace. I volunteered to lead the troops to put the Prince of Qi under house-arrest.” Shao Ping believed him and authorized him to lead the troop, and Wei Bo then surrounded Shao Ping’s residence, prompting Shao Ping to commit suicide.

    As a result, Si Jun became the Prime Minister of Qi, Wei Bo was appointed general, and Zhu Wu became Minister of Interior. They then mobilized the state’s military forces.

    Zhu Wu was sent to deceive Liu Ze, the Prince of Langya, saying: “The Lü clan has rebelled, and the Prince of Qi has dispatched troops to the west to exterminate them. Since the Prince of Qi is young and inexperienced in military affairs, he wishes to entrust the country to Your Majesty. As a general under Emperor Gaozu, Your Majesty’s presence in Linzi is requested to discuss matters with the Prince of Qi.”

    Believing this, the Prince of Langya hurried west to meet the Prince of Qi, but upon arrival, he was detained. Zhu Wu then mobilized and led the Langya army. The Prince of Langya advised the Prince of Qi, saying: “Your Majesty, as Emperor Gaozu‘s grandson, you are the rightful heir to the throne. However, the court officials are hesitant and have not yet made a decision. Among them, I, Liu Ze, have served the longest and am the most respected, and the officials are awaiting my judgment. Keeping me here would be meaningless. Allow me to return to the court and deliberate with the ministers.”

    The Prince of Qi agreed and sent the Prince of Langya on his way with additional carriages. Once the Prince of Langya departed, the Prince of Qi raised an army and attacked Jinan to the west, which had become part of the Lü state. He also sent letters to various princes, outlining the Lü clan’s crimes and proposing that they raise troops to exterminate them.

    Chancellor Lü Chan learned of the Prince of Qi‘s campaign and sent the Marquis of Yingyin, Guan Ying, to attack the Prince of Qi. However, when Guan Ying reached Xingyang, he had second thoughts: “The Lü clan has a strong military presence in Guanzhong and intends to threaten the Liu family and establish themselves as rulers. If I defeat Qi and return, it will only strengthen the Lü clan’s position.” He decided to remain where he was and sent envoys to meet with the Prince of Qi and other princes, intending to wait for the Lü clan to overthrow the Liu dynasty, and then crush them.

    The Prince of Qi, learning of Guan Ying‘s plan, decided to return to the western border and wait for the Lü clan’s next move.

    Lü Lu and Lü Chan wanted to revolt, but they hesitated, fearing not only the Marquis of Jiang, the Marquis of Zhuxu, and others within the court, but also the armies of Qi and Chu outside. They were also concerned that Guan Ying might defect to the other side. They hoped to wait until Guan Ying‘s forces clashed with those of Qi before launching their rebellion, but they remained indecisive.

    At that time, Liu Tai, the Prince of Jichuan; Liu Wu, the Prince of Huaiyang; Liu Chao, the Prince of Changshan; and Zhang Yan, the Prince of Lu, were all still young and had not yet departed for their respective kingdoms. They resided in Chang’an. Lü Lu, the Prince of Zhao, and Lü Chan, the Prince of Liang, commanded the northern and southern armies, respectively, and were the primary leaders of the Lü clan. None of the other marquises or ministers felt assured of their safety or were firmly committed to any particular course of action.

    The Grand Commandant, Marquis of Jiang, could not command the army directly. The Marquis of Quzhou, Li Shang, was old and in poor health, and his son, Li Ji, was a friend of Lü Lu. The Marquis of Jiang conspired with Chancellor Chen Ping and arranged for someone to abduct Li Shang, then compelled Li Ji to deceive Lü Lu by saying: “Emperor Gaozu and Empress Lü jointly established the empire, and the nine princes from the Liu clan, along with the three princes from the Lü clan, were all appointed based on the ministers’ counsel. This has been communicated to the princes, and they all support it.”

    “Now that the empress dowager has passed away and the emperor is young, you, as the Prince of Zhao, are carrying the royal seal but are not defending the state’s borders. Instead, you are acting as chief commander and keeping your army here, which is raising suspicion among the ministers and princes. Why not return the seal of commander-in-chief and entrust your army to the Grand Commandant? Also, let the Prince of Liang return the chancellor’s seal, make a pact with the ministers, and then return to your princedoms. This will force the Qi army to withdraw, and the ministers will feel secure. You can then enjoy ruling a vast princedom, securing the prosperity of your descendants for generations.”

    Lü Lu believed in this plan and considered handing over his army to the Grand Commandant. He sent word to Lü Chan and the other senior members of the Lü clan. Some thought it was a good idea, while others disagreed, leaving the plan unimplemented.

    Lü Lu trusted Li Ji and was out hunting with him when they happened to pass by his aunt, Lü Xu. She became furious and said, “If you, as a commander, abandon your troops, the Lü family will have no place to survive!” In her anger, she threw all her pearls and valuables onto the floor, exclaiming, “I don’t want to keep them for others!”

    On September 10, the Marquis of Pingyang, Cao Zhu, acting as Grand Master of the Censorate, visited Chancellor Lü Chan to discuss state affairs. During the meeting, Jia Shou, the Grand Chamberlain and an emissary back from Qi, reproached Lü Chan, saying, “As the Prince of Liang, you should have reported to your principality earlier. Now that you want to leave, is it still possible?” He then revealed Guan Ying’s plan to execute the Lü family with the assistance of the Princes of Qi and Chu, urging Lü Chan to enter the palace immediately.

    The Marquis of Pingyang overheard this and rushed to inform Chancellor Chen Ping and Grand Commandant Zhou Bo.

    The Grand Commandant attempted to enter the Northern Army but was denied access. The Marquis of Xiangping, Ji Tong, was in charge of the imperial tally. Marquis of Jiang ordered him to hold the tally and falsely claimed that the emperor had authorized the Grand Commandant to enter the Northern Army on an urgent matter. The Grand Commandant then had Li Ji and the Grand Herald, Liu Jie, persuade Lü Lu, saying, “The Emperor has appointed the Grand Commandant to lead the Northern Army and wants you to return to your princedom. You should hand over your command seal and leave immediately, or disaster will follow soon.”

    Lü Lu, trusting Li Ji, believed he wouldn’t lie and handed over his seal to the Grand Herald, entrusting his troops to the Grand Commandant. By the time the Grand Commandant arrived at the army, Lü Lu had already departed. Upon entering the army gate, the Grand Commandant commanded the soldiers, “Those who support the Lü clan should bare their right arms and shoulders, and those who support the Liu clan should bare their left arms and shoulders.” The soldiers all bared their left arms and shoulders, and the Grand Commandant took control of the Northern Army.

    However, the Southern Army remained intact. Prime Minister Chen Ping summoned the Marquis of Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, to serve as the Grand Commandant’s assistant and ordered him to guard the army camp gate. Meanwhile, the Marquis of Pingyang, Cao Zhu, instructed the Commandant of the Court Guards not to allow Chancellor Lü Chan to enter the palace.

    Lü Chan, unaware that Lü Lu had already left the Northern Army, entered Weiyang Palace with the intention of starting a rebellion. Denied entry at the palace gate, he anxiously paced back and forth. The Marquis of Pingyang, fearing he would not be able to stop Lü Chan, rushed on horse to warn the Grand Commandant. The Grand Commandant, wary of the Lü family’s influence and hesitant to openly call for their execution, instructed the Marquis of Zhuxu, “Hurry and protect the Emperor in the palace!”

    Marquis Zhuxu requested soldiers, and the Grand Commandant provided him with over a thousand troops. They entered Weiyang Palace and found Lü Chan in the court.

    In the late afternoon, they launched an attack on Lü Chan, forcing him to flee. A strong gust of wind suddenly blew, causing Lü Chan’s subordinates to panic and lose their ability to fight back. Lü Chan was chased down and killed in the latrine of the Grand Chamberlain’s office. After Lü Chan‘s death, the Emperor ordered an internuncio to present the imperial tally as a token of appreciation to Marquis of Zhuxu.

    Marquis of Zhuxu attempted to take the tally, but the internuncio refused. Determined, Marquis of Zhuxu boarded the same wagon as the internuncio and rushed to the palace with the tally, beheading Lü Gengshi, the guard captain of ChangLe Palace, along the way.

    Marquis of Zhuxu, after taking care of the palace, hurried back to the Northern Army to report to the Grand Commandant. The Grand Commandant congratulated him, “Our only concern was Lü Chan. Now that he has been executed, there will be no more problems in the empire!” He then ordered the arrest of all members of the Lü clan, men and women alike, and had them executed, regardless of age.

    On September 11, Lü Lu was arrested and executed, Lü Xu was whipped to death, and Lü Tong, the Prince of Yan, was executed. Zhang Yan, the Prince of Lu, was deposed.

    On September 18, the Prince of Jichuan(Liu Tai) was promoted to Prince of Liang. Marquis of Zhuxu was then dispatched to inform the Prince of Qi about the extermination of the Lü clan and was ordered to stop further military actions.