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Tag: Qin-dynasty

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 71): A Deer or A Horse

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 3 Scroll 8 (continued)

    The Tomb of The Second Emperor of Qin

    The 3rd year of the Second Emperor(207 B.C. continued)

    Earlier, the eunuch Chancellor Zhao Gao sought to establish absolute authority over the Qin empire but feared that other court officials might not be fully obedient. To test their loyalty, he devised a scheme. He presented a deer to the Second Emperor and said, “This is a horse.” The Emperor laughed and said, “Are you mistaken, Chancellor? You call a deer a horse?” The Emperor then asked those around him for their opinion. Some remained silent, others agreed it was a horse to appease Zhao Gao, while a few said it was a deer. Zhao Gao covertly persecuted those who called it a deer. From that point on, all the court officials were terrified of him, and no one dared to disagree with him.

    Zhao Gao often dismissed the uprisings east of Hangu Pass, saying, “They are merely burglars, not a serious threat.” However, after Xiang Yu captured General Wang Li, and General Zhang Han suffered a series of defeats, Zhang Han sent repeated requests for reinforcements. Meanwhile, many towns east of Hangu Pass rebelled against Qin officials and aligned with the other kingdoms. Generals from these kingdoms began leading their armies westward toward Qin.

    In August, the Duke of Pei led tens of thousands of troops through Wu Pass, annihilating all its defenders. Fearing that his lies had angered the Second Emperor and would result in his own execution, Zhao Gao feigned illness and stopped attending court.

    The Second Emperor had a troubling dream in which a white tiger bit and killed the leftmost horse of his chariot. Feeling uneasy, he sought the interpretation of a shaman, who told him, “The deity of the Jing River is the source of this trouble.” Disturbed by the dream, the Emperor began fasting and praying at Wangyi Palace, planning to appease the Jing River deity by sacrificing four white horses. Simultaneously, he sent a message reprimanding Zhao Gao for his mishandling of the eastern rebellions. This frightened Zhao Gao, who conspired with his son-in-law, Yan Le, the mayor of Xianyang, and his brother Zhao Cheng.

    Zhao Gao lamented to them: “The Emperor no longer heeds my counsel. Now, he blames me in his time of crisis. I intend to depose him and enthrone Ziying. Ziying is kind and prudent, and everyone speaks well of him.” He then ordered the court security chief, Zhao Cheng, to act as an insider. Zhao Gao fabricated a story that gangsters had infiltrated the palace, and Yan Le was to send his troops inside under this pretext. As leverage, Zhao Gao also took Yan Le’s mother hostage.

    Yan Le led a thousand officers and soldiers to the gates of Wangyi Palace, tying up the chief guard and the court attendants. He shouted, “Gangsters have entered the palace! Why did you stop them?” The chief guard retorted, “The palace is well-guarded at all times. How could gangsters have gotten in?” In response, Yan Le ordered the chief guard’s execution. His forces stormed the palace, firing arrows. Eunuchs and servants panicked—some fled, while others were killed. Dozens died in the chaos.

    Zhao Cheng and Yan Le penetrated the inner court, where the Second Emperor was praying. An arrow struck the Emperor’s curtains, enraging him. He called for his servants, but they were too paralyzed by fear to act. Only one eunuch remained by his side. The Emperor asked, “Why didn’t you tell me the truth earlier? Now it’s come to this.” The eunuch replied, “I have survived by staying silent. Had I told you the truth, I would have been killed long ago.”

    Yan Le confronted the Second Emperor, accusing him: “You are tyrannical and reckless. You’ve killed countless people without remorse, and the entire country has risen against you. What do you intend to do now?” The Second Emperor pleaded, “May I see the Chancellor?” Yan Le refused. The Emperor then begged, “I want to be a king of a commandery.” Again, the answer was no. He lowered his request: “I want to be a marquis with a fief of ten thousand households.” Yan Le still refused. Finally, the Emperor pleaded, “Let me be a commoner, living with my wife, like the other princes.”

    Yan Le replied coldly, “I have orders from the Chancellor to kill you for the good of the realm. Say as much as your honor wants, I cannot report back.” He then ordered his soldiers to advance. Cornered, the Second Emperor took his own life.

    Yan Le reported back to Zhao Gao, who then summoned all the court officials and royals to inform them of the Second Emperor‘s death. Zhao Gao declared, “Qin was originally a kingdom, and only the First Emperor became ruler of all under heaven, claiming the title of emperor. Now, with the six kingdoms restored and Qin’s territory diminished, it is no longer fitting to call ourselves an empire. Let us return to being a kingdom.” He then enthroned Ziying as the King of Qin, and the Second Emperor was buried as a commoner in Yichun Garden, south of Du County.

    In September, Zhao Gao ordered Ziying to begin fasting and praying in preparation for a ceremony in which he would worship at the ancestral temple and receive the royal jade seal. On the fifth day of fasting, Ziying devised a plot with his two sons. He said, “Chancellor Zhao Gao murdered the Second Emperor at Wangyi Palace. Fearing retaliation from the court, he pretended to seek justice by making me king. I have heard that Zhao Gao conspired with the Kingdom of Chu to eliminate all Qin royals and divide Qin into smaller kingdoms. His plan is to kill me when I go to the temple under the guise of this ceremony. I will feign illness, and when Zhao Gao comes to force me, we shall kill him.”

    Zhao Gao sent numerous messengers to urge Ziying to attend the temple ceremony, but Ziying refused. Eventually, Zhao Gao came in person, demanding, “The ancestral temple ceremony is the most important event for the kingdom. Why, as king, are you refusing to go?” At that moment, Ziying assassinated Zhao Gao in the palace where he had been fasting. He then ordered the execution of Zhao Gao’s entire family, setting an example to others.

    Ziying dispatched additional troops to defend Yao Pass. The Duke of Pei intended to launch an attack on the pass, but Zhang Liang advised caution: “The Qin army is still strong, and we should not underestimate them. We should set up banners and flags on the mountains to create the illusion of a larger force, then send lobbyists Li Yiji and Lu Jia to negotiate with Qin’s generals, offering them incentives.” The Qin generals, as predicted, were open to negotiations. The Duke of Pei was prepared to finalize the deal when Zhang Liang suggested another approach: “Though the generals may be ready to switch sides, their soldiers may not follow. Now that their guard is down, it is better to strike.”Following this advice, the Duke of Pei led his troops around Yao Pass, cleared Mount Kuai, and routed the Qin army south of Lantian. After taking Lantian, they fought another battle north of the town, decisively defeating the Qin forces again.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 64): The Implosion of Zhang-Chu

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 3 Scroll 8

    Duration of 2 years

    The Rise of Zhang-Chu

    The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C.)

    In October of that winter, the inspector general of the Sichuan commandery, named Ping, led an armed force to surround the Duke of Pei in Feng county. The Duke of Pei emerged from the city and defeated Ping’s troops. He then assigned Yong Chi to defend Feng county. In November, the Duke of Pei led his forces toward Xue county. The governor of the Sichuan commandery, named Zhuang, came out to engage the Duke of Pei in a battle but was routed. Zhuang fled to Qi County, where he was captured and killed by the Left Major of the Duke of Pei’s forces.

    General Zhou Wen fled from the Hangu Pass and halted at Caoyang post. About two months later, General Zhang Han pursued him and defeated his troops again. Zhou Wen retreated to Mianchi county, where Zhang Han attacked him again after a dozen days. This time, Zhou Wen’s troops were decisively crushed. Zhou Wen slit his throat, and his troops ceased fighting.

    The Deputy King of Zhang-Chu, Wu Guang, led the siege of Xingyang. Li You, the governor of the Sanchuan commandery, commanded the defense of the city, successfully thwarting Wu Guang’s efforts. A general of Zhang-Chu named Tian Zang conspired with his confidants: “The army of Zhou Wen has collapsed, and the Qin army could arrive any day now. We cannot breach Xingyang, and we will be defeated when the Qin forces come. It would be better to leave a small contingent to continue the siege of Xingyang and concentrate our finest troops to face the incoming Qin army head-on. However, the Deputy King Wu Guang is arrogant and ignorant of military strategy. Discussing this plan with him would be pointless and could make matters worse.” They plotted to forge a decree from Chen Sheng, ordering Wu Guang‘s execution. They beheaded Wu Guang and delivered his head to Chen Sheng. In response, Chen Sheng sent an envoy to Tian Zang, granting him the seal of Prime Minister of Zhang-Chu and appointing him as the top general.

    Tian Zang left General Li Gui and several other generals to maintain the siege of Xingyang. He then led his core forces westward to confront the Qin army at the town of Aocang. In the ensuing battle, Tian Zang was killed, and his troops were slaughtered. General Zhang Han advanced to Xingyang and broke the siege. General Li Gui and the other generals were killed.

    General Deng Shui of Zhang-Chu from Yangcheng County had his troops camped at Jia county, but a lieutenant under Zhang Han routed them. General Wu Feng from Zhi County led his troops to the town Xu, where Zhang Han‘s army crushed them. Both Zhang-Chu forces collapsed, and their commanders fled back to their king. Enraged, Chen Sheng had Deng Shui executed.

    The Second Emperor lampooned Chancellor Li Si several times: “You hold the highest ministerial position in the court; why do you allow bandits and thieves to be so rampant?” Li Si was frightened. He greatly valued his high rank and rewards but did not know how to address the issue. 

    Seeking to please the emperor, he drafted a proposal: “A wise ruler must master the art of surveillance and supervision. When Mr. Shen Buhai said, ‘When one owns the world and does not do whatever he wants, it can be said that he lets the world be a shackle on himself,’ he meant that a ruler who fails to surveil and supervise properly, like Emperors Yao and Yu who served all the people with their own labor, effectively shackles himself. If a ruler does not practice the wise arts developed by Mr. Shen Buhai and Mr. Han Fei, and instead burdens himself with the distress of ordinary people, making himself haggard, he is merely devoting himself to serving the people. This is the labor of a commoner, not the duty of a lord of the world. What is noble about that? Therefore, a wise monarch should enhance the surveillance of his subordinates and make all decisions himself to prevent power from falling into the hands of his subjects. Furthermore, he should stop the practice of benevolence and block all counsel and debate. The lord should do whatever he pleases, and no one would dare to resist. This way, officials and the people will be too busy correcting their own mistakes to plot any insurgency.”

    The Second Emperor was pleased with this proposal. He began scrutinizing officials more strictly, equating the brightest officers with those who taxed the people most severely and the loyalists with those who killed the most. Half of the people on the streets had criminal records, and dead bodies piled up in public squares daily. The people of Qin were terrified and yearned for insurgence.

    General Li Liang of Zhao had just subdued the chaos in Changshan commandery and reported back to the King of Zhao. The king then sent him to capture the city of Taiyuan. However, Li Liang‘s troops were halted at the town of Shiyi when the Qin army blocked the Jingjing Pass. The Qin commander forged a letter from the Second Emperor, attempting to persuade General Li Liang to change his allegiance. After reading the letter, Li Liang was not convinced and returned to Handan to request reinforcements. His request had not yet been answered when the king’s older sister went out on a drinking spree. Seeing her entourage of about a hundred people, Li Liang mistakenly thought it was the king himself and prostrated himself by the roadside to pay homage. The king’s sister, drunk and unaware of who was there, merely sent a cavalier to acknowledge him.

    General Li Liang, from an aristocratic background, felt humiliated in front of his troops. One of his officers stepped forward and said, “The people across the empire are revolting against Qin. Whoever has the might will come out on top. The King of Zhao used to rank below you, General. Yet this woman did not even get off her carriage to greet you. Allow me to catch and kill her.” Having received the letter from Qin, Li Liang was already wavering about his loyalty to the King of Zhao. Infuriated by the insult, he sent his man to catch up with the king’s sister and kill her. Li Liang then led his troops to attack the capital, Handan. The city was caught off guard. Li Liang killed the King of Zhao and Vice Prime Minister Shao Sao. Zhang Er and Chen Yu managed to escape, as they had many informants throughout the state.

    Qin Jia from Ling and Zhu Jishi from Fuli county raised an armed force and surrounded the governor of Donghai commandery in Tan county. When King Chen Sheng heard about it, he sent General Xin, titled Lord Wuping, to oversee the troops besieging Tan. Qin Jia, unwilling to accept Lord Wuping’s authority, declared himself Grand Marshal.  He hated being under General Xin’s command. He told his fellow officers, “Lord Wuping is too young and knows nothing about military matters. Do not listen to him!” Claiming he had received an order from Chen Sheng, Qin Jia then killed Lord Wuping(General Xin).

    The Second Emperor sent the court chief of staff, Sima Xin, and commandant Dong Yi to assist General Zhang Han in suppressing the “bandits and burglars.” Zhang Han had already defeated Wu Feng and proceeded to attack the top general of Zhang-Chu, Lord Fang, killing him. He then moved on to attack the troops of Zhang He, located west of Chen county. Chen Sheng himself came out to oversee the battle, but Zhang He was killed.

    In December, while returning from Ruyin county, Chen Sheng was assassinated by his chauffeur, Zhuang Jia, in a village called Xiachengfu. Zhuang Jia subsequently defected to Qin.

    In the early days when Chen Sheng became king, his fellow countrymen came to visit him, including his father-in-law. Chen Sheng treated him like any other visitor—he saluted him but did not kneel. His father-in-law was furious, saying, “You are a rioter and a title-grabber. You disrespect your elders; you won’t last long!” He turned around and left. Chen Sheng knelt and apologized, but his father-in-law did not look back. Encouraged by this, Chen Sheng‘s childhood friends began recounting old stories from their youth. Someone advised Chen Sheng, “These guests of yours are uneducated and boorish. Their talk is careless and out of control; it will bring dishonor to your name.” In response, Chen Sheng beheaded a few of the loose talkers. His chums deserted him afterward.

    Chen Sheng appointed Zhu Fang as chief examiner and Hu Wu as inquisitor. These two supervised all his officers and generals. When generals returned from conquering cities, they were often punished as criminals if their actions were deemed inappropriate. Zhu Fang and Hu Wu equated harshness with loyalty; if they found any mistakes, they either issued punishments themselves or handed them over to prosecutors. Because of this, the generals distanced themselves from King Chen Sheng. This alienation contributed to Chen Sheng’s downfall.

    General Lü Chen, a former housekeeper of King Chen Sheng, formed an armed force in Xinyang County, known as the Black-Head Army, as all the soldiers wore black headscarves. They broke into Chen county and killed Zhuang Jia, reinstating the Kingdom of Chu there. They buried King Chen Sheng in Dang county and gave him the posthumous title of King Yin of Chu.

    Chen Sheng had sent Song Liu from Zhi county to lead troops to capture the city of Nanyang and breach Wu Pass. Song Liu had already occupied Nanyang when he learned of Chen Sheng’s death. The Qin army retook Nanyang, and Song Liu surrendered. The Second Emperor ordered Song Liu to be quartered in public.

    Zhou Fu of Wei led troops to seize lands in Feng county and Pei county. He sent envoys to persuade Yong Chi to change allegiances. Yong Chi, who had previously been aloof and reluctant to report to the Duke of Pei, surrendered Feng county to the Kingdom of Wei. The Duke of Pei launched an attack on Feng county but was thwarted.

    Zhang Er and Chen Yu of Zhao reassembled an armed force from the remnants of their collapsed troops. They led tens of thousands of soldiers to attack Li Liang, defeating him.  As a result, Li Liang fled to surrender to General Zhang Han of Qin. An attendant of Zhang Er and Chen Yu advised them, “You are not natives of the Kingdom of Zhao, just mere travelers here, so you cannot claim kingship on your own. You need to find a descendant of the King of Zhao and help him become king. Then you may achieve your goals.” Following this advice, Zhang Er and Chen Yu found Zhao Xie. In January, during the spring, they installed Zhao Xie as the new King of Zhao and established Xindu county as its capital.

    The rebels in Dongyang county, led by Ning Jun and Qin Jia, learned that Chen Sheng’s troops had been defeated. They installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu and led their troops to Fangyu county, planning an attack on the Qin army at Dingtao. They sent Gongsun Qing as an envoy to the Kingdom of Qi, requesting that the Qi army join forces with them to confront the Qin army. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, rebuked the envoy: “King Chen Sheng was defeated. We do not know if he is dead or alive. Why did you install a new king without consulting us?” Gongsun Qing retorted, “The Kingdom of Qi installed its king without consulting the Kingdom of Chu. Why should the Kingdom of Chu consult with the Kingdom of Qi before installing its king?” In response, Tian Dan had Gongsun Qing executed.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 63): A Commoner and An Aristocrat

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7 (continued)

    Liu Ban Beheading A White Snake

    The 1st year of the Second Emperor(209 B.C. continued)

    In September, Liu Bang from Pei county rose in arms, Xiang Liang from Xiaxiang county revolted in the state of Wu, and Tian Dan from Di county did the same in the state of Qi. 

    Liu Bang, whose courtesy name was Liu Ji, had a prominent nasal bridge and a noble face, with seventy-two ink spots on his left thigh. He was known for his bold personality, generosity, and extroversion, often expressing his feelings openly. Ambitious and disinclined to engage in farming or handicrafts like his family members, he eventually became the head of Sishang Post. Mr. Lü from Shanfu county, a skilled physiognomist, was fascinated by Liu Ji’s extraordinary appearance and married his daughter to him despite Liu Ji’s low rank.

    Liu Ji was once tasked with escorting a group of convicts to Lishan on behalf of the county magistrate. As they traveled, many convicts escaped along the way, and Liu Ji realized that by the time they reached their destination, all would likely have fled. When the group stopped at a post in a swamp in Feng county, Liu Ji drank wine with the convicts. He then released them, saying, “Go your own ways; I am escaping myself.” About a dozen strong men among the convicts volunteered to join him.

    As the legend has it, Liu Ji, in a drunken state, wandered along a trail in the swamp when a large snake rose up in his path. Drawing his sword, Liu Ji swiftly hacked the snake in half. Suddenly, an old woman appeared, wailing: “My son, the son of the White Emperor, transformed into a snake on this trail and was killed by the son of the Red Emperor!” She then vanished. Liu Ji hid in the swamps between Mang County and Dangshan County, where several eerie phenomena were reported, attracting many young men from Pei County who were eager to join his growing band.

    When Chen Sheng’s uprising erupted, the magistrate of Pei County considered joining the rebellion. However, his chief operating officer, Xiao He, and his chief correction officer, Cao Shen, cautioned him: “As an officer of the Qin Empire, the people of Pei may not follow you in betraying your duty. It would be wiser to summon those in exile and gather a mob of a few hundred. With pressure from the mob, no one in Pei would dare oppose you.” The magistrate then sent Fan Kuai to summon Liu Ji, who had already assembled nearly a hundred followers. Fearing a mutiny, the magistrate reconsidered, ordering the city gates shut and defensive positions established. He also intended to execute Xiao He and Cao Shen. Alarmed, they escaped, clearing the city walls and sought refuge with Liu Ji.

    Liu Ji wrote a proclamation on a piece of silk and delivered it to the city elders by tying it to an arrow and shooting it over the ramparts. The message outlined the benefits and consequences of the uprising, urging the elders of Pei to take action. Persuaded, the elders led their sons and brothers to kill the magistrate and opened the gates for Liu Ji. The people gathered around Liu Ji, proclaiming him the Duke of Pei. With the help of Xiao He and Cao Shen, Liu Ji recruited young men from Pei, amassing a force of two to three thousand. They soon joined forces with other rebels from neighboring counties.

    Xiang Liang, the son of General Xiang Yan of the Kingdom of Chu, was hiding with his nephew Xiang Ji in the Wuzhong region due to a murder charge. The scholars and elites of Wuzhong admired Xiang Liang and often sought his friendship and counsel. Xiang Ji, however, struggled with reading and writing as a child and eventually abandoned his studies. He then turned to fencing but did not excel in it either, prompting Xiang Liang‘s disapproval. Xiang Ji retorted, “Reading and writing are only useful for recording names, and fencing is for fighting a single person. These are not worthy of my time. I want to learn how to fight ten thousand people.” Impressed by his ambition, Xiang Liang began teaching him the art of war, which Xiang Ji eagerly learned. However, once he grasped the basics, he lost interest in deeper studies. Xiang Ji grew to over six feet tall, had the strength to lift sacrificial tripods, and was known for his extraordinary talent and character.

    The governor of Kuaiji Commandery, Yin Tong, heard of Chen Sheng’s rebellion and decided to send troops to support the uprising, appointing Xiang Liang and Huan Chu as co-captains. However, Huan Chu was still hiding in the swamps as an outlaw. Xiang Liang told the governor, “Only Xiang Ji knows where Huan Chu is hiding.” Xiang Liang stationed Xiang Ji outside the governor’s residence, sword in hand, while he entered to speak with Yin Tong. He proposed, “Please call Xiang Ji in and have him bring Huan Chu.” The governor agreed. Xiang Liang then brought Xiang Ji inside, and after a few moments, he signaled him with a wink: “It is time to do it!” Xiang Ji drew his sword and decapitated Yin Tong. Xiang Liang held up the governor’s severed head and donned his official seal. The governor’s attendants were thrown into panic, and chaos erupted throughout the residence. Xiang Ji killed dozens, possibly over a hundred people. Terrified, everyone in the residence laid flat on the ground, not daring to move.

    Xiang Liang summoned the local leaders and former officials he knew, announcing his plans to rebel against the Qin Empire. He recruited young men from Wuzhong and dispatched deputies to draft fighters from the counties under Kuaiji Commandery. Xiang Liang assembled an elite force of eight thousand warriors and declared himself the governor of Kuaiji, appointing Xiang Ji as his lieutenant general. Together, they governed all the counties of the commandery. Xiang Ji was only twenty-four years old at the time.

    Tian Dan was a member of the royal clan of Qi, with cousins named Tian Rong and Tian Heng. The Tian brothers were wealthy, influential, and highly regarded. When General Zhou Fu of Zhang-Chu arrived to seize Di County for Chen Sheng, the county magistrate closed the gates and fortified his defenses. To gain access, Tian Dan staged a scene by tying up his house slave and dragging him to the county court, accompanied by a crowd of young men. Pretending to seek permission from the magistrate to execute the slave for wrongdoing, Tian Dan waited until the magistrate appeared in court. Seizing the opportunity, he killed the magistrate on the spot. He then gathered the wealthy and powerful figures of Di County and declared, “All the kingdoms are rising against the Qin Empire and restoring their kings. The Kingdom of Qi has a long history, and as a member of the Tian family, I, Tian Dan, shall be the king of Qi.” Proclaiming himself king, he led his forces against Zhou Fu’s troops, driving them back. Tian Dan then marched east and reclaimed the former lands of the Kingdom of Qi.

    Meanwhile, General Han Guang led an expedition north to the former Kingdom of Yan. The local elites urged him to become the King of Yan, but Han Guang hesitated, saying, “My mother still lives in the Kingdom of Zhao. I cannot be king.” The leaders of Yan persisted, arguing, “Zhao is preoccupied with the Qin Empire to the west and wary of the Zhang-Chu Kingdom to the south. It lacks the strength to challenge us. Even the powerful Zhang-Chu Kingdom does not harm the relatives of the King of Zhao. Why would Zhao target your family, General?” Convinced, Han Guang proclaimed himself King of Yan. A few months later, Zhao handed over Han Guang’s mother and her retinue to the Kingdom of Yan.

    The King of Zhao, accompanied by Zhang Er and Chen Yu, ventured to the northern border with the Kingdom of Yan in pursuit of land. During an excursion, he was captured by Yan soldiers and imprisoned. Yan demanded territorial concessions for his release, and envoys sent to negotiate were executed. A cook of the Zhao army approached the Yan camp and spoke with the commander, asking, “Do you know what Zhang Er and Chen Yu want most right now?” The commander replied, “They probably want their king back.” The cook laughed and said, “You have no idea what those two truly desire. Wu Chen, Zhang Er, and Chen Yu conquered dozens of Zhao cities with little effort. Each of them aspires to be a king, not merely commanders or prime ministers. Initially, they didn’t divide Zhao into three kingdoms because the situation was still unstable, and they supported Wu Chen’s claim to the throne due to seniority while they secured the loyalty of the Zhao people. Now that Zhao is stable under their rule, they’re waiting for the right moment to split the kingdom and crown themselves kings. With your capture of the King of Zhao, Zhang Er and Chen Yu publicly advocate for his release but secretly hope the people of Yan kill him, allowing them to claim their own kingdoms. One Zhao kingdom would tolerate Yan, but two Zhao kingdoms, each led by wise and ambitious leaders, would surely push each other to avenge their fallen king, making Yan’s downfall inevitable.” Alarmed, the Yan commander released the King of Zhao, and the cook safely escorted him back.

    General Zhou Fu, having withdrawn from Di County, marched toward the former Kingdom of Wei with the intention of reinstating a Wei prince named Jiu, titled Lord Ningling, as king. However, Jiu was stranded in Chen County and could not reach Wei. Zhou Fu already controlled the land of Wei, and local dignitaries proposed that he became the king.  Zhou Fu refused, saying, “A loyal servant must prove himself in turbulent times. The world is rebelling against Qin, and we must restore a descendant of the former king.” Despite the people’s insistence, Zhou Fu remained firm in his refusal and sent envoys to Chen County five times before Chen Sheng finally approved Prince Jiu’s return. The people of Wei then installed Jiu as King of Wei, appointing Zhou Fu as prime minister.

    Meanwhile, the Second Emperor stripped Jiao, the Lord of Wey, of his title and banished him to a commoner, effectively ending the lineage of the state of Wey.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 62): Two Sworn Friends

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7 (continued)

    A Temple in Zhoukou, Henan Province (f.m.a. Chen County)

    The 1st year of the Second Emperor(209 B.C. continued)

    Two friends from Daliang, the capital of the Kingdom of Wei, named Zhang Er and Chen Yu, shared a bond akin to that of Damon and Pythius. When the Kingdom of Wei was annexed, the King of Qin sought to hire them, offering monetary rewards for their good reputation. However, the two friends changed their names and fled to Chen County, where they took jobs as guards at a neighborhood gate to survive. On one occasion, the community officer paddled Chen Yu for a minor offense. Chen Yu was ready to fight back, but Zhang Er discreetly signaled him with a foot tap to accept the punishment. After the officer left, Zhang Er took Chen Yu aside under a mulberry tree and rebuked him: “What did I tell you? Were you really going to fight to the death over such a trivial insult from a lackey?” Chen Yu apologized for his reaction.

    When Chen Sheng entered Chen county, Zhang Er and Chen Yu visited him at his residence. Chen Sheng was delighted, as he was aware of their good reputation. The local elites in Chen county advocated for installing Chen Sheng as the King of Chu. Chen Sheng consulted Zhang Er and Chen Yu, who advised: “The Kingdom of Qin has been evil, annexing other kingdoms and oppressing the people. You rose against Qin at the risk of certain death, bringing relief to those across the empire. However, if you claim the title of king immediately after taking Chen county, it will appear as if you seek personal gain. We suggest postponing the proclamation and leading your forces westward instead. You should send envoys to install the descendants of the six former kingdoms as kings. These new monarchs would become your allies and enemies of Qin. Qin’s military would then be divided, facing many foes, while your forces would grow stronger with more allies. In doing so, you won’t need to battle Qin’s army in the battlefields or defend the ramparts within the city. You can bring down the wicked Qin empire, capture Xianyang, and call upon all the monarchs to follow your lead. Having regained their lost reigns, they would gladly answer your call. This would allow you to achieve your imperial ambitions through virtue. Claiming kingship in Chen county now would only cause the movement to lose momentum.” Despite their counsel, Chen Sheng did not heed their advice. He proclaimed himself King of Zhang-Chu.

    At that time, the people could no longer bear the draconian laws of Qin. They eagerly rose up to kill their local commandery or county officers in response to Chen Sheng‘s call. A messenger returning from a mission in the east reported on the rebellions to the Qin court. The Second Emperor, enraged by the news, had the messenger referred to prosecutors. After that, whenever envoys returned from their missions, the Emperor would ask about the rebels. They all gave the same response: “They are merely petty thieves and bandits. The local officers have dealt with them thoroughly. There is nothing to worry about.” The Emperor was pleased with these assurances.

    Chen Sheng appointed Wu Guang as deputy king, tasking him with supervising the generals in their campaign to attack the county of Xingyang in the west.

    Zhang Er and Chen Yu went to see Chen Sheng again, requesting a detachment for a surprise attack on the territory of the Kingdom of Zhao. Chen Sheng appointed his close associate, Wu Chen from Chen County, as the commander, and Shao Sao as the supervisor. Zhang Er was made the left-wing colonel, and Chen Yu the right-wing colonel. The detachment, consisting of three thousand soldiers, then marched toward the Kingdom of Zhao.

    Chen Sheng also directed Deng Zong from Ruyin county to lead a campaign to capture the Jiujiang Commandery. By this time, the number of rebel mobs throughout the Kingdom of Chu, each with several thousand members, had become innumerable.

    Ge Ying took control of Dongcheng county and installed Xiang Qiang, a descendant of the King of Chu, as the new King of Chu. However, upon learning that Chen Sheng had already declared himself King of Chu, Ge Ying quickly killed Xiang Qiang and reported back to Chen Sheng. Despite Ge Ying’s quick reversal, Chen Sheng still had him executed.

    Chen Sheng then ordered Zhou Fu from the Kingdom of Wei to take over the lands of Wei in the north, appointing Cai Ci from Shangcai county, known by the title Lord Fang, as the grand general of this force.

    Chen Sheng also heard that Zhou Wen, a local celebrity from Chen county, was knowledgeable in warfare. He granted Zhou Wen the commander’s seal and sent him to lead the attack on the Kingdom of Qin to the west.

    Wu Chen and his cohorts crossed the Yellow River at the town of Baima. They reached the counties belonging to the Kingdom of Zhao and rallied the local gentry, who responded favorably to their call. As they began enrolling local conscripts, their ranks swelled to tens of thousands. They proclaimed Wu Chen as Lord Wuxin and seized more than ten counties. However, other cities resisted them. Wu Chen then led an attack on Fanyang County.

    A resident of Fanyang, Kuai Che, approached Wu Chen and said, “You believe you must defeat resistance on the battlefield to take land and break through fortifications to capture cities. In my opinion, that’s a misconception. If you follow my plan, you can take a city without besieging it, seize land without fighting for it, and quash resistance across thousands of miles by merely sending out proclamations. What do you think?”

    Intrigued, Lord Wuxin asked, “What is your plan?”

    Kuai Che explained, “The Magistrate of Fanyang, Mr. Xu, is a greedy coward who wants to be the first in the country to surrender. If you kill him, as you did with the Qin-appointed officers in the other ten cities, the rest of the cities in the land of Zhao would become impregnable citadels. But if you allow me to bestow the Marquis’ seal upon this county chief, along with pompous wagons for him to parade around the lands of Yan and Zhao, all the cities would capitulate without a fight.”

    Lord Wuxin replied, “A great idea!” He provided Kuai Che with a hundred wagons and two hundred cavalry guards of honor to court the Magistrate of Fanyang, Mr. Xu. More than thirty cities across the Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao surrendered without a battle after receiving the leaflets and witnessing the horse parade.

    After Chen Sheng sent out Zhou Wen, he became complacent and underestimated the Qin Empire. He neglected to prepare for defense. The renowned scholar Kong Fu pleaded with him, saying, “I have learned from the books on the art of war: ‘Do not rely on the enemy not attacking; rely on your own defenses.’ Currently, you are counting on the enemy’s inability to attack us rather than strengthening our own defenses. If we stumble and fail to recover, it will be too late to regret it!” Chen Sheng dismissed the warning, saying, “Warfare is my concern. Don’t trouble yourself, Professor.”

    Meanwhile, Zhou Wen recruited followers along his march. By the time he reached Hangu Pass, his forces had grown into an enormous army with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and thousands of chariots. They set up camp at the town of Xi. The Second Emperor was terrified and summoned his ministers, asking, “What are we going to do?” Privy Treasurer, Zhang Han, proposed, “The bandits are already at our door. It is too late to mobilize all the commanderies and counties. The forced laborers at Lishan Mausoleum are numerous. Please issue an amnesty to these laborers and arm them to fight off the bandits.”

    The Second Emperor declared a national amnesty, allowing Zhang Han to conscript from the forced laborers at Lishan as well as from the sons of house slaves and maids who had previously been disqualified from military service. Zhang Han led his newly assembled army against the forces of Zhang-Chu, delivering them a crushing defeat. Zhou Wen fled.

    Zhang Er and Chen Yu arrived in Handan, the capital of the Kingdom of Zhao. Upon hearing of Zhou Wen‘s downfall and the fates of Chen Sheng’s generals—who had been executed on trumped-up charges after conquering lands for him—they persuaded Wu Chen to proclaim himself king of Zhao. In August, Wu Chen declared himself king and appointed Chen Yu as Grand General, Zhang Er as Prime Minister, and Shao Sao as Vice Prime Minister. He sent a messenger to inform Chen Sheng of the news. Enraged, Chen Sheng planned to kill Wu Chen’s kith and kin and sent troops to attack Zhao. However, his Prime Minister, Lord Fang, intervened: “When the Qin Empire was still alive, you killed Lord Wuxin’s clan and others’ families, effectively creating another Qin Empire. It would be wiser to congratulate him on his self-promotion and urge him to attack the Qin to the west immediately.” Chen Sheng heeded his advice, moving Wu Chen’s family and followers into palace house arrest. He granted the title of Lord Chengdu to Zhang Er’s son, Zhang Ao, and sent an envoy to Zhao to congratulate Wu Chen, urging him to march westward and invade the Hangu Pass.

    Zhang Er and Chen Yu then advised Wu Chen: “The King of Zhang-Chu’s congratulations are insincere and merely political expediency. Once Zhang-Chu defeats Qin, they will likely turn against Zhao. We suggest you refrain from sending troops westward; instead, direct your forces north to capture lands from Yan and Dai, then move south to take Henei, expanding Zhao’s territory. With the Yellow River as a natural defense and Yan and Dai as your backing, Zhang-Chu will not dare challenge Zhao even if they defeat Qin. Should Zhang-Chu fail against Qin, they will rely on Zhao even more, placing Zhao in a powerful position to exploit both the exhausted Qin and Zhang-Chu.” The King of Zhao agreed and did not send his army westward. He dispatched General Han Guang to invade Yan, General Li Liang to Changshan commandery, and General Zhao Yan to Shangdang commandery.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 60): Conspiracy at Shaqiu Palace

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7 (continued)

    Terracotta Warriors in Mausoleum of the First Emperor

    The 36th year of the First Emperor(211 B.C.)

    A meteor fell in Dongjun Commandery, and someone engraved on the meteor rock: “The First Emperor dies and his land is divided.” The First Emperor ordered his justice minister to launch an inquisition around the stone’s landing place, but no one confessed. In response, the First Emperor decreed the execution of all the people who lived in the neighborhood. The rock was then incinerated.

    In response to an augury, the First Emperor relocated thirty thousand households to the regions of Yuzhong to the North of Yellow River. Each head of the household was promoted by one rank.

    The 37th year of the First Emperor(210 B.C.)

    The First Emperor was traveling in October of the winter.  He was accompanied by the Chancellor Li Si.  Vice Chancellor Feng Quji stayed behind in the capital.  Among the twenty or so sons, the First Emperor favored the youngest son Huhai.  Huhai pleaded to travel with the Emperor and his wish was granted.

    The First Emperor arrived in Yunmeng county in November. There, he held a rite to worship Emperor Shun while looking towards Jiuyi Mountains. Then he sailed down the Yangtze River, sightseeing at the town of Jike, watching an islet in the river, passing through Danyang county, and finally reaching Qiantang county. The waves were high and treacherous at the Zhe River. They traveled two hundred and twenty li westward to cross the river at a narrow point.

    The First Emperor ascended Mount Kuaiji and held a ritual in honor of Emperor Yu the Great, looking towards the South Sea. The First Emperor installed another tablet with inscriptions praising his virtue. On the way home, the First Emperor passed through the State of Wu, crossed the Yangtze River at Jiangsheng County, and sailed north on the East Ocean, reaching Mount Langya and Mount Zhifu. There, they saw a huge fish in the sea, and the First Emperor shot the fish with a crossbow. They sailed west along the coast and reached a crossing called Pingyuanjin, where the First Emperor fell ill.

    The First Emperor hated the word “death,” and none of the ministers dared to mention the subject. As his illness worsened, he ordered his chief dispatcher of central command, Zhao Gao, who was in charge of the royal seal, to write a letter to his eldest son Fusu: “Come to my funeral, come to Xianyang for my entombment.” The letter was sealed and held by Zhao Gao, but had not been given to a messenger yet.

    In July of the autumn, the First Emperor died at the Palace of Shaqiu in the village of Pingtai. Chancellor Li Si, fearing possible power wrangling among the princes with the Emperor dying away from the capital, kept the news of his death a secret. The Emperor’s coffin was insulated in his wagon to keep the temperature low, and the same favorite eunuchs drove and escorted the wagon. Whenever they traveled to a new place, food and local officials were brought to the wagon as usual. The eunuchs processed the reports and dealt out decrees as before. Only Huhai, Zhao Gao, and five or six of the most trusted eunuchs knew of the Emperor’s death.

    The First Emperor was fond of the Meng clan and trusted them deeply. Meng Tian, the top general, was stationed on the frontier as the army commander, while Meng Yi served in the court as chief of staff, holding the title “The Faithful.” Other ministers and generals dared not challenge their dominance.

    Zhao Gao was castrated at birth. The First Emperor, hearing that Zhao Gao was a capable administrator and knowledgeable about criminal laws, appointed him as the court dispatcher and asked him to teach Huhai how to judge legal cases. Huhai developed a predilection for Zhao Gao. Once, Zhao Gao committed an offense that Meng Yi deemed punishable by death. However, the First Emperor pardoned Zhao Gao because of his administrative efficiency and reinstated him to his position. Zhao Gao, having Huhai’s favor, harbored ill feelings toward the Meng family.

    Zhao Gao advised Huhai to kill Prince Fusu and install himself as crown prince using a forged will of the First Emperor. Huhai approved the plot. Zhao Gao then told Huhai, “I am afraid this plot won’t work without the consent of the Chancellor.” He approached Chancellor Li Si, saying, “His Majesty had a letter for his eldest son. The letter and the royal seal are both in the possession of Huhai. Who the crown prince will be is a matter of what Your Excellency and I decide.”

    Li Si was startled and responded, “Why do you talk about a topic that could jeopardize the fate of this empire? It is not a subject that servants like you and me are supposed to discuss!” Zhao Gao reasoned with him, “In terms of capability, strategic thinking, military achievements, popularity, and trust from the eldest son of the emperor, how do you compare to Meng Tian?” Li Si conceded, “I am not as good as Meng Tian in all aspects.”

    Zhao Gao continued, “If the eldest son succeeded his father as emperor, he certainly would appoint Meng Tian as his Chancellor. It is obvious that Your Excellency would not retire to your hometown with the seal of Marquis Tong. Huhai is a kind and magnanimous person and a good successor to the emperor. I wish Your Excellency could think long and hard to make the decision.” Li Si yielded under pressure.

    They colluded to forge an edict from the First Emperor, designating Huhai as the crown prince. They also fabricated a letter from the First Emperor to Prince Fusu. The letter reprimanded Fusu for not expanding the frontier enough, yet causing significant attrition of soldiers. It listed several instances where Fusu wrote to his father, rudely criticizing the Emperor and constantly bickering about not being able to return home and become the crown prince. The letter accused General Meng Tian of not rectifying Fusu’s behavior and being a co-conspirator. It granted the death penalty to both Fusu and Meng Tian, ordering them to pass command of the army to Meng Tian’s lieutenant, General Wang Li.

    Fusu opened the letter and burst into sobs. He went into his bedroom, preparing to commit suicide. Meng Tian stopped him, saying, “His Majesty is away from home. The position of crown prince has not been designated. His Majesty entrusted me with commanding three hundred thousand troops on the frontier and appointed you as the supervisor. That is a tremendous responsibility to the country. Now a messenger arrives, and you are going to kill yourself! Do you know whether this is not trickery? Let’s submit a memorandum to the throne for verification first; then it won’t be too late to die.”

    The envoy pressed Prince Fusu several times. Fusu said to Meng Tian, “A father grants his son death; what else do we have to verify!” He then killed himself. Meng Tian refused to comply. The envoy handed him over to the local wardens and imprisoned him in the town of Yangzhou. The envoy appointed a minion of Li Si as the supervisor of the army and went back to report to Zhao Gao and Li Si.

    Huhai learned that Prince Fusu had died and intended to set Meng Tian free. Meng Yi happened to come to debrief the Emperor after performing sacrificial ceremonies for mountains and rivers on the First Emperor’s behalf. Zhao Gao spoke to Huhai, “The late emperor had long meant to pick the best and make you the crown prince, but Meng Yi advised against it. It would be better to get rid of Meng Yi.” Meng Yi was then incarcerated in Dai commandery.

    The cortege arrived at Jiuyuan Commandery from Jingjing County during the intense heat of mid-summer. The wagon began to emit a terrible stench. To cover up the smell, they forged another edict to obtain one picul of abalone for the emperor. Eventually, they got on the thoroughfare and reached Xianyang, where they announced the funeral and Huhai usurped the throne.

    In September, the First Emperor was sepulchered at the Lishan Mausoleum. Three layers of aquifers were blocked around the tomb. It was filled with treasures and rare stones transported from all over the country. Booby-trapped crossbows were installed to shoot any trespassers. Mercury was injected into the tomb to symbolize rivers and seas. The ceiling of the tomb was decorated with celestial bodies, while the base was laid with geographical models. The concubines who had not yet borne children were ordered to die with the emperor in the tomb. When someone reminded the authorities that the technicians who made the mechanisms knew the key to the treasure and could leak the secret, all the technicians were shut in the tomb when the burial was completed.

    The Second emperor wanted to execute Meng Tian and his brother. The son of his elder brother, Ziying, advised against it: “King Qian of Zhao killed General Li Mu and promoted Yan Ju; King Jian of Qi killed his father’s loyal servant and replaced him with Hou Sheng. Both lost their kingdoms in the end. The Meng family has contributed elite ministers and strategists to the kingdom of Qin for generations, yet Your Majesty would discard them at once. Executing loyal ministers and replacing them with someone lacking character would cause ministers to lose faith within the court and dishearten warriors outside the court.”

    The Second Emperor disregarded this advice. He ordered the execution of Meng Yi and pursued Meng Tian, who was the interior minister. Meng Tian said, “From my grandfather onward, the Meng family has served the kingdom of Qin for three generations. Though I am in jail today, my influence over the three hundred thousand soldiers under my command would be enough to incite a mutiny. I keep my faith knowing I will die for this, because I do not want to tarnish my ancestors’ reputation and I have not forgotten the trust of the late emperor.” He then committed suicide by taking poison.

    Yang Xiong commented in his book Exemplary Figures: “Someone asks, ‘Meng Tian was loyal and was killed, what is the benefit of being loyal?’ The answer is: ‘From Lintao county to Liao River, he flattened mountains and filled ravines. He did not make the empire more prosperous yet left many cadavers behind. Being loyal is not good enough to be a prime minister.’”

    Sima Guang‘s comments: When the First Emperor was ravaging the country, Meng Tian was his enabler. Meng Tian was not a benevolent and wise person. However, Meng Tian maintained his loyalty to his lord and would rather die than rebel despite being innocent. This act is commendable.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 59): Burning Books and Burying Scholars

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7(continued)

    The 34th year of the First Emperor(213 B.C.)

    Officials who abused the criminal justice system by releasing criminals or wrongfully imprisoning the innocent were punished. They were either sent to build the Great Wall in the north or exiled to the state of Southern Yue.

    The chancellor Li Si submitted a memorandum: “The kingdoms once recruited migrant scholars to their courts with opulent perks when they were jostling for power. Now, the country is in peacetime, and all laws and orders come from a single place. Ordinary households should work hard on farming and crafting, while intellectuals should study law and order. Today, there are Confucianists who do not study current laws and policies but reference the archaic texts to criticize the new. They baffle the public with their speeches and teach fallacies in their private schools. Whenever a new law is promulgated, they make remarks based on their own theories. They hold their dissent silently in court yet spread discord on the street. They praise the lord to elevate their own fame, dispute to show their superiority, and mislead the masses to denigrate policies. If these activities are not prohibited, it will diminish the authority of the court from above and form dissident parties from below. A ban is in the best interest of the country! I plead that the court historians burn all the history books except those from the kingdom of Qin. Unless they are court scholars who need the books for their duty, all people must turn in books in their possession—such as the ‘Book of Songs,’ the ‘Book of Documents,’ and other works authored by scholars and philosophers before our time—to the governors and military officers to be burned together. Those who speak of these books should be executed publicly. Those who disparage current policy by referencing ancient books should be punished by executing their entire clans. Government officials who do not prosecute these crimes will be treated as accomplices. After thirty days of this decree taking effect, those who do not burn their books will be branded on their faces and sent to labor on the Great Wall. Only books about medicine, divination, and horticulture can remain. Those who wish to study the law and policies can learn from government officials.” 

    The First Emperor issued an edict: “Approved.”

    Chen Yu, who was from Wei, spoke to Kong Fu (a direct descendant of Confucius), “The emperor of Qin wants to destroy the classic works of your ancestor. You are the owner of these books. You are in trouble.” Zi Yu (the courtesy name of Kong Fu) replied: “My study is about useless theory. Only my friends know me. I am no friend of Qin. Why am I in trouble? I stock up my books, waiting for someone to solicit them. Once there is a demand for them, I won’t have any worries.”

    The 35th year of the First Emperor(212 B.C.)

    The First Emperor directed Meng Tian to widen and straighten an expressway from the town of Jiuyuan to Yunyang county. The road, which was a thousand and eight hundred miles long, cut through mountains and leveled canyons along the way, taking years to complete.

    The First Emperor thought the city of Xianyang was too crowded and the palaces from his predecessors were too small. He built new palaces in Shanglin Park, south of the Wei River. The first palace under construction was the front palace called E’fang. It extended five hundred paces from east to west and five hundred feet from south to north. The top level could seat ten thousand people, and the bottom level could hoist banners as high as fifty feet. Around the palace, there was a causeway that led from the palace to the South Mountain. A gateway was erected on top of the South Mountain as the entrance to the palace. An overpass was built across the Wei River, connecting E’fang Palace to downtown Xianyang, symbolizing the North Star and Cassiopeia crossing over the Milky Way to Encampment.

    Seven hundred thousand criminals, punished by castration or sentenced to servitude, were poured into laboring in E’fang Palace or the Emperor’s Mausoleum at Lishan. Stone was quarried from the North Mountain, and timbers were shipped from the states of Shu and Jing (Chu). The building materials all arrived at the site. The total number of palaces within the four passes of the Qin kingdom was three hundred, with more than four hundred palaces outside the four passes. A monument had been installed within the Qu County of Donghai Commandery, serving as the east portal of the Qin Empire.

    The First Emperor ordered thirty thousand families to settle in Liyi County and fifty thousand families in Yunyang County. These families were exempted from taxation and conscription for ten years.

    Scholar Lu spoke to the First Emperor: “In an unholy world, Your Majesty should often travel secretly to avoid evil spirits. In the absence of evil spirits, the holy man will appear. I hope the palace where Your Majesty stays will be kept a secret, so we can obtain the immortal panaceas we have sought.” The First Emperor replied, “I wish to be the holy man.” He referred to himself as “this holy man” instead of “we.”

    He ordered the two hundred palaces within two hundred miles around the city of Xianyang to be connected via causeways or porticos, with draperies, percussion instruments, and beautiful ladies furnished at designated places. The settings were to be on record and not moved. The revelation of his itinerary was punishable by death. When the First Emperor toured Liangshan palace, he was displeased by the lavish entourage of the Chancellor seen from the hilltop. One of the eunuchs informed the Chancellor, who then reduced his retinue. The First Emperor became furious, saying, “Someone divulged what I said.” He ordered a formal investigation, but nobody confessed. He arrested everyone present at the time and executed them all. From then on, no one knew where the emperor was. All ministers who needed the emperor’s approval had to wait at the palace in Xianyang.

    Court scholars Lu and Hou satirized the Emperor’s behaviors and fled from the court. When the First Emperor heard this, he was livid, “This holy man gave scholars like Lu high respect and paid them well, and they turned around and disparaged this holy man! This holy man sent investigators to look into those scholars at Xianyang, and some reported that they spread heresy to instigate the people.” He directed law officers to prosecute the scholars.

    The scholars snitched on each other to exonerate themselves. The emperor sentenced four hundred sixty perpetrators to be buried alive at Xianyang. The burials were widely publicized to admonish posterity. More scholars were banished to the remote frontiers. The eldest son of the emperor, Fusu, beseeched for leniency: “These scholars are the leading Confucianists of the country. Your Majesty is applying severe punishment to all of them. I am afraid it would lead to unrest in the empire.”

    The First Emperor was roiled by Fusu’s plea. He sent Fusu away to Shangjun commandery to monitor General Meng Tian.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 58): A Tour of The Empire

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7 (continued)

    South Gate to Heaven, Mount Tai

    The 27th year of the First Emperor(220 B.C.)

    The First Emperor toured the region of Longxi and Beidi commandery, reaching Mount Jitou and then back home passing the Huizhong Palace.

    Changxin Palace was built on the south bank of Wei River.  It was renamed as the Supreme Temple once it was finished construction.  A road was made from the Supreme Temple to the Lishan Mausoleum.  The Front Hall of the Ganquan Palace had been built.  A corridor was built leading it to Xianyang.  Expressways reserved for the emperor were built from Xianyang to the other parts of the country.

    The 28th year of the First Emperor(219 B.C.)

    The First Emperor toured the commanderies and counties of the east. He ascended Mount Yi in Zou county and erected a monument extolling his achievements. At the foot of Mount Tai, he summoned seventy Confucianists from the state of Lu to discuss a sacrificial ceremony for heaven(Feng) and earth(Shan). Some Confucianists suggested: “In the ancient way of ceremony, the wheels of wagons must be wrapped with sedge grass to avoid squashing the dirt, rocks, trees, and grass of the mountain. Sacrificing for the earth involves sweeping the ground, then covering it with mats made of straw and stalks.” Other Confucianists proposed different, equally impractical ideas. From that moment, the First Emperor despised the Confucianists, finding their advice difficult to implement. He ordered the road to be widened for wagons. He reached the top of Mount Tai from the sunny side, erected monuments to laud his virtues, then descended from the shady side and sacrificed for the earth at a small peak named Mount Liangfu. The liturgy of the ceremonies adhered to those used by the worship ministers of Qin when they conducted ceremonies for God in progenitor temples at Yong. These rites were kept secret, and none could be recorded.

    From there, the First Emperor traveled east and cruised the coastal area. He paid homage to numerous temples, famous mountains, and rivers, and honored the eight gods: Heaven, Earth, Soldier, Yin, Yang, Month, Day, and the Four Seasons. The First Emperor then journeyed south and ascended to the top of Langya Terrace. Delighted with the location, he stayed in the commandery for three months. A palace named Langya was built there, and another stone monument was erected to express his satisfaction.

    Song Wuji and Xianmen Zigao from the kingdom of Yan claimed they had learned the way to immortality and sublime into celestial beings. Many gullible and eccentric scholars followed them enthusiastically, propagating their teachings. Kings, from King Wei and King Xuan of Qi to King Zhao of Yan, became believers and sent people to search for three fairy islands—Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou—in the Bohai Sea. According to myths, these islands were not far from the human world, but magical winds would blow ships away as they approached. A few fortunate people who reached the islands reported that fairies lived there and that they possessed elixirs for immortality.

    When the First Emperor toured the coast, sorcerers from the kingdom of Qi, including one named Xu Fu, vied for his favor by submitting a proposal. Xu Fu petitioned to lead a group of virgin boys and girls to search for the fairy islands after a period of fasting. The First Emperor approved, and Xu Fu selected several thousand boys and girls to seek fairies in the ocean. However, their ships were blown back by inauspicious winds. They reported, “We could not reach them, yet we could see them.”

    The First Emperor was on his way back to Xianyang when he passed through Pengcheng commandery. There, he held a worship ritual in a temple after a period of fasting. He sought to recover a caldron from the Zhou dynasty that had sunk in the Si River, by ordering a thousand people to dive into the river, but they found nothing.

    He then headed southwest, clearing the Huai River, and reached Mount Heng and Nanjun commandery. His entourage sailed downstream on the Yangtze River and arrived at a temple on Mount Xiang. They encountered strong winds that nearly wrecked their ship. The First Emperor asked the scholar accompanying him, “What kind of goddess is Madame Xiang?” The scholar replied, “I heard she was the daughter of Emperor Yao and married Emperor Shun. She was buried here.”

    In a rage, the First Emperor ordered three thousand prisoners to hack down all the trees on Mount Xiang, leaving the mountain bare and exposing its dark red soil. The First Emperor then left Nanjun and returned to Xianyang through the Wu Pass.

    Zhang Liang was from the kingdom of Han. His father and grandfather, up to five generations, had been prime ministers of Han. After the kingdom of Han perished, Zhang Liang devoted all his assets, amounting to a thousand catties of gold, to avenging the fall of Han.

    The 29th year of the First Emperor(218 B.C.)

    The First Emperor toured the eastern regions and passed through Yangwu county. Zhang Liang hired a hitman to ambush him with an iron mallet at a place called Bolangsha. The mallet, thrown at the emperor, struck one of his escorting wagons in the cavalcade. The emperor was frightened and ordered his guards to search for the perpetrators, but they did not catch anyone. He then commanded a nationwide manhunt for ten days.

    The First Emperor ascended Mount Zhifu and inscribed his achievements on the rocks there. He then traveled to Langya Commandery before returning to Xianyang via Shangdang Commandery.

    The 31st year of the First Emperor(216 B.C.)

    The First Emperor decreed that all plebeians in the country report their properties and acreage.

    The 32nd year of the First Emperor(215 B.C.)

    The First Emperor visited Mount Jieshi. He sent a Daoist named Lu to pay a visit to Xianmen Zigao from the kingdom of Yan, a hermit reputed to know the secret of becoming a celestial being. The emperor made an inscription on the gate of Jieshi. He decreed that the walls of castles be broken down, and levees, dikes, and dams be flattened or breached. The First Emperor then surveyed the northern borders and returned via Shangjun commandery.

    Daoist Scholar Lu returned from his visit to Xianmen Zigao overseas and submitted a report to the emperor titled “Record Map Book.” In the book, there was an ominous prophecy: “It is Hu who causes the kingdom of Qin to perish.” Hu was the derogatory name people gave to the Xiongnu in the north. The First Emperor ordered General Meng Tian to lead a 300,000-strong army to conquer Xiongnu in the north.

    The 33rd year of the First Emperor(214 B.C.)

    The First Emperor decreed conscription for men who were former fugitives, son-in-laws living in their wives’ houses, and merchants to join the army. This army conquered the rolling hills of the state of Southern Yue, establishing commanderies such as Guiling, Nanhai, and Xiang. Five hundred thousand disgraced and punished individuals were relocated to the Five Hills region to guard the southern border, where they cohabitated with the local population.

    General Meng Tian chased Xiongnu away and recovered a swath of land south of the Yellow River, establishing forty-four counties in this area. The Great Wall of China was built according to the geographic features, with fortresses constructed to control the strategic passes along the northern borders. Extending tens of thousands of miles from Lintao County to Liaodong Commandery, the Great Wall marked a formidable boundary. Meng Tian led his army across the Yellow River and occupied Mount Yangshan, zigzagging northwards. His troops were deployed on the frontier for more than ten years. For years, General Meng Tian stationed at Shangjun and governed the northern frontier, his fame serving as a deterrent to Xiongnu.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 57): The Unification of the Realm

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7 (continued)

    Map of Qin Dynasty

    The 25th year of the First Emperor(222 B.C.)

    The king of Qin mobilized more troops, led by General Wang Ben, to invade Liaodong, the remnant of the kingdom of Yan. They captured the king of Yan, Ji Xi.

    Sima Guang’s comments: Crown Prince Ji Dan of Yan could not contain his resentment and riled up the king of Qin, who was as wicked and violent as tigers and wolves. He instigated more ill will and hastened the calamity with his reckless and poorly devised assassination plots. As a result, the temple of Duke Zhao of Yan was suddenly destroyed, and there were no more worshipers. There wasn’t a greater sin than this. Was it beyond the pale when some commentators said that he was a refined man?

    A statesman should appoint masterminds to the right posts, promulgate policies according to propriety, oversee the people with benevolence, and interact with neighbors with honesty. Had he done that, the officials would have followed him, the government would have been regulated by him, the people would have been grateful for his kindness, and the neighbors would have formed close ties with him because of his uprightness. Such a state would be as solid as granite and as bright as a blaze. Whoever struck it would be crushed. Whoever infringed upon it would be burned. Such a state would not fear anyone, even the presence of violent states. Crown Prince Ji Dan did not do that. He gambled with his large kingdom, with ten thousand chariots, to vent his anger and carry out a plot of assassination like raiders. As a result, he was killed, his reputation ruined, and his kingdom reduced to rubble. Isn’t it tragic?

    Ji Dan’s walking on his knees and prostrating did not signify respect; his doing what he said and adhering to his promises did not signify integrity; his free spending of gold and dispensing jades did not signify charity; his suicide and self-disemboweling did not signify bravery. In summary, his plan was short-sighted, and his motivation was not righteous. He degraded himself to the class of the Duke of Bai, Xiong Sheng of Chu!

    Jing Ke repaid his personal benefits from the prince’s indulgence, disregarding the lives of the seven clans of kinfolk. He intended to strengthen the feeble Yan kingdom and weaken the powerful Qin with a dagger of a foot and eight inches. Isn’t it foolish! That’s why Yang Xiong commented: Yao Li’s death was the death of a bug; Nie Zheng’s death was the death of a strongman; Jing Ke’s death was the death of an assassin. None of these deaths are honorable. Yang Xiong also said, “Jing Ke was just a burglar in the view of a refined man.” Those are apt comments!

    General Wang Ben attacked the state of Dai and captured its king, Zhao Jia. 

    General Wang Jian secured the regions south of the Yangtze River, overcame the resistance of the Lord of Baiyue, and established the commandery of Kuai’ji.

    In May, during the summer, a national drinking banquet was held everywhere in Qin to celebrate these military victories.

    The queen dowager of Qi was a wise monarch. The kingdom of Qi prudently cooperated with the kingdom of Qin and maintained cordial relationships with other monarchs. With a coastline in the east, Qi was strategically positioned. Meanwhile, the kingdom of Qin had been constantly attacking the three kingdoms derived from the kingdom of Jin—Han, Wei, and Zhao—as well as the kingdoms of Yan and Chu. The five kingdoms were in survival mode. Therefore, Tian Jian, the king of Qi, had not engaged in any warfare for the forty years since his inauguration.

    When the queen dowager was dying, she advised King Tian Jian, “Someone among all the ministers should be in charge.” King Tian Jian said, “Please write his name down.” The queen dowager replied, “Fine.” King Tian Jian fetched the brush pen and the tablet and prepared to write. The queen dowager then said, “This old lady has forgotten it.”

    After the queen dowager died, Hou Sheng became the prime minister of Qi. He accepted many bribes from Qin. When migrant consultants of Qi went to Qin, they were bribed with gold and became agents of Qin when they returned. They all persuaded the king of Qi to go on a pilgrimage to the king of Qin, instead of building up defense capability against invasion or aiding the other five kingdoms under attack by Qin. Consequently, the five kingdoms were annihilated by Qin.

    The king of Qi was about to embark on his pilgrimage journey to Qin. However, the guard at the Yong Gate stood in front of his horses, holding a halberd, and asked, “Is the throne of a king for the state or for the king himself?” The king replied, “It is for the state.” The guard retorted, “If the throne is for the state, why does Your Majesty go to serve the kingdom of Qin while leaving our state behind?” The king turned his carriage around and went back.

    The grand master of Jimo heard about the king’s decision and came to speak to him: “The kingdom of Qi has land spanning thousands of miles and millions of armored soldiers. The officers of the three kingdoms derived from Jin—namely, Han, Wei, and Zhao—do not wish to benefit the kingdom of Qin. More than a hundred of them are settled in Dong’e county and Zhencheng. If Your Majesty acquires their allegiance and gives them a million soldiers to lead, allowing them to recoup the territories of Han, Wei, and Zhao, we may someday reach the Linjin Pass of Qin. The officers from Yanying of Chu, do not wish to work for Qin either. Hundreds of them are displaced in the south of Nancheng. If Your Majesty secures their loyalty and lets them lead a million soldiers to reclaim the land of Chu, we will break through the Wu Pass of Qin. Thus, the fame of Qi would rise, and the kingdom of Qin would be demolished. Why should we merely seek the survival of our state?”

    The king of Qi, however, did not heed his advice.

    The 26th year of the First Emperor(221 B.C.)

    General Wang Ben led an attack on the Kingdom of Qi from the south of Yan. They broke into the capital, Linzi, and none of the people of Qi dared to fight back. The King of Qin enticed the King of Qi with a fiefdom of five hundred miles. The King of Qi finally surrendered to Qin. He was moved to Gong county, and left in a wooded area with pine and cypress trees, where he was starved to death. The people of Qi blamed King Tian Jian for not joining the vertical alliance. They faulted him for taking advice from migrant counselors who acted as agents of Qin, which led to the perishing of the state. They sang a rhyme about Tian Jian’s folly of listening to the wrong counselors: “Was it pine tree or cypress, guests made Jian at Gong helpless.”

    Sima Guang’s comment: Although the talk about vertical and horizontal alliances was shifting and confusing, the gist was that the vertical alliance was in the best interest of the six kingdoms. The primogenitor king awarded feudal states to his family and friends to enhance social exchange, visit, wine and dine at each other’s places, and develop friendship and alliances. There was no other agenda for them than to bind together with prepossession to safeguard the country. Had the six kingdoms treated each other with trust and fairness, even in the face of the mighty and violent Qin kingdom, they would not have been annihilated. The kingdoms of Han, Wei, and Zhao served as the fences and shelters for the kingdoms of Qi and Chu, whereas the kingdoms of Qi and Chu were the roots and bases of the other three kingdoms. Their relationship should be founded on interdependence of interior and exterior and coordinated actions. When the kingdoms of Han, Wei, and Zhao attacked the kingdoms of Qi and Chu, they dug up their own roots. When the kingdoms of Qi and Chu attacked the other three kingdoms, they pulled out their fences and shelters. How could one uproot his fortress to appease the raiders, then say, “The raiders will love me and won’t hurt me”? How absurd was that!

    The King of Qin unified the realm for the first time. He believed his virtue matched that of the three legendary sovereigns and that his achievements surpassed those of the five historical emperors. He changed his title to “August Sovereign” (The Emperor). His orders were called decrees, his proclamations were called edicts, and he referred to himself as “We.” He bestowed the title Emperor Emeritus on his father, King Zhuangxiang. His decree stated: “The tradition of giving a deceased king a posthumous title based on his behavior is nonsensical. It allows a son to assess his father and a subject to appraise his lord. From now on, the ritual of giving posthumous titles will be abolished. We are the First Emperor, and my successors will be named numerically, from the Second Emperor, the Third Emperor, to the Ten-Thousandth Emperor, and so on to infinity.”

    During the era of King Wei of Qi and King Xuan of Qi, Zou Yan developed a theory of five virtues based on the five elements, where each element nourishes one element while overcoming another in a continuous cycle. When the emperor unified the country, the people of Qi submitted a proposal based on this theory. The emperor adopted it, believing that the virtue of the Zhou dynasty was fire. Since the Qin dynasty replaced the Zhou dynasty, the virtue of the Qin dynasty must be water, as the element fire could never overcome the element water. He also changed the official calendar, making the annual obeisance to the emperor and celebration of the new year on October 1 each year. He promoted black as the color of official gowns, flags, and tallies. Additionally, he selected a senary numeral system with a base of six.

    The prime minister, Wang Wan, and others proposed: “The states of Yan, Qi, and Chu are remote. It is difficult to control them without rulers. Please install Your Majesty’s sons as rulers of these places.” The emperor sent the proposal to all the ministers for discussion. Li Si, the Minister of Justice, disputed: “King Wen and King Wu of Zhou assigned titles to their numerous sons and brothers. Over the years, their descendants grew apart, attacking each other like enemies, and the emperor could not stop their fights. Thanks to Your Majesty’s divine power, the whole country has been unified and subdivided into commanderies and counties. The princes and heroes have been highly compensated with state taxes. When they are satisfied and conform, there will be no dissension in the country. That’s the art of achieving peace and tranquility. It is not a good idea to set up monarchs.”

    The emperor approved, stating: “The country has long suffered from incessant wars due to the existence of monarchs and kings. Thanks to our ancestors’ temples, we have finally unified the country. It would be a daunting task to maintain peace once we split into states, which will reignite conflicts. The Minister of Justice’s remark is right on target.”

    The country was divided into thirty-six commanderies. A governor, a military minister, and a prefect were appointed for each commandery. 

    All the weapons in the country were confiscated and transported to the capital, Xianyang. These weapons were melted and cast into bells and carillons. Twelve golden statues were made to decorate the court, each weighing more than a hundred thousand kilograms. Measures for length, volume, and weight were standardized. Additionally, a hundred and twenty thousand wealthy and highborn families from all over the country were forced to move to Xianyang.

    The royal temples, Zhangtai Palace, and Shanglin Park were all located on the south bank of the Wei River. Whenever a kingdom was conquered, a replica of its palace was built on the north slope of the Wei River at Xianyang. A roadway aligned with palaces, bridges, overpasses, towers, and pavilions extended from the Gate Yong to the east, reaching as far as the confluence of Jing River and Wei River. The beautiful women from the surrendered kingdoms, along with their musical instruments, filled the edifices with fanfare.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 54): Stuttering Legalist Han Fei

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 1 Scroll 6 (continued)

    Word Cloud of Han Fei

    The 13th year of the First Emperor(234 B.C.)

    General Huan Yi of Qin attacked the kingdom of Zhao, defeating the Zhao army led by General Hu Zou at the city of Pingyang. One hundred thousand Zhao soldiers were beheaded, and General Hu Zou was killed. In October, during the winter, General Huan Yi launched another attack on Zhao.

    The 14th year of the First Emperor(233 B.C.)

    General Huan Yi attacked the kingdom of Zhao, killing the commander of the Zhao army and capturing the cities of Yi’an, Pingyang, and Wucheng. In response, the King of Zhao appointed General Li Mu as Grand Marshal to defend Yi’an. Li Mu routed the Qin army near the town of Feixia, forcing General Huan Yi to flee back to Qin. The King of Zhao then bestowed the title of Lord Wu’an upon General Li Mu.

    The King of Han begged to become a vassal by ceding land and offering the seal of Han to the kingdom of Qin. He sent Han Fei to pay homage to the King of Qin. Han Fei, a prince of Han, was a leading legalist in the school of crime, punishment, and theurgy. Witnessing the decline of the kingdom of Han, he wrote numerous proposals to the king, who did not take his advice. Han Fei resented that the administration did not seek and promote capable talents but instead elevated glib and superficial individuals over those who got things done. In more peaceful times, celebrities and scholars were the crowd favorites, but in times of crisis, only military men were relied upon. Thus, those who squandered resources were not those who could be counted on, and those depended upon by the state were not those nurtured by the state. Han Fei was mournful about how honest and upright servants of the state were trampled by evil and corrupt officials. As he examined the vicissitudes of the past, he composed books such as Solitary Indignation, The Five Vermins, Inner and Outer Congeries of Sayings, Collected Persuasions, and The Difficulties of Persuasion, totaling fifty-six essays and more than one hundred thousand words.

    The King of Qin heard of Han Fei’s reputation and wanted to meet him. When Han Fei arrived in Qin, he wrote a letter to the king, “Now the kingdom of Qin has territory spanning thousands of miles and claims a standing army of a million soldiers. Your competent command system and fair legal system have no match in the world. I take the liberty to see Your Majesty to present my plan to break the vertical alliance. If Your Majesty listens to me and implements my plan yet still has no successful outcomes—i.e., the vertical alliance does not collapse, the kingdom of Zhao does not capitulate, the kingdom of Han does not perish, the kingdoms of Chu and Wei are not submissive, the kingdoms of Yan and Qi are not friendly, Your Majesty does not gain hegemony, and the neighboring monarchs do not pay homage—then Your Majesty can behead me in public to warn those who give disloyal advice.”

    The king liked what he heard but did not give Han Fei an important position. Li Si, jealous of Han Fei, spoke to the king, “Han Fei is one of the princes of Han, after all. His plan to annex all the monarchs is ultimately for the benefit of Han, not Qin. That’s just human nature. Now, Your Majesty has not utilized him, making him a risk to Qin. We would be better off killing him than letting him go back.” The king agreed with Li Si and ordered prosecutors to charge Han Fei with crimes. Li Si sent his lackey to deliver poison to Han Fei in jail and ordered him to commit suicide. Han Fei wanted to appeal but had no chance to see the king. When the king regretted and pardoned him, Han Fei had already died.

    Yang Xiong commented in his book Exemplary Figures: Someone asked, ‘Han Fei wrote a book about the difficulty of persuasion. He died because of a difficult persuasion. May I ask, what makes it so ironic?’ The answer was, ‘Difficult Persuasion was the cause of his death.’ The person asked, ‘Why was that?’ The answer was, ‘A gentleman follows propriety when he moves forward and stops when he crosses ethical boundaries. He goes all in if propriety is adhered; he backs off if it is not. He does not stress about whether the person he lobbies agrees with him. When you persuade someone while being bothered about whether they agree with you, you are likely to push too far.’ The question was, ‘Han Fei worried about the person’s consent. What was wrong with that?’ The answer was, ‘One should be concerned with whether the lobbying is done the right way; it should not be about whether the ideas are agreed upon.’

    Sima Guang’s commentary: I have learned that a gentleman cares for his kindred and then extends that care to others; he loves his country and then extends that love to other countries. Such people can achieve their goals and earn their fame, thus enjoying their lives. Han Fei was doing the King of Qin’s bidding to fulfill his political ambition. His crime warranted more than the death penalty, so why would anyone feel pity for him? 

    The 15th year of the First Emperor(232 B.C.)

    The King of Qin launched a large military campaign against the kingdom of Zhao. One prong reached the city of Ye, while the other prong reached the city of Taiyuan, took the county of Langmeng, and continued to a place Fanwu. There, they encountered the defense led by General Li Mu. The Qin army was clobbered and forced to retreat.

    The Crown Prince of Yan, named Ji Dan, had previously been a hostage in the kingdom of Zhao and was a friend of the King of Qin. When the King of Qin was inaugurated, Crown Prince Dan came to Qin as a hostage again. However, the King of Qin was heedless of him, causing Crown Prince Dan to become outraged and flee from the kingdom of Qin.

    The 16th year of the First Emperor(231 B.C.)

    The kingdom of Han offered the city of Nanyang to Qin. In the fall, during September, the King of Qin called up soldiers to take over Nanyang from Han.

    The kingdom of Wei submitted their land as tribute to Qin.

    In the Dai commandery in the kingdom of Zhao, an earthquake struck. The affected areas extended from the town of Lexu in the west, to Pingyin in the north. Most of the buildings and walls collapsed, and a crack in the ground appeared, stretching as wide as one hundred and thirty yards from east to west.

    The 17th year of the First Emperor(230 B.C.)

    Interior Minister of Qin, Sheng, led a campaign that exterminated the kingdom of Han. The King of Han, Han An, was captured, and the prefecture of Yingchuan was established on the land of the Han.

    Empress Dowager Huayang died.

    A great famine spread in the kingdom of Zhao.

    Lord Yuan of Wey died, and his son Jiao was installed in his place.