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Tag: Modu Chanyu

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 113): Comparing Huns with Han

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 6 Scroll 14 (continued)

    Noin-Ula Carpet Depicting Yuezhi People

    The 6th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (174 B.C.)

    In October of winter, peaches and plums blossomed out of season. 

    Prince Li of Huainan, Liu Chang, enacted his own laws and expelled officials appointed by the Han court. He sought to appoint his own prime minister and officials of ministerial rank (i.e., 2000 picul officials), and the Emperor acquiesced to his request. Prince Li also arbitrarily executed innocent people and conferred noble titles on undeserving individuals, elevating some to the rank of Marquess within the Pass. He repeatedly sent disrespectful letters to the Emperor, who was reluctant to admonish him directly. Instead, the Emperor ordered Bo Zhao to write a letter of admonition, citing the punishments of Guan Shu Xian (Uncle Guan) and Cai Shu Du (Uncle Cai) from the Zhou dynasty, as well as the banishment of Prince Qing of Dai (Liu Zhong) and Prince of Jibei (Liu Xingju) to serve as a warning.

    The Prince of Huainan was not pleased with the letter. He conspired with 70 individuals, including Grandee Dan, officer Kai Zhang, and Chai Qi, who was the son of Chai Wu, the Marquis of Jipu, to lead an uprising of 40 chariots at Gukou County. They also sought assistance from the Minyue and Xiongnu states. However, the plot was discovered, and they were arrested. The Emperor summoned the Prince of Huainan to Chang’an, where Chancellor Zhang Cang and Grand Hareld Feng Jing, acting as Grand Master of the Censorate, along with the Minister of imperial Clan and the Minister of Justice, submitted a joint memorial: “Liu Chang should be executed in the public market for his crimes.” The imperial edict commuted the Prince of Huainan‘s death sentence to banishment at Qiong Post Station in Yandao County, Shu Commandery, and stripped him of his title. All those who conspired with him were executed. The Prince of Huainan was transported in prison vehicles, carried in stages by each county along the postal route to Qiong.

    Yuan Ang remonstrated, “Your Majesty has always indulged the Prince of Huainan and has not appointed strict teachers and advisors for him, which has led to this situation. The Prince of Huainan is strong-willed and fragile by nature, and now he is being brutally crushed. I fear he may die from illness on the road to exile, and Your Majesty will be accused of fratricide. What do we do then?” 

    The Emperor replied, “I just wanted to give him a hard time.  I will call him back now.”

    The Prince of Huainan, livid, died from a hunger strike. When the cart reached Yong County, the officers opened the sealed cart and found his corpse. News eventually reached the Emperor in Chang’an. Filled with grief, the Emperor regretted not heeding Yuan Ang‘s advice and sought counsel on how to atone for his mistake. Yuan Ang suggested that the only way to appease the people was to execute the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate to show remorse. Instead, the Emperor ordered the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate to investigate the local officials and publicly execute those who had failed to provide food and attendants for the Prince of Huainan. He also ordered the Prince’s burial in Yong with a tomb styled and scaled like that of a marquess, guarded by thirty households.

    Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu(Huns) sent a letter to the Han, stating: “Earlier, the Emperor mentioned a marriage proposal and sent a letter expressing his intentions, which fostered friendship between our nations. However, Han officials have been harassing the Right Tuqi King. Without my permission, he listened to the advice of the Marquis of Houyilu, Nanzhi, and others, and confronted the Han officials. This violated the treaty between our nations and disrupted our bond of brotherhood. As a result, the Right Tuqi King was punished and sent west to seek out and attack the Yuezhi. Thanks to heaven’s favor, our soldiers were strong and our horses swift, and the Yuezhi were utterly defeated, with all either killed or surrendered. This brought stability to the northern frontier and solidified our rule over 26 neighboring kingdoms, including Loulan, Wusun, and Hujie. The various tribes with their bows and arrows have become one family. I request that we lay down our weapons, rest our soldiers, care for our horses, forget past grievances, and resume the old treaty to ensure peace for the border people. If Your Majesty prefers that our people stay away from the borders, I will issue a decree to my officials and people to remain at a greater distance.”

    The Emperor replied in a letter, saying: “The Chanyu’s desire to forget past grievances and resume the old treaty pleases me greatly. This reflects the wisdom of the ancient sage kings. The Han and Xiongnu made a treaty to be brothers, which is why the Han has treated the Chanyu with such generosity. Those who violate the treaty and disrupt our brotherhood are often found among the Xiongnu. However, the matter of the Right Tuqi King occurred before the amnesty, so I ask the Chanyu not to punish him too severely. If the Chanyu clearly communicates these intentions to your officials and ensures that they do not break the treaty, the Han will likewise honor the treaty and the goodwill expressed in the Chanyu’s letter.”

    Some time later, Modu Chanyu died and was succeeded by his son, Jiyu, who took the title of Laoshang Chanyu. Upon Laoshang Chanyu’s ascension, the Emperor once again sent a princess from the imperial clan to be his consort. An eunuch named Zhonghang Yue from Yan was sent to accompany the princess as her tutor. Zhonghang Yue was reluctant to go, but the Han government forced him. He remarked, “If it must be me, I will cause trouble for the Han!” Upon his arrival, Zhonghang Yue surrendered to the Chanyu, who treated him with great favor and affection.

    In the past, the Xiongnu were fond of Han’s silk and food. Zhonghang Yue warned, “Though the Xiongnu are numerous, they cannot compare to even a commandery of the Han. However, their strength lies in their distinct clothing and food, making them independent from Han. If the Chanyu adopts Han’s goods and customs, the Xiongnu will be under Han‘s control once they receive no more than ten or twenty percent of Han’s exports.” 

    When Zhonghang Yue obtained Han silk, he rode through thorns and grass, deliberately tearing his clothes to show that they were inferior to Xiongnu woolen cloaks and furs. When he received Han food, he rejected it, claiming it was less tasty and convenient than Xiongnu dairy products. He also taught the Chanyu’s attendants to keep records of their people and livestock. The letters and seals exchanged with the Han were enlarged to signify superiority. The letters were written in a haughty tone, referring to the Chanyu as “the great Xiongnu Chanyu, born of Heaven and Earth, and appointed by the Sun and Moon.”

    When Han envoys criticized the Xiongnu for lacking propriety and righteousness in their customs, Zhonghang Yue always countered by saying, “The Xiongnu have simple rules that are easy to follow. The relationship between their rulers and subjects is straightforward and enduring. Their statecraft functions as one cohesive body. Therefore, although the Xiongnu may at times be chaotic, they always establish a ruler from within the tribe. 

    “Now, while the Middle Kingdom claims to uphold propriety and righteousness, as family relations grow distant, people kill and steal from one another, and even the ruling clan is changed. Propriety or not, they all belong to the same kind of people. Alas! Those who live in earthen houses should not babble so much, or padding themselves on the back.

    “As for the goods that Han delivers to the Xiongnu—silk, cloth, rice, and wheat—let them be of good quality and appear pleasing. What more is there to say? If the goods are sufficient and of good quality, then all is well. But if the goods are lacking and of poor quality, then let them wait until autumn harvest, for our riders to sweep in and tramp on their crops.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 97): Appeasement

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 4 Scroll 12

    Duration of 12 years

    Guanzhong Plain, Shaanxi Province

    The 8th year of the Emperor Gaozu (199 B.C.)

    In winter, the Emperor led an attack on the remaining forces of Xin, King of Hán, at Dongyuan county, passing through Boren county. Guan Gao and other officials had assassins hide in the double wall of a latrine. The Emperor planned to stay overnight but suddenly asked, “What is the name of this county?” The reply was “Boren.” The Emperor said, “Boren sounds like po’ren, which refers to people under duress.” He then decided to leave without staying overnight. In December, the Emperor returned to the capital from Dongyuan county.

    In Spring of that March, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang. He decreed that merchants were prohibited from wearing clothing made of silk, embroidery, fine brocade, thick silk, fine cotton, coarse cotton, or hempen fabrics. They were also forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses as well as carriages.

    In September, during the autumn, the Emperor departed from Luoyang, accompanied by the King of Huainan, the King of Liang, the King of Zhao, and the King of Chu.

    The Xiongnu leader Modu Chanyu frequently harassed the northern border of the Han dynasty. Concerned, the Emperor sought advice from Liu Jing. Liu Jing responded, “The soldiers and officers are weary from battle, and it is unwise to resort to force now. Modu gained power by killing his father and seizing his wives and consorts. He relies on brute strength, and it’s difficult to sway him with principles of kindness and righteousness. However, we can adopt a long-term strategy, allowing his descendants to become our vassals. But I fear your majesty may not be able to convince yourself to do it.”

    The Emperor asked, “What should I do, then?” 

    Liu Jing replied, “If your majesty offers your eldest princess in marriage to him and provides generous gifts, he will admire you and view himself as your son-in-law. If a son is born by the princess, he will become the crown prince. You can gift items that the Han dynasty has in abundance but that the Xiongnu lacks, in each season year-round. You may use these opportunities to send lobbyists to educate them on Han cultural etiquette. Modu will be your son-in-law during his lifetime, and after his death, your grandson will become the new Xiongnu leader. Have you ever known a grandson daring to disrespect and contend with his grandfather? You can gradually subjugate them without warfare.  If Your Majesty cannot send the Eldest Princess, but instead has members of the imperial clan or the harem falsely claim to be the princess, once they find out, they will not be willing to honor or maintain close relationships, and it will be of no benefit.”

    The Emperor found the idea appealing and considered sending his eldest princess to Modu. However, Empress Lü wept day and night, saying, “I only bore the crown prince and one daughter.  How can we ditch her to the Xiongnu?” The Emperor ultimately could not bear to send his daughter, and the plan fell through.

    The 9th year of the Emperor Gaozu (198 B.C.)

    In winter, the Emperor selected a young girl from a plebeian family, bestowed upon her the title of ‘Eldest Princess,’ and sent her to marry the Xiongnu leader. He also dispatched Liu Jing to negotiate and finalize the marriage alliance.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Marquis Jianxin’s proposal to marry off a young woman to a vallian, Modu, who cannot be swayed by benevolence and righteousness is inherently self-contradictory. The bonds of kinship and distinctions of rank can only be appreciated by those who follow the principles of benevolence and righteousness. How, then, can we expect to win over the Xiongnu through marriage?

    In the past, emperors dealt with barbarian tribes either by showing them kindness or by demonstrating their might. There is no record of marriage being used as a diplomatic tool. Moreover, since the Xiongnu leader treated his own father as prey, how could he be trusted to show respect to his wife’s family? The strategy of the Marquis of Jianxin was fundamentally flawed, and how could he even consider taking away Princess Yuan of Lu, who had already been Queen of Zhao?

    Liu Jing returned from the Xiongnu and reported, “The Xiongnu‘s Baiyang and Loufan kings are only 700 li from Chang’an. A light cavalry could reach Qinzhong(a.k.a. Guanzhong) in a single day and night. Qinzhong has just been pacified, with a small population and fertile land. Increasing the population would help consolidate the region. When the monarchs established in the past, only the families of Tian in Qi, and the Shao, Jing and Qu clans in Chu prospered first. Although Your Majesty now rules Guanzhong, the population is sparse. In the east, the powerful clans of the former six states remain strong. If sudden unrest occurs, Your Majesty cannot be at ease.

    I recommend moving the influential clans of the former six states, along with other prominent families, to Guanzhong. Their presence will act as a deterrent to the Xiongnu, and they can be mobilized to vanquish the east if the monarchs revolt. This is the strategy of strengthening the core and weakening the periphery.”

    The Emperor agreed: “A good idea!” In November, he relocated the major clans of the Shao, Qu, Jing, Huai, and Tian families, along with other powerful households, to Guanzhong. A population of over 100,000 were given fertile fields and houses there.

    In December, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang. 

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 96): A Narrow Escape

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11(continued)

    Yongzuo Temple, Taiyuan(a.k.a. Jinyang), Shanxi Province. Photo by Roland Longbow

    The 7th year of the Emperor Gaozu (200 B.C.)

    In October, during the winter, the Changle Palace was completed, and the monarchs and ministers gathered to pay their respects. Early in the morning, the internuncios arranged the ceremony and led the guests into the palace in proper order, standing in rows facing east or west. Guards stood with halberds in hand on the steps or in the courtyard, while flags and banners were raised. When the alert was announced, the Emperor’s carriage emerged from the chamber. The princes followed, down to the officials with a salary of 600 picul, all coming to congratulate the Emperor, trembling in awe and respect.

    After the ceremony, a banquet was held. The attendants sat in the palace hall, all prostrating in salute and bowing their heads in reverence, and toasts were raised according to rank. After nine rounds, the internuncios announced, “The wine is being served,” and the officials in charge of discipline escorted out anyone who did not follow the proper etiquette. The banquet lasted all day, and no one behaved improperly. The Emperor then said, “Today, I truly understand the esteem of being an emperor!” He appointed Shusun Tong as the Minister of Ceremony and rewarded him with five hundred pounds of gold.

    In earlier times, the empire of Qin ruled the realm and incorporated the ceremonial practices of the six states it had conquered, selecting and preserving those that emphasized respect for the ruler and the subordination of officials. When Shusun Tong re-established the imperial ritual system, some additions and omissions were made, but it largely followed the Qin model. The system retained the imperial titles, as well as the names of officials and palace buildings, with few modifications. Written records of the system were later compiled with the legal code and stored in the archives of the judicial officials. However, the judicial officials did not transmit the ritual system to people outside the court, and no commoners or administrators spoke of it.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: The importance of rituals is enormous! When applied to oneself, they regulate one’s actions and behavior, ensuring all is done properly; when applied to the family, they establish distinctions between internal and external relations, fostering harmony among the nine kinship groups; when applied to the village, they create proper relationships between elders and youth, cultivating refined and graceful customs; when applied to the state, they ensure proper order between the ruler and ministers, leading to successful governance; when applied to the world, they bring submission from the monarchs and uphold justice. How can rituals be confined to seating arrangements in gathering or household management for the neighborhood order? Even with the wisdom of Emperor Gaozu, he praised Lu Jia’s words about ‘not governing on horseback despite winning the realm on horseback,’ and he admired Shusun Tong’s etiquette with great appreciation. Yet, the reason Gaozu couldn’t compare with the kings of the Three Dynasties was his failure in learning.

    Had he sought the assistance of great scholars and governed the world through rituals, his achievements would have surpassed what we now see. It is a pity that Shusun Tong’s capacity was so limited! He merely took the scraps and remnants of ancient rituals, following popular customs, catering to public taste, and seeking favor for himself, allowing the rituals of the former kings to decline into obscurity. Isn’t that a painful loss? This is why Yang Xiong ridiculed him, saying: ‘In ancient times, there were great scholars in Lu, but their names were lost. Someone asked: “Why were they great?” The answer was: “Shusun Tong wanted to regulate etiquette between ruler and ministers and called for scholars from Lu, but two great scholars refused to comply.” Someone asked: “Did Confucius not travel among the monarchs and serve them?” The answer was: “Confucius paved the way for his own ideals. Had he compromised his principle to fit others, wouldn’t he have implemented his own rules and standards?”

    What an excellent remark from Yang Xiong! How could a great scholar demolish his principles and abandon rules and standards, for the sake of temporary honor and reward?”

    The Emperor personally led the campaign against King of Hán, Xin, defeating his army at Tongdi and beheading General Wang Xi. Xin fled and sought refuge with the Xiongnu. Wanqiu Chen and Wang Huang, from Baitu county, enthroned Zhao Li, a descendant of the Zhao clan, as king. They gathered the remnants of Xin‘s scattered forces and planned a joint attack on the Han Dynasty with Xin and the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu dispatched the Left and Right Tuqi Kings, leading over ten thousand cavalry, who stationed themselves south of Guangwu county and reached Jinyang city. The Han army attacked, defeating the Xiongnu, who fled and then regrouped, the Han army pursued them, riding on their recent victories. However, a severe cold spell with rain and snow caused two or three out of every ten soldiers to lose fingers to frostbite.

    While the Emperor was in Jinyang, he received news that Modu Chanyu had stationed troops at Daigu and was preparing to attack. He sent scouts to assess the Xiongnu. Modu Chanyu had concealed his strongest warriors and horses, leaving only the old, weak, and thin livestock visible. Ten messengers were sent, all reporting that the Xiongnu were vulnerable. The Emperor then dispatched Liu Jing as an envoy to Xiongnu, but before his return, the Han army advanced north with 320,000 soldiers, crossing Gouzhu Pass. When Liu Jing returned, he reported, “When two countries go to war, they exaggerate their strengths and hide their weaknesses. However, I saw only the weak, thin, and old, suggesting they intentionally suggesting they intentionally showed their weakness to lure us into an ambush. In my opinion, the Xiongnu cannot be attacked at this moment.”

    By this point, the Han army was already on the move, and the Emperor, angered by Liu Jing‘s report, cursed him, “You, a mere prisoner from Qi, gained your position through eloquence, and now you spout nonsense to lower our army’s morale!” Liu Jing was then arrested and shackled in Guangwu.

    The Emperor arrived at Pingcheng, but not all his troops had assembled. Modu Chanyu mobilized 400,000 elite cavalry and besieged the Emperor at Baideng Terrace for seven days. The Han forces were unable to provide mutual aid or receive supplies. The Emperor used Chen Ping‘s secret strategy, sending a messenger to bribe Yanzhi, the Xiongnu queen, with a generous reward. Yanzhi advised Modu Chanyu, “The two rulers should not pounce on each other like this. Even if you seize Han territory, you cannot hold it permanently. Moreover, the Han ruler is also protected by divine spirits. The Chanyu should be very cautious.”

    Modu Chanyu had arranged to meet Wang Huang and Zhao Li, but their troops never arrived, making him suspect they had conspired with the Han. As a result, he released part of the siege. A thick fog shrouded the area, allowing Han messengers to move back and forth unnoticed by the Xiongnu. Chen Ping advised loading strong crossbows with two arrows each, and sending them out with arrows pointing to enemies, from the side where the siege had been lifted. The Emperor escaped the siege but wanted to move forward quickly. However, Grand Coachman–Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, insisted on proceeding slowly. Upon reaching Pingcheng, the rest of the Han army had arrived, and the Xiongnu cavalry retreated. The Han forces then withdrew, assigning Fan Kuai to stabilize the Dai commandery.

    The Emperor arrived at Guangwu and pardoned Liu Jing, saying, “I failed to heed your advice, which led to the siege at Pingcheng. I have already executed the previous ten envoys who misinformed me.” He then granted Liu Jing the title of Marquis of Jianxin, along with two thousand households. Continuing south to Quni county, the Emperor remarked, “What a magnificent county! I have traveled throughout the empire, but only Luoyang and this place impress me.” He granted Chen Ping the title of Marquis of Quni and bestowed the entire county as his fiefdom. Chen Ping had accompanied the Emperor on campaigns and devised six original strategies, each of which led to an expansion of his fief.

    In December, the Emperor returned and passed through the kingdom of Zhao. The King of Zhao, Zhang Ao, who was the Emperor’s son-in-law, humbled himself and treated the Emperor with utmost esteem, while the Emperor sat with his legs wide open, openly insulting Zhang Ao. This enraged the prime minister of Zhao, Guan Gao, along with Zhao Wu and others, who said, “Our king is a coward!” They approached Zhang Ao with fury, “The empire is up for grabs. Only those with courage seize power. Your Excellency humbles before the Emperor deferentially, but he shows you no respect. We want to kill him on your behalf!”

    Zhang Ao bit his finger until it bled and replied, “You are wrong! Our ancestors lost their kingdom, but it was through the Emperor’s help that we regained it. His virtue has benefited our descendants, and all we have is thanks to his power. I hope you never speak like that again!”

    Guan Gao, Zhao Wu, and the others conferred among themselves, “We should not have spoken to the king that way. Our king is a man of integrity and will not betray his loyalty. Even if we wish to kill the Emperor for insulting our king, why should we implicate the king? If we succeed, the credit will go to him; if we fail, we alone will face the consequences!”

    The Xiongnu attacked the kingdom Dai, and the King of Dai, Liu Xi (the Emperor’s older brother), abandoned his kingdom without a fight. He returned to the capital, was pardoned, and demoted to the Marquis of He’yang. On January 17, the Emperor’s son, Prince Liu Ruyi, was installed as the new King of Dai.

    In February, the Emperor arrived at Chang’an. Xiao He oversaw the construction of the Weiyang Palace, which greatly impressed the Emperor. However, the Emperor was furious, saying to Xiao He, “The world is in chaos, and we have been at war for years with the outcome still uncertain. Why are you focused on building such an extravagant palace?”

    Xiao He responded, “Precisely because the world is still unstable, we should seize this opportunity to build. Moreover, the Emperor considers the four seas as his home, and without grandeur, he cannot command respect. It is also important to leave a legacy that future generations cannot surpass.” The Emperor was pleased with this explanation.

    Sima Guang‘s commentary: A king should make benevolence and righteousness his grandeur, and moral integrity his source of awe. I have never heard that filling the world with palaces and halls is a way to demonstrate dominance. When the world is unsettled, one must practice restraint and fiscal responsibility to meet the needs of the people. To prioritize palaces and halls—how can this reflect an understanding of what is truly important? In the past, Emperor Yǔ lived in humbled palace, while Xia Jíe built extravagant ones and lost his empire. A founding lord should practice frugality and set an example for his descendants. Even the last ruler of a dynasty, despite the example of frugality, eventually succumbed to exorbitance—how much more will they be corrupted by being shown the example of indulgence? Moreover, to say “do not let future generations surpass it”—is this not a grave mistake? Emperor Wu, after all, ultimately ruined the country by overspending on palaces and halls, a trend perhaps initiated by Marquis Zan.

    The Emperor moved the capital from Yueyang to Chang’an. The Ministry of the Imperial Clan was first established to rank the genealogical records of the imperial family. In April, during the summer, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 95): Inventor of Whistling Arrows

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

    A Bust of Modu (Metehan) Chanyu in Türkiye, Photo by Vikiçizer

    The 6th year of the Emperor Gaozu(201 B.C. continued)

    The emperor returned to Yueyang.

    The emperor granted his father the title Emperor Emeritus on May 23 of the summer.

    The Xiongnu empire feared the Empire of Qin and moved to the north for more than ten years.  As the empire of Qin collapsed, the Xiongnus gradually moved southward and crossed the Yellow River.  

    The chief of Xiongnu, whose name was Touman Chanyu, had a crown prince called Modu.  Then Touman’s other favorite wife bore him a younger son.  He wanted to crown his young son.  Nomad tribes Donghu was strong and Yuezhi was prosperous at the time.  Touman sent Modu to be a hostage in Yuezhi and then launched a sneak attack on Yuezhi.  Yuezhi would have killed Modu, except Modu stole a stallion and ran home.  Touman thought he was tough and let Modu command ten thousand cavalry. 

    Modu invented the kabura-ya, or whistling arrows, and trained his cavalry to use them in archery. He issued a strict command: “Anyone who fails to shoot at the same target immediately after seeing a kabura-ya hit the mark must be beheaded.” To enforce discipline, Modu shot his prized horse with a kabura-ya, followed by his beloved wife. Those who hesitated to follow his lead were executed. Eventually, he shot the best horse of the Chanyu with a whistling arrow, and everyone else shot as well. Satisfied with their readiness, Modu embarked on a hunting trip, where he shot Touman with a whistling arrow. His attendants, following his lead, killed Touman Chanyu.  Then he executed his stepmother, younger brother, and ministers who opposed him. Modu then declared himself Chanyu.

    When the Donghu tribe heard that Modu had become the Chanyu, they sent a messenger with a demand: “We want Touman Chanyu’s fast horse, the one that can run a thousand li in a day.” Modu consulted his ministers, who all advised, “This is a treasure of the Xiongnu, do not give it away!” But Modu replied, “How can we value a horse more than maintaining good relations with a neighboring state?” and so he gave them the horse.

    Soon after, the Donghu sent another messenger: “We would like one of the Chanyu’s wives.” Modu again asked his followers, who were outraged: “The Donghu are unreasonable, asking for Chanyu’s wife! Let’s attack them!” Modu responded, “How can we value a woman more than a neighboring state?” and hand out his beloved wife.

    Emboldened, the Donghu king became even more arrogant. There was a stretch of deserted land over a thousand miles wide between the Donghu and Xiongnu, each occupying their own side of the border, known as the “Ou-Tuo” (buffer zone). The Donghu then demanded this land. Modu asked his ministers for their advice; some said, “It is just deserted land, it doesn’t matter if we give it away or not.” Enraged, Modu declared, “The land is the foundation of the country, how can we give it away?” He beheaded those who had suggested giving it up.

    Modu mounted his horse and commanded, “Anyone who retreats during battle will be beheaded!” He attacked the Donghu, who had underestimated him and were unprepared, leading to their destruction.

    On returning home, Modu launched a westward attack and defeated the Yuezhi tribe. He then annexed the territories ruled by the King of Loufan and the King of Baiyang, the tribes living in the south of the Yellow River, before advancing into the states of Yan and Dai. He reclaimed the lands that had previously been taken from the Xiongnu by Meng Tian, extending the southern frontier to Chaona and Fushi counties. At the time, the Han army was preoccupied with their conflict against Xiang Yu, and the central plains were exhausted by war. This allowed Modu Chanyu to consolidate his power, amassing an army of more than 300,000 archers and inducing trepidation and submission to other nations.

    In the autumn, the Xiongnu besieged the Han vassal King of Hán, Xin at Mayi. Xin repeatedly sent messengers to the Xiongnu seeking a truce, and the empire dispatched troops to rescue him. However, the Han court grew suspicious of Xin’s loyalty, as he had sent envoys back and forth multiple times. Accused of dual loyalty and fearing punishment, in September, Xin surrendered Mayi to the Xiongnu. Seizing this opportunity, Modu Chanyu led his troops south, crossed the Gozhu Pass, raided Taiyuan commandery, and eventually reached Jinyang city.

    The emperor abolished the harsh and complicated laws of the Qin Dynasty and implemented a simpler system. However, officials began competing for recognition, and during drinking sessions, some became drunk and made reckless remarks, even drawing their swords and hacking at pillars. The emperor grew increasingly disgusted with their behavior.

    Shusun Tong advised the emperor, “Scholars may not be suited to ambitious plans, but they are capable of maintaining stability. I would like to invite scholars from Lu to establish court ceremonies, along with my own disciples.” The emperor asked, “Won’t this be difficult?” Shusun Tong replied, “The Five Emperors in history had different music, and the Three Kings had different rituals. Ceremonies should reflect the times and the people’s sentiments, so the rituals must be adjusted accordingly. I will draw on ancient rituals and blend them with Qin customs.” The emperor agreed, saying, “Let’s give it a try. Make it simple to understand, and only implement what I can manage.”

    Shusun Tong summoned over thirty scholars from the state of Lu. However, two scholars refused, saying, “You have served ten lords and flattered them all to gain favor. Now that the world has only just been pacified, the dead are not yet buried, and the wounded have not yet recovered, yet you want to start with ceremonies and music. Ceremonies and music should only be established after accumulating virtue for a hundred years. I cannot bear to follow your example. You may do as you wish, but do not tarnish my reputation!” Shusun Tong laughed and said, “You are dogmatic and shallow scholars who fail to grasp the changes of the times.”

    He then led the scholars he had recruited, along with those close to the emperor and his own disciples—a group of over a hundred people—to practice rituals and music outdoors, using ropes and thatch as mock-ups, for over a month. He reported to the emperor, “You can now observe and assess them.” The emperor ordered the court to rehearse the rituals and remarked, “I can do this.” He then instructed the officials to study and practice the rituals.