Reflection by Rio Grande

Tag: Kangju

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 231): Flaw Not Obscure Splendor of Jade

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 21 Scroll 29 (continued)

    Kunlun Mountains

    The 1st year of Emperor Yuan’s Jingning Era (33 B.C. continued)

    Earlier, the Director of the Palace Secretariat, Shi Xian, had once sought to marry his elder sister to Gan Yanshou, but Gan Yanshou declined. When Gan Yanshou later returned after defeating Zhizhi Chanyu, both the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate disapproved of his conduct in forging the imperial decree and therefore withheld commendation for his achievements.

    Chen Tang was by nature avaricious. The wealth he seized and brought back through the frontier was often obtained unlawfully. The Colonel Inspectorate of the Capital (Colonel of Retainers) sent officials along the route to detain Chen Tang’s officers and soldiers for investigation. Chen Tang submitted a memorial stating:

    “The officers and soldiers under my command together punished Zhizhi Chanyu and were fortunate to capture and destroy him. After traveling thousands of li, we should have been met with envoys to welcome and reward us along the road. Instead, the Colonel Inspectorate of the Capital detains and interrogates us—this is no different from avenging Zhizhi Chanyu!”

    The Emperor immediately ordered the release of the detained officers and soldiers, and commanded the commanderies and counties along the route to supply the army with food and wine.

    After their return, when merits were being discussed, Shi Xian and Kuang Heng said:

    “Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang rashly raised troops and acted without authorization. That they were not executed should already be counted as great leniency. If they are further rewarded with ranks and fiefs, then in the future envoys will all strive to act recklessly, provoking troubles with the barbarians and bringing calamity upon the state.”

    The Emperor personally admired the achievements of Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang, yet he also valued the opinions of Kuang Heng and Shi Xian. Thus, he delayed the decision for a long time.

    At this point, the former Minister of the Imperial Clan, Liu Xiang (formerly known as Liu Gengsheng), submitted a memorial:

    “Zhizhi Chanyu imprisoned and slew envoys and officials by the hundreds. His crimes were proclaimed throughout the foreign lands, grievously damaging the dignity of the Han, so that all within the court were filled with righteous indignation. Your Majesty resolved to punish him and never for a moment forgot this resolve.

    “The Protector-General of the Western Regions, Gan Yanshou, together with the Lieutenant Colonel Chen Tang, upheld the imperial command and relied upon the awe of divine authority. They united the leaders of the various alien tribes, gathered the forces of the frontier cities, braved death countless times, and advanced deep into distant lands. They penetrated Kangju, captured three fortified cities, seized the enemy’s banners, and beheaded Zhizhi Chanyu. Their standards were unfurled thousands of li away, their might shook the regions west of the Kun Mountains(a.k.a. Kunlun Mountains), the disgrace of Gu Ji’s killing was avenged, and illustrious merit was established. All the foreign tribes trembled in fear and submission.

    “Huhanye Chanyu, upon hearing of Zhizhi’s execution, was at once joyful and fearful; he turned toward righteousness, bowed in submission, and came to court, vowing to guard the northern frontier and serve the Han for generations. This achievement ensures peace for ten thousand ages and constitutes a merit unparalleled among ministers.

    “In antiquity, Fang Shu and Yin Jifu assisted King Xuan of Zhou in chastising the Xianyun(an old derogatory epithet for Xiongnu), thereby bringing all the tribes to submission. As the Book of Songs says:

    ‘Mighty and resounding, like thunder and lightning—
    Fang Shu went forth to chastise the Xianyun,
    brought all the southern tribes to submission.’

    “The Book of Changes says: ‘‘It is a commendable feat, When the head is taken, the rest submit.’ This praises the punishment of the chief offender, by which all the unruly are brought to obedience. Now Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang, by their thunderous strike and awe-inspiring might, achieved what the Book of Changes calls ‘taking the head,’ and what the Book of Songs likens to ‘thunder and lightning’—indeed, their merit surpasses even these examples.

    “When assessing great achievements, minor faults are not recorded; when praising great virtue, small errors are not examined. The Methods of Sima Rangju state: ‘Military rewards must not be delayed beyond one month,’ for merit must be promptly recognized, so that the will to serve is encouraged and achievement made manifest. This is the proper way to employ men of talent.

    “In former times, when Yin Jifu returned from his campaign, the Zhou court bestowed upon him great rewards. The Book of Songs says:

    ‘Jifu returned in joy,
    Laden with abundant blessings;
    From Hao he came back,
    His journey long and arduous.’

    “A journey of a thousand li to Hao was already deemed far; how much more so a march of ten thousand li? Their toil and merit are therefore beyond measure.”

    “Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang have not yet received the honors due to their achievements; instead, their great merits have been suppressed, and they have long endured petty accusations from court officials. This neither encourages merit nor inspires those of ambition.

    “In former times, Duke Huan of Qi first rendered great service in upholding the Zhou house, yet later committed the fault of destroying the state of Xiang. Historians nevertheless concealed his faults in order to exalt his merit. Likewise, the Ershi General Li Guangli exhausted fifty thousand troops and squandered immense resources over four years, yet gained only thirty fine horses. Though he slew the King of Dayuan, Wugua, his achievement scarcely compensated for the cost, and his private crimes were many. Nevertheless, Emperor Wu, mindful of the hardship of distant campaigns, overlooked his offenses and rewarded him with marquisates, high offices, and stipends of two thousand picul for more than a hundred men.

    “Now Kangju is stronger than Dayuan, and Zhizhi Chanyu’s renown surpassed that of the King of Dayuan; the crime of murdering envoys is graver still than withholding horses. Yet Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang neither exhausted the people nor drained the treasury, and their achievement exceeds that of the Ershi General a hundredfold.

    “Moreover, Chang Hui pursued and attacked the Wusun following his own initiative, and Zheng Ji received the submission of the Rizhu King without prior imperial command; yet both were granted fiefs and ennobled. Measured by military merit and hardship, Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang surpass Fang Shu and Yin Jifu; weighed by the balance of merit and fault, they exceed Duke Huan of Qi and the Ershi General; compared with more recent achievements, they stand above the Marquis of Anyuan(Zheng Ji) and the Marquis of Changluo(Chang Hui).

    “Yet now their great accomplishments are left unrewarded, while their minor faults are repeatedly magnified—this truly grieves the heart. It is fitting, therefore, to pardon and release them in due time, restore their ranks, set aside their faults, and bestow proper honors, so as to encourage merit and inspire those who serve the state.”

    Thereupon, the Emperor issued an edict granting pardon to Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang, ordering that their offenses not be pursued, and commanded the ministers to deliberate on the bestowal of ranks and titles. The officials argued that the precedent of military merit lay in the capture and execution of Zhizhi Chanyu. Kuang Heng and Shi Xian, however, objected, saying: “Zhizhi was originally a fugitive who had lost his state; he merely usurped the title in a remote land and was not truly a Chanyu.”

    The Emperor cited the precedent of the Marquis of Anyuan, Zheng Ji, who had been enfeoffed with a thousand households; yet Kuang Heng and Shi Xian persisted in their objections.

    In the summer, on April 30, Gan Yanshou was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yicheng, and Chen Tang was granted the title of Marquis within the Passes. Each received a fief of three hundred households, along with a reward of one hundred catties of gold. Gan Yanshou was appointed Colonel of Changshui, and Chen Tang was appointed Colonel of Shooting Sound; both were placed in command of troops.

    Thereafter, Du Qin submitted a memorial again discussing the merits of Feng Fengshi’s earlier campaign against Shache(Yarkant). The Emperor, deeming it an affair of the former reign, did not reopen the matter. Du Qin was the son of the former Grand Master of Censorate, Du Yannian.

    Xun Yue’s Commentary: If Feng Fengshi’s achievements and righteousness were sufficient to warrant enfeoffment, then revisiting and recording his former merits is indeed appropriate. According to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, to censure the Duke of Lu for dismantling the ancestral temple was deemed improper, while to commend him for disbanding the central army was deemed correct—each judgment resting upon what was fitting to the circumstance.

    Matters undertaken without imperial authorization were always treated with caution by the former kings and were permitted only when necessity compelled them. If one acts without authorization in a great affair yet achieves little, punishment is fitting; if one acts without authorization in a lesser matter yet accomplishes great merit, reward is fitting; if merit and fault counterbalance one another, then leaving the matter unresolved is appropriate.

    Thus, judgments should be weighed on the gravity of the matter and rendered as befits its achievement.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 227): Alpha Male Chen Tang’s Daring Stunt

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 21 Scroll 29 (continued)

    Pamir Mountain(Congling)

    The 3rd year of Emperor Yuan’s Jianzhao Era (36 B.C.)

    In the summer, on June 19, Wei Xuancheng, Marquis of Fuyang, passed away.

    In July of autumn, Kuang Heng was appointed Chancellor. On July 14, Li Yanshou, Commandant of the Palace Guards, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.

    In winter, the envoys sent to the Protector-General of the Western Regions—Cavalry Commandant Gan Yanshou of Beidi and Lieutenant Colonel Chen Tang of Shanyang—acted jointly and slew Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu in Kangju.

    Earlier, Zhizhi Chanyu, relying on the strength of his people and boasting of his might, regarded himself as a great power and grew arrogant. Having gained victories, he became increasingly insolent and failed to treat the King of Kangju with due respect. In a rage, he slew the king’s daughter along with several hundred nobles and commoners, some of whom he dismembered and cast into the Dulai River. He compelled the people of Kangju to build a fortified city, forcing five hundred men to labor each day; the work continued for two years before completion. He also sent envoys to demand annual tribute from the kingdoms of Yancai and Dayuan, which dared not refuse.

    The Han court dispatched three envoys to Kangju and Zhizhi Chanyu to recover the bodies of Gu Ji and the others who had been killed by them. Zhizhi Chanyu humiliated and tormented the envoys, refused to receive the imperial edict, and instead sent a letter to the Protector-General of the West, feigning submission and claiming that he was in distress and wished to rely upon the mighty Han, even offering to send his son as a hostage. Such was his disdain and duplicity.

    Chen Tang was a man of courage and composure, adept at deep calculation and bold in devising quirky stratagems. He delighted in extraordinary achievements. He said to Gan Yanshou:

    “The barbarians are by nature awed by great gens. The Western Regions once belonged to the Xiongnu. Now Zhizhi Chanyu’s reputation has spread far and wide; he oppresses Wusun and Dayuan, and frequently conspires with Kangju, intending to subdue them. If he gains control of these two states, within a few years all the cities and kingdoms will be endangered. Moreover, his people are fierce and warlike, often victorious in battle. If they are left unchecked for long, they will surely become a great calamity to the Western Regions.

    “Though they dwell in remote lands, they have no strong cities nor effective crossbows. If we draw troops from the agricultural garrisons and combine them with the forces of Wusun, advancing directly upon their camps, they will have nowhere to go if they flee; if they stand and fight, they will not be able to endure. An achievement of a thousand years may be accomplished in a single day.”

    Gan Yanshou approved of this reasoning and wished to present it to the court. Chen Tang, however, said, “The Son of Heaven would summon the Three Excellencies and the Nine Ministers to deliberate on such a matter. Our far-reaching design is not something mediocre officials can comprehend, and it will certainly not be approved.” Gan Yanshou still hesitated.

    At that time, Gan Yanshou had long been ill and confined to his bed. Chen Tang thereupon took matters into his own hands, mobilizing troops from the commanderies and garrisons under a forged imperial decree. When Gan Yanshou learned of this, he was startled into rising from his bed and attempted to stop him. Chen Tang, enraged, drew his sword and rebuked him, saying, “The army has already been set in motion—would a mere fellow like you dare to obstruct it?” Thereupon Gan Yanshou yielded.

    They assembled the host, numbering more than forty thousand men, Han troops together with allied aliens. Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang submitted a memorial acknowledging their unauthorized action, explaining the military situation, and then divided the army into six columns. Three columns advanced by the southern route, crossing the Congling (Pamir) Mountains and proceeding directly toward Dayuan. The other three, led by the Protector-General Gan Yanshou himself, set out from the kingdom of Wensu, entered Chigu(Yshtyk, the capital of Wusun) by the northern route, passed through Wusun territory, crossed into Kangju lands, and advanced westward to the vicinity of Lake Tianchi (Issyk-Kul).

    Meanwhile, Baotian, the deputy king of Kangju, led several thousand cavalry eastward to raid near Chigu(Yshtyk). He killed and captured more than a thousand of the people of the Great Kunmi of Wusun and seized large numbers of livestock. He then pursued the Han army from the rear and plundered its supplies. Chen Tang released the auxiliary alien troops to counterattack. They slew four hundred and sixty of the enemy, recaptured four hundred and seventy captives taken from Wusun, and returned them to the Great Kunmi. The horses, cattle, and sheep were taken to provision the army. They also captured a Kangju noble named Inudu.

    Upon entering the eastern border of Kangju, Chen Tang ordered that the army should not plunder. He secretly summoned the Kangju noble Tumo and met with him, explaining the authority and trustworthiness of the Han dynasty. They drank together and concluded an alliance, after which Tumo was allowed to depart. The army then advanced and encamped sixty li from the city of Zhizhi Chanyu.

    They captured another Kangju noble, Jusezi Nankaimou, and compelled him to serve as guide. Jusezi, being the maternal younger brother of Tumo, harbored resentment toward Zhizhi Chanyu and therefore disclosed all information concerning him. On the following day, the army advanced again and encamped thirty li from the city.

    The Chanyu then sent an envoy to Chen Tang, asking, “Why have the Han troops come?”

    The answer was: “The Chanyu once wrote, ‘I am in distress and wish to submit to the mighty Han, and to come in person to attend the court.’ The Son of Heaven, taking pity on your abandonment of your former realm and your submission to Kangju, has therefore dispatched the Protector-General to welcome the Chanyu’s wives and children. Fearing to alarm those nearby, he has not yet dared to approach the city walls.”

    The envoy went back and forth several times with replies. Thereupon Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang rebuked him:

    “We have come from afar on the Chanyu’s behalf, yet to this day not a single noble or chief has come forth to meet the General and receive his commands. Why does the Chanyu neglect this great undertaking, failing in the proper duties between host and guest? Our troops have traveled far; men and cattle alike are exhausted, and our provisions are nearly spent. We fear that we shall have no means of return. We ask the Chanyu to deliberate carefully on this matter with his ministers.”

    The following day, they advanced to the banks of the Dulai River near the city of Zhizhi Chanyu and encamped three li away. They saw five-colored banners and pennants raised upon the city walls, with several hundred armored men stationed atop them. More than a hundred cavalry rode back and forth below the walls, while over a hundred infantrymen were drawn up in fish-scale formation at the gates, drilling in martial display.

    Those on the walls beckoned toward the Han army, shouting, “Come and fight!” More than a hundred cavalry charged toward the Han camp, but the camp was already prepared, crossbows drawn and aimed. The cavalry withdrew at once. Some officers and soldiers shot at the cavalry and infantry at the gates, forcing them to retreat back within the city.

    Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang issued orders to the army, saying: “When the drums are sounded, press forward from all sides, encircle the city, and hold your positions. Dig trenches, block the gates, set large shields in front, and array spearmen and crossbowmen behind to strike those upon the walls.”

    The defenders on the towers fled. Outside the earthen walls stood a wooden palisade, from which arrows were shot, inflicting some casualties upon the Han troops. The Han soldiers set fire to the palisade. During the night, several hundred cavalry attempted to break out, but were met by arrows and slain.

    Earlier, when the Chanyu heard that the Han army had arrived, he wished to flee, but suspected that Kangju harbored resentment against him and would collude from within. Moreover, hearing that the Wusun and other states had also mobilized their forces, he found no place to escape. At first he departed, but then returned, saying, “It is better to hold our ground. The Han army has come from afar and cannot long sustain itself.”

    Thereupon the Chanyu donned armor and ascended the tower. Several dozen of his wives(yanzhi) and concubines also mounted the walls and shot arrows at the attackers. A Han soldier shot Zhizhi Chanyu in the nose, and several of his consorts were killed. The Chanyu then withdrew from the tower.

    After midnight, the wooden palisade was breached. The defenders withdrew into the earthen city, climbing the walls and crying out. Kangju then sent more than ten thousand cavalry, divided into over ten detachments, to encircle the city and join with the defenders. Throughout the night they repeatedly assaulted the Han camp, but each attack was repelled.

    At dawn, fires rose on all sides. The Han officers and soldiers advanced with loud shouts, drums and gongs resounding and shaking the ground. The Kangju troops withdrew, and the Han forces advanced with large shields, entering the earthen city.

    The Chanyu, together with more than one hundred men and women, fled into the inner quarters. The Han soldiers set fires and stormed in, wounding and killing the Chanyu. Deputy Commander Du Xun beheaded Zhizhi Chanyu. They recovered the two Han scepters and the silk documents carried by Gu Ji and the other envoys. The spoils were distributed to those who had captured them.

    In total, one thousand five hundred and eighteen heads were taken, including those of wives(yanzhi), crown princes, nobles, and others. One hundred and forty-five persons were captured alive, and more than a thousand surrendered. These captives were distributed among the various city-states and the fifteen kings who had joined the Han coalition forces.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 220): Gu Ji’s Mission

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 20 Scroll 28 (continued)

    Samarkand(Kangju), Uzbekistan. Photo by: Patrickringgenberg

    The 4th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (45 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor journeyed to Ganquan and offered sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.

    In March, he traveled to Hedong and made offerings to the Mother Earth deity; a pardon was granted to the convicts of Fenyin.

    The 5th year of Emperor Yuan’s Chuyuan Era (44 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Lord Zinan of Zhou, was appointed Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou.

    In March, the Emperor traveled to Yong and offered sacrifice at the Altar of the Five Deities.

    In April of summer, a comet appeared near the constellation Orion.

    The Emperor, following the counsel of Confucian scholars such as Gong Yu, issued a decree stating that the Imperial Kitchen should not slaughter animals daily and should reduce its prepared provisions by half. Horses were to be kept only for the imperial carriage and essential official duties. The practices of wrestling; the seldom-used palace maids in the inner gardens; the offices overseeing the Three-Season Garment Works in Qi; the officials of the northern hunting grounds; the salt-and-iron administration; and the Fair-Price Granaries were all to be abolished.

    Disciples of the Imperial Academy were no longer limited in number, so that learning might be encouraged. Any commoner proficient in one of the Confucian classics was exempted from corvée. More than seventy categories of punishment were abolished.

    The Grand Master of the Censorate, Chen Wannian, passed away.

    On June 20, Gong Yu, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. Gong Yu had long submitted many memorials discussing the successes and failures of state affairs. The Emperor esteemed his honesty and integrity and frequently adopted his proposals.

    Zhizhi Chanyu of the Xiongnu, resenting that the Han favored Huhanye and did not aid him, and believing himself far removed from the Middle Kingdom, mistreated the Han envoys Jiang Naishi and others. He sent an envoy with tribute, requesting the return of his hostage son. The court deliberated on sending Court Guard Marshal Gu Ji to escort the prince. Imperial Counselor Gong Yu and the Erudite Kuang Heng of Donghai argued against it, saying: “Zhizhi Chanyu’s acceptance of the ways of the Central States is but superficial, and his territory lies at an extreme distance. It is fitting that the envoy delivers his son only to the frontier and there turn back.”

    Gu Ji submitted a memorial, saying: “Between the Central States and the tribes, a bond has long endured without interruption. Now, having raised and nurtured his son for ten years with great kindness, if we abruptly cease and escort him no farther than the frontier border, returning without completing our purpose, it will appear as abandonment—causing him to feel discarded and bereft of allegiance, thereby nullifying past kindness and sowing future resentment. This is unwise.

    “Those who advise against this, having seen the humiliations suffered earlier by Jiang Naishi and the others, imagine such dangers beforehand. I, fortunate to uphold the strength of Han and to receive the enlightened command, will proclaim our profound benevolence; they will not dare to rebel. If they harbor a beast-like heart and behave immorally toward me, then the Chanyu will incur a grave crime and must flee far away, not daring to approach our borders. To sacrifice one envoy so that the people may dwell in peace is strategy for the state and the wish of Your servant. I request permission to deliver him to the court.”

    The Emperor approved his counsel.

    Upon Gu Ji’s arrival, Zhizhi Chanyu flew into rage and in the end slew Gu Ji and his retinue. Knowing that he had wronged the Han, and hearing that Huhanye was growing stronger daily, he feared attack and sought to flee to a distant region.

    The King of Kangju(Sogdiana), long harassed by the Wusun, conferred with his chieftains, saying: “The Xiongnu are a great nation, and the Wusun have long been subject to them. Now Zhizhi Chanyu wanders outside his domain. We may invite him to our eastern marches, join forces to conquer the Wusun, and establish him there, thereby eliminating the Xiongnu threat once for all.” They sent an envoy to Jiankun, where Zhizhi Chanyu then resided, to convey this plan.

    Zhizhi Chanyu, already fearing and resenting the Wusun, was greatly delighted by Kangju’s proposal. They formed an alliance, and Zhizhi Chanyu led his forces westward. Many among his followers perished from the cold along the way, leaving but three thousand men. When they reached Kangju, the King of Kangju gave his daughter in marriage to Zhizhi Chanyu, and Zhizhi Chanyu likewise gave his daughter to the King of Kangju. The King of Kangju revered Zhizhi Chanyu greatly, intending to use his strength to overawe the neighboring states.

    Zhizhi Chanyu repeatedly borrowed troops to strike the Wusun, penetrating deeply into Chigu[Red Valley, near Lake Issyk-Kul] city, killing and capturing many and driving off livestock. The Wusun did not dare to pursue. An area of five thousand square miles of western land lay desolate and uninhabited.

    In winter, on December 9, Grand Master of the Censorate Gong Yu died. On December 19, Xue Guangde, Treasurer of Changxin Palace, was appointed Gong Yu’s successor.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 150): Out to The Unknown

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    A Goddess stone figure, Bronze Age Bactria (Daxia), photo by Jumbokedama

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (122 B.C. continued)

    In April of summer, a general amnesty was declared throughout the realm.

    On April 9, the imperial son, Liu Ju, was declared Crown Prince at the tender age of seven.

    On May 30, a solar eclipse occurred.

    In that same period, a large group of ten thousand Xiongnu entered Shanggu and slaughtered several hundred Han people.

    Earlier, Zhang Qian had returned from his western expedition to Yuezhi and presented a detailed report to the Emperor, recounting the customs and cultures of various polities in the western territories. He stated:

    “Dayuan lies directly to the west of the Han, approximately ten thousand li away. The people of Dayuan live in settled communities and engage in agriculture. They breed a brand of horses known as the Ferghana horse, whose sweat is red, and they are highly prized. Their cities and houses resemble those of the Middle Kingdom.

    “To their northeast lies the Wusun, and to the east are the Kingdom of Khotan. West of Khotan, all rivers flow westward into the Western Sea, while to the east, the rivers flow toward a salt marsh. This salt marsh runs underground, and to the south lies the source of the Yellow River, approximately five thousand li from Chang’an.

    “East of the salt marsh lies the western boundary of the Xiongnu, extending to the Great Wall at Longxi. To the south, they border the Qiang, who have cut off the road from Han to the west.

    “The Wusun, Kangju, Yancai (Alans), and the Greater Yuezhi are nomadic peoples who move with their herds and have customs similar to those of the Xiongnu. Daxia lies southwest of Dayuan and shares many similar customs. During my time in Daxia, I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth from Shu. Upon inquiry, the people of Daxia told me, ‘Our merchants travel to Juandu (India) to trade with them.’

    “Juandu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia, and its customs resemble those of Daxia. In my estimation, Daxia is twelve thousand li from the Han, located to the southwest. Now, Juandu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia and possesses goods from Shu. Therefore, its distance from Shu cannot be too great. Should we send emissaries to Daxia, traveling through Qiang territories would be dangerous, as the Qiang people despise outsiders. Going northward would bring us into the hands of the Xiongnu. The safest and shortest route is through Shu, which is free from raiders.”

    Upon learning of the existence of Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi (the Parthian Empire), and other such powerful and prosperous kingdoms, the Emperor recognized their abundance of exotic goods, their settled communities, and their shared commercial activities with the Middle Kingdom. He observed their military weakness and noted their apparent inclination to value the wealth and goods of the Han. To the north of these territories lay Daxia, Kangju, and similar regions known for their military strength, presenting a potential opportunity for suzerainty through gifts and offerings.

    The Emperor firmly believed that it would expand the empire’s territory by thousands of li if these territories were brought under righteous allegiance, rather than military conquest. It would allow distant peoples to trade and pay homage, utilizing interpreters who spoke nine different languages. This would also introduce diverse cultures and spread the prestige and virtue of the Han Empire throughout the four seas. The Emperor approved of Zhang Qian’s report and ordered that he send emissaries to explore routes via Shu and Qianwei. Envoys, including Wang Ranyu and others, were dispatched in four directions: through Mang tribe, Ran tribe, and Xiyu tribe, and through Qiong tribe and Bo tribe, with each team traveling one to two thousand li towards Shendu.

    To the north, the envoys were blocked at Jiandi and Zuodu, while to the south they were halted at Yuexi and Kunming. In the region around Kunming, there were no recognized rulers and the area was rife with banditry, with frequent attacks on Han envoys, making communication impossible.

    Despite these challenges, Han’s efforts to reach Shendu (India) eventually led to communication with the Dian kingdom. The King of Dian, whose name was Dangqiang, asked the Han envoys, “Who is greater, Han or us?” Similarly, the Marquis of Yelang posed the same question. With no established communication channels between these territories and the Han Empire, each considered itself a sovereign state and was unaware of the vastness of the Han Empire. When the envoys returned and highly praised the magnificence of the Dian kingdom, suggesting it should be ruled as a vassal state, the Emperor renewed his attention to the southwestern uncivilized regions.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (121 B.C.)

    In October of the winter, the Emperor made a pilgrimage to Yong and performed ceremonies at the Five Altars.

    On March 3, the Marquis of Pingjin, Gongsun Hong, passed away. On March 22, Li Cai, the Marquis of Le’an and the Grand Master of Censorate, was appointed as the Chancellor, and Zhang Tang, the Minister of Justice, was appointed as Grand Master of Censorate.

    Huò Qùbīng was appointed as the General of Agile Cavalry and led ten thousand cavalry troops from Longxi to attack the Xiongnu. He traversed through five kingdoms, engaging in battles for six days and covering over a thousand li across the Yanzhi Mountains. They killed the King of Shelan, beheaded the King of Luhou, captured the son of King Hunye along with the Prime Minister and Commandant, and seized over 8,900 enemy soldiers. They also obtained the golden statue that the King of Xiutu dedicated for sacrificial rituals. The Emperor decreed to increase Huo Qùbīng‘s land holdings by two thousand households.

    During the summer, Huo Qubing, along with the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, led tens of thousands of riders separately into Beidi along different routes. The Commandant of Capital Guard Zhang Qian and the Chamberlain Li Guang also traveled towards Youbeiping on separate paths. Li Guang led four thousand riders in advance for several hundred li, while Zhang Qian followed behind with ten thousand riders.

    The Xiongnu’s Left Tuqi King besieged Li Guang with forty thousand riders, causing fear among Li Guang‘s troops. Li Guang sent his son Li Gan alone with several dozen riders to penetrate the enemy’s ranks, riding through their formation and returning to report to his father, saying, “The enemy is easily dealt with!” This reassured the soldiers. Li Guang then formed his troops into a circular formation, facing outwards. The enemy attacked fiercely, and arrows fell like raindrops. More than half of the Han soldiers were killed, and the Han‘s arrows were nearly exhausted.

    Li Guang ordered his soldiers to hold arrows without shooting while he personally used a large yellow bow to shoot at the enemy’s subordinate generals, killing several of their leaders, which deterred the Xiongnu further. As the day drew to a close, the soldiers were frightened, losing their countenance, but Li Guang remained composed and continued to rally his troops, earning the respect of all within the army. The next day, they fought again with even greater force, resulting in casualties exceeding half of the troops, but killed many more enemies. At this time, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian‘s army also arrived, causing the Xiongnu to retreat. The Han troops were too tired to pursue and returned.

    According to Han’s military law, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian was late and deserving of execution, but he was allowed to redeem himself as a commoner. Although Li Guang demonstrated significant military achievements, he received no reward because of substantial loss of troops. 

    Huo Qubing, the General of Agile Cavalry, ventured more than two thousand li deep into enemy territory, but he and the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, missed communication with each other. Huo Qubing ventured beyond Juyan Lake, passing through the Lesser Yuezhi, and arrived at the Qilian Mountains, where he captured Shanhuan and Qiutu, two Xiongnu kings, along with the Prime Minister, Commandant, and their 2500 followers. They beheaded thirty-two thousand enemy soldiers and captured more than seventy lesser chieftains. 

    The Emperor further increased Huo Qubing‘s land holdings by five thousand households. Additionally, his lieutenants who performed meritorious deeds were rewarded: the Falcon Striker Marshal Zhao Ponu was appointed as an Marquis of Congpiao, Colonel Gao Bushi became Marquis of Yiguan, and Colonel Pu Duo was titled as the Marquis of Huiqu. Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, was found guilty of dereliction of duty for not meeting Huo Qubing at rendezvous and was sentenced to death, later redeeming himself as a commoner.

    At that time, all the commanders of various camps had soldiers, horses, and weapons which were inferior compared to the General of Agile Cavalry. The General of Agile Cavalry always selected his troops meticulously, yet dared to venture deep into the enemy lines, often taking the lead with valiant cavalry ahead of the larger army. This forerunner force was also blessed with good fortune and was never in a desperate situation. Meanwhile, the other camp commanders often remained stagnant and were not equally matched. Consequently, the General of Agile Cavalry gained increasing favor and affection by the Sovereign, approaching the status of the Grand General Wei Qing.

    The Xiongnu invaded Dai and Yanmen, killing and plundering several hundred people.