Reflection by Rio Grande

Tag: Huo Qubing

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 155): Silent Badmouthing

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 12 Scroll 20

    Duration of 9 years

    Huo Qubing’s Tomb, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (118 B.C.)

    On March 11 of spring, Chancellor Li Cai was accused of appropriating empty land from Emperor Jing‘s Garden for the burial of his family. He was subsequently put on trial and, unable to endure the shame, committed suicide.

    The three-zhu coins were discontinued, and five-zhu coins were minted in their place. This change led to a rise in counterfeiting, especially in the Chu region.

    The Emperor appointed Ji An as the new Prefect of Huaiyang, located on the outskirts of the Chu region. Despite Ji An‘s humble refusal to accept the seal of authority, the decree was repeatedly insisted upon until Ji An reluctantly acquiesced. With tears in his eyes, Ji An spoke to the Emperor: “I have always thought of myself as being cast aside in ditches and valleys, never expecting to be employed by Your Majesty again. I often suffer from ailments, like dogs and horses, that rendered me incapable of handling the duties of a commandery. I am only fit to serve as a Palace Attendant, assisting in the rectification of mistakes and oversights within the imperial court.”

    The Emperor responded, “Do you disdain the position of Prefect of Huaiyang? I will call you back soon enough, but the officials and people of Huaiyang are not in their rightful places. I rely solely on your renown and stature. You will surely manage it, even from your bed.”

    After Ji An bid farewell and departed, he encountered Li Xi, the Grand Usher, and said, “By being exiled and accepting the commandery post, I have lost the opportunity to engage in state affairs with the court. The Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhang Tang, is shrewd enough to counter objections, deceptive enough to conceal faults, and skilled in the art of flattery and rhetoric. However, he refuses to speak truthfully for the good of the world, instead catering solely to the Emperor’s desires. If the Emperor dislikes something, Zhang Tang disparages it; if the Emperor likes something, Zhang Tang praises it. He eagerly engages in petty matters, using convoluted arguments to sway the Emperor’s thoughts, and employs corrupt officials to strengthen his own authority. You, being one of the Nine Ministers with access to the Emperor, must speak out early; otherwise, you will fall with him and be destroyed.”

    Li Xi, fearing Zhang Tang, dared not oppose him. Later, when Zhang Tang was prosecuted, the Emperor accused Li Xi of complicity.

    Ji An was assigned to govern Huaiyang with the salary of a minister of a feudal lord (2000 picul), where he remained for ten years until his death.

    An edict was issued to relocate corrupt officials and lawbreakers to the border regions.

    In the summer, On April 2, the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince, Marquis Wuqiang, Zhuang Qingzhai, was appointed as Chancellor.

    The Emperor fell gravely ill at Dinghu Palace. Despite the efforts of sorcerers and physicians, there was no improvement. Youshui Fagen mentioned a shaman in Shangjun Commandery who could communicate with spirits and cure illnesses. The Emperor summoned the shaman and allowed him to preside over sacrifices at Ganquan Palace.

    As the illness worsened, an emissary was sent to consult the demigod(i.e. the shaman) for advice. The demigod responded, “The Emperor’s illness is not a cause for concern; it will soon subside. You should come to meet me at Ganquan despite how you feel.” Soon after, the Emperor’s condition improved, and he visited Ganquan Palace, recovering quickly.

    Once the illness had fully subsided, a banquet was arranged at the Shou Hall, where the demigod resided. Though the demigod could not be directly seen, his words were heard by others and sounded human. He appeared and then disappeared, accompanied by a solemn wind, and resided within curtained chambers. His words, which the Emperor received, were recorded as “The Plan.” While his advice contained nothing extraordinary and was rooted in common knowledge, the Emperor took great pleasure in it. The details were kept secret, and no one outside the palace knew of them.

    While traveling to Ganquan Palace, the Emperor passed through the Right Interior Minister’s jurisdiction and discovered many paths were neglected and poorly maintained. Enraged, the Emperor exclaimed, “Does Yi Zong think I would never use this road again?” He bit his own lip in anger.

    The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (117 B.C.)

    In October of winter, it rained, though there was no ice.

    The previous year, the Emperor issued the min coinage edict, urging people to declare their assets and donate in the manner of Bu Shi. However, the people refused to contribute their wealth to support the county officials. As a result, Yang Ke dispatched agents to report on those who hid their assets and violated the min coinage laws. Yi Zong, seeing the agents’ actions as disruptive to the people’s lives, arrested them. The Emperor considered this an act of defying imperial orders and interfering with law enforcement, leading to Yi Zong‘s public execution.

    Chamberlain Li Gan, harboring resentment for the death of his father, Li Guang, at the hands of the Grand General Wei Qing, attacked and wounded Wei Qing. The General concealed the incident. Shortly thereafter, Li Gan accompanied the Emperor to Yong and arrived at the hunting grounds of Ganquan Palace. There, General of the Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, shot and killed Li Gan. At that time, Huo Qubing enjoyed great favor and held a high rank, so the Emperor covered up the killing, claiming that Li Gan was killed by a rampaging deer.

    On April 28 of the summer, in a ceremony at the Grand temple, Prince Liu Hong was named the Prince of Qi, Liu Dan as the Prince of Yan, and Liu Xu as the Prince of Guangling. This marked the precedence of the initial enunciation of the prince titles by imperial written certificates.

    Since the minting of silver and five-zhu coins, tens of thousands of officials and civilians who were caught counterfeiting coins had been executed. The number of undetected cases was countless, and practically throughout the entire country, there was no one who had not been somehow involved in the casting of metal coins. The offenders were numerous, and the officials could not execute them all.

    In June, an edict was issued to send six erudites, including Chu Da and Xu Yan, to thoroughly investigate the states and commanderies. They were tasked with identifying those engaged in illegal annexation of private properties or farm land, as well as officials, governors, and others guilty of crimes.

    In September of the autumn, the Marquis of Guanjun [Champion] and Marquis of Jinghuan, Huo Qubing, passed away. The Emperor mourned his death deeply and had a tomb constructed in his honor, shaped like Qilian Mountain.

    Huo Qubing’s father, Huo Zhongru, had completed his government service and returned home. There, he married and had a son named Huo Guang. As Huo Qubing grew older, he learned that Huo Zhongru was his father. While serving as the General of Agile Cavalry and battling against the Xiongnu, he passed through Hedong. He sent officials to invite Huo Zhongru to meet him and bought land, houses, slaves, and maidservants before departing. Upon his return, Huo Qubing brought Huo Guang with him to Chang’an, appointing him as an attendant-gentleman. Huo Guang was gradually promoted to the rank of Colonel of Royal Carriages and Grandee of Chamberlain.

    During this year, the Minister of Agriculture, Yan Yi, was executed.

    Yan Yi was renowned for his integrity and gradually rose to the position of one of the Nine Ministers. When the Emperor inquired about the creation of the white deerskin coins with Zhang Tang, Yan Yi expressed his opinion, saying, “Now, when princes and marquises offer tribute in the form of black jade discs, worth only a few thousand, the jade discs are wrapped in deerskins valued at hundreds of thousands. That is like putting the cart before the horse.” The Emperor was displeased with this response.

    Later, Zhang Tang had a personal conflict with Yan Yi. When someone accused Yan Yi of another offense, the Emperor ordered Zhang Tang to decide on his punishment. On one occasion, Yan Yi‘s retainer remarked that an edict had certain improprieties, and Yan Yi responded with a slight movement of his lips, without speaking a word. Zhang Tang reported this, “Yan Yi, one of the Nine Ministers, noticed an inappropriate decree but failed to speak out about it, instead silently expressing his negative view. He is to be sentenced to death.” This incident established a criminal precedent in the law regarding “silent badmouthing” (Silence Disaccord), leading three excellencies and ministers to flatter and seek favor by speaking in a subservient manner.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 154): Favorability Contest

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Gobi Desert, Mongolia

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C. continued)

    Another office of Grand Marshal was established. Both the Grand General and the General of Agile Cavalry were appointed as Grand Marshals. A decree was issued, establishing the salary and status of the General of Agile Cavalry equivalent to that of the Grand General. From then on, while Grand General Wei Qing gradually receded in prominence, the General of Agile Cavalry Huo Qubing became increasingly esteemed.

    Many of Grand General Wei Qing‘s former associates and scholars from his circle departed to serve under the General of Agile Cavalry, and they swiftly obtained official ranks and titles, except for Ren An, who refused to do so.

    The General of Agile Cavalry was a man of few words, not revealing much, yet possessing courage and a daring spirit. The Emperor once wanted to instruct him in the military strategies of Sun Wu and Wu Qi, to which he responded, “Wars are more concerned about battle strategies than learning ancient military tactics.”

    When the Emperor was constructing a palace for Huo Qubing, he asked the General of Agile Cavalry to inspect it. The general replied, “As long as the Xiongnu remain unconquered, what is the need of building a home for?” Due to such responses, the Emperor increasingly valued and favored him. 

    However, Huo Qubing rose to high positions when he was young. He didn’t pay much attention to the welfare of his soldiers. During military campaigns, the Emperor would send several tens of carriages loaded with supplies and delicacies from imperial kitchens, but upon their return, the vehicles would still be filled with leftover meat and grains, while some soldiers would suffer from hunger. When they were stationed outside the borders, the troops often lacked provisions, and sometimes they were underfed and displayed low morale, while the General of Agile Cavalry indulged in leisurely sports such as playing a ball game taju [similar to soccer], building a field for the game.  Many instances similar to these occurred.

    On the other hand, the Grand General was known for his benevolence, favoring soldiers who displayed humility and deference, endearing himself to the Emperor with his gentle and accommodating demeanor. Both individuals had such distinctive characters and principles, yet quite different.

    The Han Dynasty had slain around 80,000 to 90,000 Xiongnu, while several tens of thousands of Han soldiers had also perished. Subsequently, the Xiongnu retreated far away, and there were no more royal courts of Xiongnu to the south of the Gobi desert.

    The Han Dynasty crossed the river from the Shuofang region to the west towards Lingju, establishing canals for back and forth communication, setting up military farm offices, and deploying around 50,000 to 60,000 officers and soldiers. They gradually encroached northward into Xiongnu territory. However, due to the scarcity of horses, they ceased large-scale offensives against the Xiongnu.

    The Xiongnu employed Zhao Xin’s strategy and sent envoys to Han, using conciliatory language to request peace and marriage alliance. The Emperor sought counsel on this matter—some advocated for marriage alliance, while others proposed subjugation.

    The Chief staff of the Chancellor, Ren Chang, suggested, “The Xiongnu, having just suffered a defeat and hardship, might be made to become tributaries, visiting the court and seeking audience at the borders.”

    The Emperor dispatched Ren Chang as an envoy to the Chanyu. However, the Chanyu became greatly enraged and detained him.

    Erudite Di Shan proposed that seeking peace would be advantageous. The Emperor discussed the matter with Zhang Tang, the Grand Master of Censorate. Zhang Tang dismissed Di Shan‘s proposal, calling him an ignorant foolish scholar. 

    Di Shan retorted, “I might be foolish, but I am a faithful fool. As for the Grand Master of Censorate Zhang Tang, he is a deceitful loyalist.”

    This made the Emperor furious, and he asked, “If I were to let you be a prefect of a commandery, would you prevent the enemy from invading?” 

    Di Shan replied, “No, I could not.” 

    “How about in a county?” Di Shan replied similarly. 

    Finally, the Emperor asked, “How about in a small fortress?” 

    Di Shan, realizing the futility of arguing further and fearing the consequences of being court-martialed, replied, “I can.”

    Consequently, the Emperor sent Di Shan to a small fortress. After a month’s time, the Xiongnu beheaded Di Shan and departed. From then on, the courtiers were terrified and dared not oppose Zhang Tang.

    During this year, Ji An was dismissed from his position due to violation of laws. Yi Zong, the Prefect of Dingxiang, was appointed as the Right Interior Minister, replacing Ji An, and Wang Wenshu, the Prefect of Henei, was appointed as the Commandant of the Capital Guard.

    Before this, Ning Cheng held the post of Commandant at the Hangu Pass. People said, “One would rather encounter a nursing tiger, than face a raging Ning Cheng.” When Yi Zong became the Prefect of Nanyang, upon arriving at the Pass, Ning Cheng personally welcomed him, showing great respect. When Yi Zong reached the commandery, he put Ning’s family on trial and exterminated Ning Cheng‘s household. The people of Nanyang were terrified, all standing on one foot.

    Later, Yi Zong was transferred to be the Prefect of Dingxiang. Upon his arrival, he immediately took more than 200 people on various charges from the prison. Additionally, he arrested over 200 of relatives and friends who visited the prison, claiming they relieved shackles for prisoners on death row. On that day, more than 400 people were reported killed. This sent shockwaves through the commandery, and fear spread throughout the region.

    Around this time, Zhao Yu and Zhang Tang were known for their severity as the highest ranking Ministers. However, they emphasized legal governance in their administration. Yi Zong, on the other hand, solely focused on using oppressive methods to govern, particularly through punitive strikes like eagles on preys.

    Wang Wenshu, initially serving as the Commandant of Guangping, carefully selected around  a dozen bold and resolute officials from the commandery, using them as his henchmen. He overlooked their serious past offenses, using these crimes as leverage, and allowed them to  hunt thefts and criminals to their desire. As long as these individuals gratified his desires for more captives, they were not prosecuted, even if they had committed numerous crimes. If someone did not do his bidding, he would use their previous offenses against them, even wiping out their families. Due to his methods, the bandits and criminals from the borders of Qi and Zhao dared not approach Guangping. The reputation of Guangping became such a place that no one picks up lost articles in the street.

    Later, when Wang Wenshu was appointed as the Prefect of Henei, he arrived in September. He ordered the commandery to provide fifty privately owned horses as express couriers. He arrested numerous powerful and dishonest figures in the commandery, involving more than a thousand families implicated by association. He submitted memorials to the Emperor requesting punishment: the major offenders were executed together with their whole clans, while the minor ones were put to death, and their families’ assets were confiscated to compensate for the crimes. The edict of approval came down swiftly within two or three days, and the resulting blood flow extended for over ten li (approximately 5 kilometers), causing awe among the people of Henei for his memorial due to their rapid response. 

    By the end of December, the commandery fell silent, and people dared not travel at night. There were no thieves that dared to disturb the peace, and even in the fields, no dogs barked. For the few who managed to escape, they were pursued in neighboring commanderies and princedoms. When spring arrived, Wang Wenshu sighed and said, “Alas! If only the winter months were extended by one more month, I would have enough time for completing my initiative!”

    Upon hearing of Yi Zong, Wang Wenshu‘s actions, the Emperor considered them able administrators and promoted them to senior minister of 2000 picul salary.

    There was a man from Qi called Shaowong, known for his skills in dealing with spirits and ghosts, which attracted the Emperor’s attention. When the Emperor’s favored Madame Wang passed away, Shaowong used his methods to summon the deceased’s spirit, taking on the appearance of the deceased Madame. The Emperor glimpsed this from behind a curtain, watching this shadow play. 

    Shaowong was appointed as General Wencheng and received considerable rewards and honors, being treated with the courtesy reserved for a guest of the Emperor. General Wencheng also advised the Emperor to construct the Ganquan Palace, establishing chambers and halls within, painting images of various spirits and deities of Heaven, Earth, and the North Star, arranging offerings, and inviting celestial beings. After residing there for over a year, The magic of Shaowong‘s methods began to decline, and the spirits ceased to appear. 

    Shaowong fed a piece of silk with writing to a cow, then pretending ignorance, and said, “There’s something unusual in this cow’s belly.” When the cow was slaughtered, the silk was found, containing strange writings. The Emperor recognized the handwriting and interrogated the Shaowong, confirming that it was a forged artifact by him. Subsequently, General Wencheng was executed, but this episode was kept secret.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 153): Crash Landing of The Flying General

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Khentii(Langjuxu) Mountains, Mongolia

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C. continued)

    The Emperor discussed with his generals, “The Marquis of Xi, Zhao Xin, often plans on behalf of the Xiongnu. He believes that the Han forces cannot cross the desert quickly and will less likely linger. Now, with the massive mobilization of soldiers, we are sure to get what we desire.” Therefore provisions for 100,000 grain-fed horses were prepared. The Grand General, Wei Qing, and the General of Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, each led 50,000 cavalry.  Additionally they had 40,000 extra horses for private provisioning. Also, hundreds of thousands of infantry and supply porters followed behind the cavalry, and the daring and skilled warriors were all under the command of the General of Agile Cavalry Huo Qubing.

    The General of Agile Cavalry planned to cross the border from Dingxiang to face the Xiongnu Chanyu. Captured prisoners informed that the Chanyu had moved east. Subsequently, the General of Agile Cavalry was ordered to exit passes in Dai Commandery, while the Grand General Wei Qing went out of Dingxiang. Chamberlain, Li Guang, repeatedly requested to join the expedition. The Emperor initially refused due to his age, but eventually allowed him to be General of the Front. The Grand Coachman, Gongsun He, was appointed as the General of the Left, the Commandant of Title Ranking, Zhao Yi’ji, as the General of the Right, and Marquis Pingyang, Cao Rang, as the General of the Rear, all under the command of the Grand General. Zhao Xin, said to the Chanyu on strategy, “Once the Han forces have crossed the desert and exhausted their men and horses, the Xiongnu can easily take them prisoners.” Therefore, he sent his supply train far north and positioned elite troops to wait for the Han forces to the north of the desert.

    The Grand General Wei Qing, having advanced beyond the borders, captured a prisoner who knew the whereabouts of the Chanyu. Taking his elite troops, he went forth, while instructing the  General of the Front Li Guang to rendezvous with the forces of the General of the Right Zhao Yi’ji and proceed through the eastern route. The eastern path was circuitous, distant and lacked sufficient water and grass. Li Guang pleaded, “I am supposed to be the General of the Front and the vanguard, yet now the Grand General commands me to take the eastern path. I’ve fought the Xiongnu since adolescence, and now that I have the chance to confront the Chanyu, I wish to be in the front, to face the Chanyu first and duel with him.”

    The Grand General, aware of the private warning from the Emperor, “Li Guang is old and unlucky. It’s better not to let him confront the Chanyu because I am afraid that he might not accomplish what we want, the capture of Chanyu.” Additionally, the Grand General wished to send Gongsun Ao, recently demoted from his marquis status, to confront the Chanyu to earn merit credit, hence the transfer of the General of the Front Li Guang to the east. Li Guang, upon learning this, staunchly appealed to the Grand General. The Grand General stuck to his decision, Li Guang, without formal farewell, rose and departed, filled with deep resentment.

    The Grand General marched beyond the borders for over a thousand li, and crossing the Gobi desert, he saw the Chanyu’s forces arrayed and waiting. Thus, the Grand General ordered heavy chariots to encircle and create a camp, and then unleashed five thousand cavalry to confront the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu, in turn, released about ten thousand cavalry. As they were about to engage near sunset, a fierce wind stirred up sand and pebbles, obstructing visibility between the two armies. Taking advantage of this, the Han forces extended their left and right wings to encircle the Chanyu in a pincer maneuver.

    Assessing that the Han forces were numerous and the soldiers and horses were still robust, the Chanyu reckoned that he couldn’t contend with the Han forces in battle. Consequently, the Chanyu, riding on a team of six swift mules, accompanied by a few hundred sturdy riders, broke through the Han encirclement and fled swiftly to the northwest. It was already dusk, and both the Han and Xiongnu forces suffered about equal amounts of casualties and engaged in heavy fighting. A Xiongnu captive caught by the left wing Colonel confessed that the Chanyu had taken cover of the darkness and departed earlier. The Han troops, dispatching light cavalry, pursued the Chanyu through the night. The army of the Grand General followed behind. The Xiongnu forces were in disarray and dispersed. By dawn, having traveled over two hundred li, they failed to capture the Chanyu. Nevertheless, they seized and beheaded nine thousand enemy soldiers and reached the Tianyan Mountains and the City garrisoned by Zhao Xin, where they found the Xiongnu‘s stocked grain and replenished supplies for the Han army. They stayed for a day, burned the remaining grain in the city, and then returned.

    The General of the Front Li Guang, along with the General of the Right Zhao Yi’ji, lost their way due to a lack of local guide, which led to their arrival late for the battle against the Chanyu, missing the rendezvous with Grand General. As the Grand General returned and passed by the southern desert, he encountered the two generals. The Grand General instructed his chief of staff to question Li Guang and Zhao Yi’ji regarding their lost way, summoning Li Guang to the headquarter to file a report.

    Li Guang said, “The ranking colonels and captains are not at fault; it was my own mistake in losing the way. I will present myself to the headquarters before the higher authorities to account for my actions.”

    Li Guang then spoke to his subordinates, saying, “I have engaged in more than seventy battles with the Xiongnu, large and small, since I was sixteen. Today, I was fortunate to follow the Grand General to face the Chanyu’s forces. The Grand General transferred my command to the east route, and I lost my way. Isn’t this the will of heaven? Anyway, I am over sixty years old and do not want to face the scrutiny of bureaucratic officials anymore!” He then drew his sword and took his own life.

    Li Guang was known for his honesty and integrity; he would share rewards and gifts received with his subordinates and shared meals and drinks with his soldiers. He held the position of 2000 picul salary for over forty years, yet his family had no surplus wealth. He had long and strong arms like a gorilla and was skilled in archery; whenever he drew his bow, he wouldn’t shoot if he was not sure to hit the target. In places where there was a shortage of water, Li Guang refrained from drinking until all his soldiers had drunk enough. Similarly, when food was scarce, he abstained from eating until all his soldiers had been fed. His soldiers cherished and respected him for these reasons. Upon his death, the entire army sobbed in mourning.

    When news of his death reached the common people, regardless of whether they knew him personally or not, tears were shed by the old and young alike. However, the General of the Right, Zhao Yi’ji, being held accountable by the authorities, faced death but was pardoned and relegated to a commoner.

    After the Chanyu’s escape, his troops frequently scattered and followed him, causing disorder whenever they encountered the Han forces. For a long time, the Chanyu didn’t reunite with the majority of his forces. The Right Luli King assumed the Chanyu was dead and proclaimed himself as the new Chanyu. However, after around ten days, the real Chanyu emerged to regain his followers, causing the Right Luli King to abandon his claim to the Chanyu’s title.

    The General of the Agile Cavalry, with an equal number of cavalry and heavy chariots, had equivalent military strength to the Grand General’s forces but lacked subordinate generals. Li Gan [a son of Li Guang] and others were appointed as senior colonels, acting as his lieutenants. They traveled over two thousand li, crossing the Dai and Youbeiping, traversing the great Gobi desert, and directly confronted the east division of Xiongnu’s troops. They captured three junior kings including the Prince of Tuntou, the king of Han, and eighty-three military and civil officers, including generals, ministers, chiefs and commandants. They ascended Khentii Mountains (Langjuxu Mountain) to worship the heavens, offered sacrifices at Guyan Mountain to the earth, and reached Lake Baikal (Hanhai). They captured 74443 prisoners. 

    The Emperor increased the fiefdom of the General of the Agile Cavalry by 5,800 households. He also granted titles to four individuals, including the Youbeiping Prefect Lu Bode, and augmented the households of two marquises, including Marquis of Congbiao, Zhao Puonu, and appointed Senior Colonel Li Gan, as the Marquis within Passes with a fief. Many military officers and soldiers received official positions, rewards, and honors. However, the Grand General did not receive an increase in his fiefdom, and none of his military officers or soldiers were granted noble titles.

    When the two armies departed beyond the border passes, the tally of official and privately-owned horses amounted to a total of 140,000 horses. However, upon their return within the borders, the number of horses did not exceed 30,000.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 151): Dimitri, from Prince, to Slave and Fidus Achates

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Jin Midi and the golden status of King of Xiutu

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (121 B.C. continued)

    The Prince of Jiangdu, Liu Jian, engaged in numerous heinous acts, including an affair with Consort Nao, the favored concubine of his father, Prince Yi, and an incestuous relationship with his younger sister, Liu Zhengchen. On one occasion, during a tremendous storm, Liu Jian went boating on Leibei Lake. He ordered two attendants to board a small boat despite the perilous conditions. The boat capsized, and the attendants struggled helplessly in the water, unable to save themselves. Liu Jian, standing by, laughed heartily and ordered no rescue, leading to their tragic deaths. He indulged in lewd and cruel activities, wantonly taking the lives of thirty-five innocent people.

    Realizing the extent of his crimes and fearing retribution, Liu Jian conspired with his consort, Cheng Guang, to invoke witchcraft. They employed a maid from Yue to pray for divine intervention, cursing the Emperor. Furthermore, upon hearing of the plots in Huainan and Hengshan, Liu Jian began manufacturing weapons and forging the imperial seal in preparation for rebellion. When these treasonous acts were discovered, the authorities demanded his arrest and execution. In the face of inevitable punishment, Liu Jian chose to take his own life, while Cheng Guang and the others involved were executed publicly. The principality of Jiangdu was thus brought to ruin.

    In the same year, Prince Kang of Jiaodong, Liu Ji, passed away.

    In the autumn, the Hunye King of the Xiongnu surrendered. At that time, the Chanyu, enraged, sought to exact vengeance upon the Hunye King and the Xiutu King in the western regions, whose forces had suffered great losses at the hands of the Han—tens of thousands slain or taken captive. The Chanyu, in his fury, intended to summon and execute these two kings. Fearing for their lives, the Hunye King and the Xiutu King secretly conspired to surrender to the Han. They first sent envoys to the border, where they were intercepted by Han forces, who relayed their intentions to the Emperor.

    At this time, the Grand Usher, Li Xi, was constructing a fortress along the Yellow River. He intercepted the Hunye King’s messengers and swiftly reported the matter to the Emperor. Suspecting that this surrender might be a ruse to launch a surprise attack, the Emperor commanded the General of Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, to lead his troops and meet with the Hunye King’s emissaries. The Xiutu King, regretting his decision to surrender, was killed by the Hunye King, who then assumed control over his followers.

    When General Huo Qubing crossed the Yellow River, he encountered the Hunye King’s forces. Some of the Hunye King’s subordinate commanders, seeing the Han army, hesitated to surrender and attempted to flee. Without delay, Huo Qubing struck swiftly, capturing and executing eight thousand of those who sought to escape. The Hunye King was then placed in a government carriage and sent alone to the Emperor, while the rest of the surrendered forces were escorted across the Yellow River.

    More than forty thousand surrendered, though their numbers were exaggerated to a hundred thousand. Upon reaching Chang’an, the Emperor rewarded the surrendering forces with numerous grants, enfeoffing the Hunye King with ten thousand households and bestowing upon him the title of Marquis of Luoyin. Four of his subordinate kings, including Hudu Ni, were likewise ennobled as marquises. In addition, the General of Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, was granted an increase of 1,700 households in his fief.

    When the Hunye King surrendered, the Han court summoned twenty thousand carriages to welcome them. However, the county officials lacked the necessary funds and were forced to borrow horses from the people. Some citizens, unwilling to part with their horses, hid them, and there were not enough horses to meet the demand. The Emperor, enraged, ordered the execution of the magistrate of Chang’an. But the Right Interior Minister, Ji An, interjected, saying, “The magistrate of Chang’an is innocent. If anyone is to be punished, let it be me. Only then will the people be willing to bring forth their horses. Moreover, the Xiongnu have abandoned their ruler and come to surrender to Han. We should gradually assimilate these migrants, county by county. How could we cause turmoil throughout the country, exhausting the resources of the Middle Kingdom to serve these outsiders and barbarians?” The Emperor fell silent.

    When the Hunye King and his followers arrived, more than five hundred merchants and traders were sentenced to death for violating the laws prohibiting trade with foreigners. Ji An requested an audience at the Gaomen Hall of Weiyang Palace and spoke: “The Xiongnu have invaded our borders, shattered our marriage alliances, and caused countless casualties when the Middle Kingdom mobilized troops to suppress them. The expenses for this campaign have been enormous. I, foolishly, suggest that Your Majesty consider taking the surrendered Xiongnu people and distributing them as slaves and servants to the families of those who died serving in the army. The spoils of war could be distributed among the people as compensation for their losses, alleviating their suffering. But now, even though tens of thousands of the Hunye have surrendered, the treasury is drained to reward them, and good citizens are levied to serve the foreigners. This is akin to pampering spoiled children. How could the common folk in Chang’an, who buy and sell, understand that the bureaucratic officials have interpreted their actions as smuggling wealth and goods across the borders and punished them for it? Your Majesty, if you cannot gain benefits from the Xiongnu to compensate the nation and, instead, wrongfully execute more than five hundred innocent people, you are protecting the leaves but damaging the branches. I humbly advise against it.”

    The Emperor, displeased, remained quiet and then remarked, “I have not heard Ji An speak for some time, and now he speaks foolishly once again.”

    In a short time, the surrendered Xiongnu were relocated and distributed across the borders of five commanderies(Longxi, Beidi, Shangjun, Shuofang, Yunzhong). These commanderies, originally situated outside the old passes but within the territory of Henan, were transformed into five satellite states, each adhering to their former customs. In the region west of Jincheng and beyond, extending from the Hexi Corridor and southern mountains to the Salt Marsh(Lop Nur), there were no Xiongnu to be found. Occasionally, there were rare visits from Xiongnu scouts, but these visits were infrequent.

    The son of the Xiutu King, Midi(sinicized form of Dimitri), along with his mother, Yanzhi (Madame/Queen), and his younger brother, Lun(sinicized form of Leo), entered imperial service. They were assigned to care for the imperial horses under the supervision of the Privy Treasurer. One day, during the Emperor’s leisure activities, when he was inspecting the horses, he was surrounded by his harem. Midi, along with several dozen others, led the horses past the hall, and while every servant man stole glances at the beauties, Midi alone dared not look. Midi, standing eight (Chinese)feet and two (Chinese)inches tall, had a stern countenance, and the horses he led were exceptionally healthy and well-groomed. The Emperor, intrigued by this, inquired about Midi‘s background. Midi spoke honestly, and the Emperor, amazed by his appearance and character, immediately ordered a bath for him, along with proper attire. He was appointed as the horse stable supervisor, later promoted to an attendant-in-waiting, then to the Commandant of Cavalry, and finally elevated to the rank of Grandee of the Chamberlain.

    As Midi grew closer to the Emperor, he made no mistakes in his service. The Emperor trusted him deeply and showered him with rewards, giving him gifts worth thousands of gold. Midi would drive for the Emperor when he went out and closely attend to him when indoors. Many among the nobility secretly complained, “Your Majesty has unwittingly elevated this boy from the barbarians and now treasures him as one of your own.” Yet, when the Emperor heard these murmurs, his esteem for Midi only grew. Because the Xiutu King had made a golden statue as an offering to the heavenly lord, the Emperor bestowed upon Midi the surname Jin, meaning “gold.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 150): Out to The Unknown

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    A Goddess stone figure, Bronze Age Bactria (Daxia), photo by Jumbokedama

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (122 B.C. continued)

    In April of summer, a general amnesty was declared throughout the realm.

    On April 9, the imperial son, Liu Ju, was declared Crown Prince at the tender age of seven.

    On May 30, a solar eclipse occurred.

    In that same period, a large group of ten thousand Xiongnu entered Shanggu and slaughtered several hundred Han people.

    Earlier, Zhang Qian had returned from his western expedition to Yuezhi and presented a detailed report to the Emperor, recounting the customs and cultures of various polities in the western territories. He stated:

    “Dayuan lies directly to the west of the Han, approximately ten thousand li away. The people of Dayuan live in settled communities and engage in agriculture. They breed a brand of horses known as the Ferghana horse, whose sweat is red, and they are highly prized. Their cities and houses resemble those of the Middle Kingdom.

    “To their northeast lies the Wusun, and to the east are the Kingdom of Khotan. West of Khotan, all rivers flow westward into the Western Sea, while to the east, the rivers flow toward a salt marsh. This salt marsh runs underground, and to the south lies the source of the Yellow River, approximately five thousand li from Chang’an.

    “East of the salt marsh lies the western boundary of the Xiongnu, extending to the Great Wall at Longxi. To the south, they border the Qiang, who have cut off the road from Han to the west.

    “The Wusun, Kangju, Yancai (Alans), and the Greater Yuezhi are nomadic peoples who move with their herds and have customs similar to those of the Xiongnu. Daxia lies southwest of Dayuan and shares many similar customs. During my time in Daxia, I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth from Shu. Upon inquiry, the people of Daxia told me, ‘Our merchants travel to Shendu (India) to trade with them.’

    “Shendu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia, and its customs resemble those of Daxia. In my estimation, Daxia is twelve thousand li from the Han, located to the southwest. Now, Shendu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia and possesses goods from Shu. Therefore, its distance from Shu cannot be too great. Should we send emissaries to Daxia, traveling through Qiang territories would be dangerous, as the Qiang people despise outsiders. Going northward would bring us into the hands of the Xiongnu. The safest and shortest route is through Shu, which is free from raiders.”

    Upon learning of the existence of Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi (the Parthian Empire), and other such powerful and prosperous kingdoms, the Emperor recognized their abundance of exotic goods, their settled communities, and their shared commercial activities with the Middle Kingdom. He observed their military weakness and noted their apparent inclination to value the wealth and goods of the Han. To the north of these territories lay Daxia, Kangju, and similar regions known for their military strength, presenting a potential opportunity for suzerainty through gifts and offerings.

    The Emperor firmly believed that it would expand the empire’s territory by thousands of li if these territories were brought under righteous allegiance, rather than military conquest. It would allow distant peoples to trade and pay homage, utilizing interpreters who spoke nine different languages. This would also introduce diverse cultures and spread the prestige and virtue of the Han Empire throughout the four seas. The Emperor approved of Zhang Qian’s report and ordered that he send emissaries to explore routes via Shu and Qianwei. Envoys, including Wang Ranyu and others, were dispatched in four directions: through Mang tribe, Ran tribe, and Xiyu tribe, and through Qiong tribe and Bo tribe, with each team traveling one to two thousand li towards Shendu.

    To the north, the envoys were blocked at Jiandi and Zuodu, while to the south they were halted at Yuexi and Kunming. In the region around Kunming, there were no recognized rulers and the area was rife with banditry, with frequent attacks on Han envoys, making communication impossible.

    Despite these challenges, Han’s efforts to reach Shendu (India) eventually led to communication with the Dian kingdom. The King of Dian, whose name was Dangqiang, asked the Han envoys, “Who is greater, Han or us?” Similarly, the Marquis of Yelang posed the same question. With no established communication channels between these territories and the Han Empire, each considered itself a sovereign state and was unaware of the vastness of the Han Empire. When the envoys returned and highly praised the magnificence of the Dian kingdom, suggesting it should be ruled as a vassal state, the Emperor renewed his attention to the southwestern uncivilized regions.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (121 B.C.)

    In October of the winter, the Emperor made a pilgrimage to Yong and performed ceremonies at the Five Altars.

    On March 3, the Marquis of Pingjin, Gongsun Hong, passed away. On March 22, Li Cai, the Marquis of Le’an and the Grand Master of Censorate, was appointed as the Chancellor, and Zhang Tang, the Minister of Justice, was appointed as Grand Master of Censorate.

    Huò Qùbīng was appointed as the General of Agile Cavalry and led ten thousand cavalry troops from Longxi to attack the Xiongnu. He traversed through five kingdoms, engaging in battles for six days and covering over a thousand li across the Yanzhi Mountains. They killed the King of Shelan, beheaded the King of Luhou, captured the son of King Hunye along with the Prime Minister and Commandant, and seized over 8,900 enemy soldiers. They also obtained the golden statue that the King of Xiutu dedicated for sacrificial rituals. The Emperor decreed to increase Huo Qùbīng‘s land holdings by two thousand households.

    During the summer, Huo Qubing, along with the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, led tens of thousands of riders separately into Beidi along different routes. The Commandant of Capital Guard Zhang Qian and the Chamberlain Li Guang also traveled towards Youbeiping on separate paths. Li Guang led four thousand riders in advance for several hundred li, while Zhang Qian followed behind with ten thousand riders.

    The Xiongnu’s Left Tuqi King besieged Li Guang with forty thousand riders, causing fear among Li Guang‘s troops. Li Guang sent his son Li Gan alone with several dozen riders to penetrate the enemy’s ranks, riding through their formation and returning to report to his father, saying, “The enemy is easily dealt with!” This reassured the soldiers. Li Guang then formed his troops into a circular formation, facing outwards. The enemy attacked fiercely, and arrows fell like raindrops. More than half of the Han soldiers were killed, and the Han‘s arrows were nearly exhausted.

    Li Guang ordered his soldiers to hold arrows without shooting while he personally used a large yellow bow to shoot at the enemy’s subordinate generals, killing several of their leaders, which deterred the Xiongnu further. As the day drew to a close, the soldiers were frightened, losing their countenance, but Li Guang remained composed and continued to rally his troops, earning the respect of all within the army. The next day, they fought again with even greater force, resulting in casualties exceeding half of the troops, but killed many more enemies. At this time, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian‘s army also arrived, causing the Xiongnu to retreat. The Han troops were too tired to pursue and returned.

    According to Han’s military law, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian was late and deserving of execution, but he was allowed to redeem himself as a commoner. Although Li Guang demonstrated significant military achievements, he received no reward because of substantial loss of troops. 

    Huo Qubing, the General of Agile Cavalry, ventured more than two thousand li deep into enemy territory, but he and the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, missed communication with each other. Huo Qubing ventured beyond Juyan Lake, passing through the Lesser Yuezhi, and arrived at the Qilian Mountains, where he captured Shanhuan and Qiutu, two Xiongnu kings, along with the Prime Minister, Commandant, and their 2500 followers. They beheaded thirty-two thousand enemy soldiers and captured more than seventy lesser chieftains. 

    The Emperor further increased Huo Qubing‘s land holdings by five thousand households. Additionally, his lieutenants who performed meritorious deeds were rewarded: the Falcon Striker Marshal Zhao Ponu was appointed as an Marquis of Congpiao, Colonel Gao Bushi became Marquis of Yiguan, and Colonel Pu Duo was titled as the Marquis of Huiqu. Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, was found guilty of dereliction of duty for not meeting Huo Qubing at rendezvous and was sentenced to death, later redeeming himself as a commoner.

    At that time, all the commanders of various camps had soldiers, horses, and weapons which were inferior compared to the General of Agile Cavalry. The General of Agile Cavalry always selected his troops meticulously, yet dared to venture deep into the enemy lines, often taking the lead with valiant cavalry ahead of the larger army. This forerunner force was also blessed with good fortune and was never in a desperate situation. Meanwhile, the other camp commanders often remained stagnant and were not equally matched. Consequently, the General of Agile Cavalry gained increasing favor and affection by the Sovereign, approaching the status of the Grand General Wei Qing.

    The Xiongnu invaded Dai and Yanmen, killing and plundering several hundred people.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 148): A Rising Star

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Portrait of General Huo Qubing

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (124 B.C. continued)

    In the summer month of June, an edict was issued, declaring, “It is known that guiding the people through rituals and nurturing them with music are essential. Yet now, with rituals in decline and music absent, We are deeply concerned. Let the officials responsible for rituals promote the study and revive the rites, thereby leading the entire nation!”

    In response, Chancellor Gongsun Hong and others suggested, “We request the establishment of fifty students for the Erudite, exempting them from public taxes and duties, to be assessed for their abilities and appointed to positions such as Attendant-in-waiting, Literary, and Office Clerks. Those who display exceptional talent will be honored and recommended for higher positions. Conversely, those who show no dedication to learning and possess lesser abilities shall be dismissed. Furthermore, officials who are proficient in at least one of the Five Confucian Classics shall be selected as candidates for roles with a salary of 2,000 picul.”

    The Emperor gave his approval. From that time forth, more scholars appeared among the ministers, grandees, gentry, and local officials.

    In autumn, ten thousand riders from the Xiongnu invaded the territory of Dai, killing Commandant Zhu Ying and capturing over a thousand people.

    The Prince of Huainan, Liu An, was greatly fond of reading and literature. He took pleasure in gaining fame and attracted thousands of guests and scholars versed in various teachings. Among his courtiers and guests were many frivolous individuals from the Yangtze and Huai River basins, who bore longstanding resentment towards the Prince Li of Huainan, Liu Chang, due to his banishment to Qiong and eventual death. These men often brought up the matter to provoke Liu An.

    In the sixth year of the Emperor Wen‘s Early Era, a comet appeared. Some lobbied the Prince of Huainan, saying, “In the time when the Prince of Wu(Liu Pi) raised his army, a comet appeared, stretching several feet, and it led to bloodshed across a thousand miles. Now, with a comet filling the entire sky, it may signal a large-scale uprising of armies across the realm.” The prince believed these words to be true and thus increased preparations for siege weapons, while also amassing gold and wealth.

    Guard Lei Bei, in an accident during fencing practice, had wounded the Crown Prince of Huainan, Liu Qian. An edict was issued proclaiming that anyone willing to join the campaign against the Xiongnu should report to Chang’an. Lei Bei expressed his eagerness to fight against the Xiongnu. However, the Crown Prince Liu Qian disparaged Lei Bei in front of Liu An. The Prince of Huainan scolded and dismissed him to set an example for others.

    In the same year, Lei Bei fled to Chang’an and submitted a petition to clear his name. The matter was sent to the magistrate for investigation, and Lei Bei’s complaint was linked to the Prince of Huainan. The court officials requested the arrest and trial of the Prince of Huainan. The Crown Prince of Huainan then devised a plan to dress someone as a palace guard, who would hold a halberd by the prince’s side. If any envoy from the Han was found to be suspicious, the guard would kill the person, triggering a rebellion. The Emperor dispatched the Capital Guard commandant Duan Hong to interrogate the prince. However, upon observing Duan Hong‘s composed demeanor, the prince refrained from carrying out the plan.

    The court officials reported, “Liu An, who obstructed a warrior willing to fight the Xiongnu, defied the clear decree and must be punished by execution.” A decree was issued, stripping him of two counties. Deeply ashamed, Prince Huainan lamented, “Even when I act with benevolence and righteousness, I am met with territorial losses.” Out of this shame and humiliation, his plot to rebel grew more intense.

    Liu An‘s relationship with the Prince of Hengshan, Liu Ci, had long been strained and grew more distant with time. When the Prince of Hengshan heard of a potential rebellion by Liu An, he feared being annexed by his brother and began preparing countermeasures by gathering retainers and weapons for rebellion. He believed that if the Prince of Huainan were to conquer the west, he would raise an army to seize control of the Yangtze River and Huai River basins.

    The Queen of the Princedom of Hengshan, Xu Lai, accused the heir-apparent of Prince Hengshan, Liu Shuang of wrongdoing, hoping to depose him and install his younger brother, Prince Liu Xiao, in his place. The Prince of Hengshan detained his heir Liu Shuang and bestowed the royal seal upon Prince Liu Xiao, commanding him to gather retainers. When these retainers arrived, they, from illusive signs, understood the rebellious intentions of both the Princes of Huainan and Hengshan, and clandestinely aided and abetted them day and night.

    The Prince of Hengshan then instructed Mei He and Chen Xi of Jiangdu, retainers of Liu Xiao, to manufacture chariots, forge arrows, and carve imperial seals and insignias for generals and military officers. In the autumn, when the Prince of Hengshan was due to attend court, he planned to pass through Huainan. At this moment, the two brothers, reconciled as siblings, resolved their previous differences and agreed to unite in their rebellion.

    Upon their reconciliation, Prince Liu Ci sent a letter pleading illness, thereby securing exemption from the Emperor’s summons and avoiding his visit to the capital.

    The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (123 B.C.)

    In February of spring, the Grand General Wei Qing set forth from Dingxiang to confront the Xiongnu. The Emperor appointed Gongsun Ao, the Marquis Heqi, as General of the Center; Grand Coachman Gongsun He as General of the Left; Zhao Xin, the Marquis Xi, as General of the Front; Capital Guard Commander Su Jian as General of the Right; Chamberlain Li Guang as General of the Rear; and Li Zu, the Left Interior Minister, as the Mighty Crossbow General, all under the command of the Grand General. They returned after slaying several thousand enemies, resting their soldiers and horses in Dingxiang, Yunzhong, and Yanmen.

    A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    In April of summer, Wei Qing once more led the six generals from Dingxiang to engage the Xiongnu, resulting in the slaying and capturing of more than ten thousand enemies. The General of the Right, Su Jian, and the General of the Front, Zhao Xin, leading over three thousand cavalry, encountered the Chanyu’s forces alone. After battling for more than a day, the Han forces were nearly exhausted. Zhao Xin, once a minor king among the Nomad tribes who had surrendered to the Han and been granted the title of Marquis Xi, was lured by the Xiongnu after being defeated. He led the remaining eight hundred riders to defect to the Xiongnu. Su Jian, having lost his entire army, managed to escape and returned to the Grand General’s camp.

    Gentleman Consultant Zhou Ba proposed, “Since the Grand General has assumed command, no general has been executed. Now that Su Jian has abandoned his army, he must be executed to uphold the authority of the Grand General.”

    The military judge Hong and Chief of Staff An countered, “Not so. According to the ‘Art of War,’ even the toughest small forces may fall before much larger ones. Su Jian faced tens of thousands of enemies with only a few thousand troops, fought fiercely for over a day, exhausted his soldiers, yet did not entertain thoughts of defection and willingly returned. Executing him would suggest that failure is intolerable in all circumstances, which is inappropriate.”

    The Grand General responded, “I, Wei Qing, am fortunate enough to have the Emperor’s trust and command a great army. I am not concerned with lacking authority. Zhou Ba advises me to behead a general to assert my power; however, this does not suit my station as a subject of the court. Even if I have the authority to execute a general, with all the favor and privilege I possess, I cannot unilaterally pass judgment without first reporting to the Emperor. I will send Su Jian to the imperial court, and the Emperor shall determine his fate. This demonstrates that as a servant, I do not dare wield arbitrary power. Is this not the proper course?”

    The military officers all agreed, saying, “Well said!” They then imprisoned Su Jian and sent him to the Emperor for trial.

    An official in Pingyang County, named Huo Zhongru, served in the household of the Marquis of Pingyang[the husband of Princess Pingyang]. He had an affair with Wei Qing’s elder sister, Wei Shao’er, a maid, resulting in the birth of Huo Qubing. At the age of eighteen, Huo Qubing became an attendant to the Emperor. He excelled in horse riding and archery. He accompanied the Grand General twice in wars against the Xiongnu, serving as Colonel of Piaoyao [Soaring Hawk]. Displaying immense bravery, he led 800 light cavalry troops, charging ahead of the main army, capturing or killing numerous enemies, far surpassing expectations.

    The Emperor issued a decree, saying: “Colonel Piaoyao Huo Qubing has slain over 2,000 enemy soldiers, captured the prime minister and chieftains of the Xiongnu, beheaded the Chanyu’s Grand Uncle, Chan, Marquis of Jiruo, and seized Chanyu’s uncle, Luobi. His feats surpass all others in the army. He shall be honored as Marquis of Guanjun [Champion]. The Prefect of Shanggu, Hao Xian, has followed the Grand General in four campaigns against the Xiongnu, capturing and beheading over 2,000 enemies. For his contributions, Hao Xian shall be bestowed with the title of Marquis Zhongli.”

    That year, due to the loss of two generals, the defection of Marquis Xi, and lesser military accomplishments, the Grand General was not granted an increase in noble rank but was instead given a thousand gold coins. General of the Right, Su Jian, upon his return, was not executed but was demoted to commoner status and redeemed by paying a fine.

    At that time, the Chanyu, having Marquis Xi, Zhao Xin, surrendered, promoted him to Under King, second only to the Chanyu. He married his sister to Zhao Xin and plotted against the Han. Zhao Xin counseled the Chanyu to move further north to a distant location, making it appear as though the Xiongnu were withdrawing, intending to lure and exhaust the Han forces for a future attack at a remote location, far from the border. The Chanyu followed Zhao Xin‘s plan.

    During those years, the Han Household annually dispatched over a million soldiers to fight against the nomadic tribes. The soldiers who captured or killed enemies were rewarded with more than two hundred thousand catties of gold, yet over a hundred thousand Han soldiers and horses perished. The expenses for the military campaigns and supplies drained the treasury, resulting in insufficient provisions for the soldiers.

    In June, a decree was issued allowing civilians to purchase noble titles and amnesty for past crimes by paying a fine. A system of rewarding military achievements was also established, called “Military Merit Lordship,” with seventeen ranks and over three hundred thousand gold coins allocated. Those who purchased these titles and attained the rank of “chiliarch” were granted priority for official appointments. The system of governance became muddled and riddled with various loopholes, leading to a decline in administrative efficacy.