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Tag: Emperor Wu of Han

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 156): Taste of His Own Medicine

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 12 Scroll 20 (continued)

    A Stele Marked Zhang Tang’s Tomb, inside Northwest University of Political Science and Law

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’ding Era (116 B.C.)

    In September of autumn, a general amnesty was declared across the nation.

    The Prince of Jidong, Liu Pengli, was haughty and unruly. One evening, he, along with several dozen of his slaves and runaway youths, engaged in robbing and killing people, plundering others belongings for sport. More than a hundred murders were uncovered. As a result, Liu Pengli was deposed from his position and exiled to Shangyong.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’ding Era (115 B.C.)

    In November of the winter, Zhang Tang committed suicide after being found guilty of crimes.

    A rift had developed between the Director of the Censorate, Li Wen, and Zhang Tang. Zhang Tang’s favored official, Lu Yeju, secretly urged someone to report to the Emperor, accusing Li Wen of misconduct. The case was assigned to Zhang Tang, who sentenced Li Wen to death. Zhang Tang was fully aware that the accusation had been instigated by Lu Yeju. When the Emperor asked, “Where did this accusation originate?” Zhang Tang feigned surprise and replied, “This is likely the result of grievances from those who were wronged by Li Wen in the past.”

    Lu Yeju fell ill, and Zhang Tang personally massaged his feet. The Prince of Zhao, Liu Pengzu, who harbored a grudge against Zhang Tang, wrote to the Emperor, saying, “Zhang Tang, a minister, is seen massaging a lowly official’s feet, raising suspicions of a major conspiracy.” The case was referred to the Minister of Justice.

    When Lu Yeju died from illness, his brother was implicated and placed in a detention center. Zhang Tang visited the detention center to investigate other prisoners. Upon seeing Lu Yeju’s brother, he put up a front of ignorance in an attempt to exonerate him later, pretending not to remember him. Lu Yeju’s brother, unaware of Zhang Tang‘s intentions, took offense and lodged a complaint, accusing Zhang Tang of conspiring with Lu Yeju to frame Li Wen.

    The case was passed to Jian Xuan, as there had been a previous feud between Zhang Tang and Jian Xuan. Upon discovering this new information, the entire affair was thoroughly investigated, though it had not yet been finalized or reported to the Emperor.

    At the same time, a burglary of buried treasure in Emperor Wen’s Mausoleum was uncovered. Chancellor Zhuang Qingzhai, along with Zhang Tang, in accord to offer apologies to the Emperor and took full responsibility. However, when they met with the Emperor, Zhang Tang did not offer his apology. The Emperor ordered an investigation of the Chancellor by the Censorate. Zhang Tang aimed to implicate the Chancellor, intending to accuse him of “conniving” in the robbery. The Chancellor was deeply troubled by this.

    The Chief of Staff in the Chancellor’s office—Zhu Maichen, Wang Chao, and Bian Tong—were all former ministers of 2,000-picul rank, higher than Zhang Tang’s rank earlier in his career. Frequently acting as Chancellor and knowing that the three Chief of Staffs were held in high esteem, Zhang Tang sought to humble and insult them, treating them as mere staff. The three Chief-of-Staffs, harboring deep resentment, wished for his downfall. They conspired with the Chancellor to have officials arrest businessmen like Tian Xin, accusing him of having been tipped off by Zhang Tang about new policies before they were presented to the Emperor. Tian Xin had become wealthy by hoarding goods and selling them at inflated prices, sharing his profits with Zhang Tang. The accusation spread quickly.

    The Emperor asked Zhang Tang, “Whenever I take action, these businessmen seem to know beforehand and profit from it. It appears someone is informing them of my plans.” Zhang Tang did not confess, playing dumb again, “Indeed, it seems there is someone.” Jian Xuan also reported on Lu Yeju’s case. The Emperor, sensing Zhang Tang‘s deceit and manipulation, ordered Zhao Yu to sharply rebuke Zhang Tang. In response, Zhang Tang wrote a letter of apology, claiming, “The three Chief-of-Staffs are the ones who have plotted against me.” Subsequently, he took his own life.

    After Zhang Tang‘s death, his estate amounted to no more than five hundred gold coins. His younger brothers and nephews wished to give him an elaborate burial, but Zhang Tang‘s mother said, “Zhang Tang was a minister of the Emperor, yet he died amid vile rumors. Why should we give him an extravagant burial?” 

    She had his body transported on an ox-cart without a coffin. When the Emperor heard of this, he ordered a full investigation and the execution of the three Chief-of-Staffs. On December 25, Chancellor Zhuang Qingzhai was imprisoned and, like Zhang Tang, committed suicide.

    In the spring, the construction of the Bailiang Terrace began. A Dew-Collecting Plate made of bronze stood twenty zhang (60 meters) tall, with a circumference so large that it required seven grown men to embrace it. At the top of the plate was a statue of an immortal, holding out palms to collect dew. It was believed that drinking the dew droplets mixed with jade powder would grant longevity. From this day onward, the construction of palaces and edifices flourished.

    In February, Zhao Zhou, the Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince, was appointed as Chancellor.

    On March 10th, Shi Qing, the Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince, was appointed as the Grand Master of the Censorate.

    There was heavy rain and snow.

    In the summer, severe flooding occurred, causing the deaths of thousands due to starvation east of the Hangu Pass.

    During this year, Kong Jin was appointed as the Minister of Agriculture, while Sang Hongyang became the Assistant Minister of Agriculture. They gradually established transportation offices in the commanderies and principalities to facilitate the exchange and distribution of commodities.

    The value of silver decreased, causing the people to cease valuing and using it, leading to its eventual discontinuation as currency. Since then the minting of coins in the principalities and commanderies was completely prohibited. Only the three offices(bronze casting, copper analysis, technique) in Shanglin Park under the office of the Water Conservancy Commandant were allowed to mint coins, and no other coins, aside from those issued by the Three Offices, were permitted to circulate. Consequently, private coin production by the people dwindled significantly, as the cost outweighed the benefits. Only skilled craftsmen and major counterfeiters continued to engage in clandestine coin minting.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 155): Silent Badmouthing

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 12 Scroll 20

    Duration of 9 years

    Huo Qubing’s Tomb, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (118 B.C.)

    On March 11 of spring, Chancellor Li Cai was accused of appropriating empty land from Emperor Jing‘s Garden for the burial of his family. He was subsequently put on trial and, unable to endure the shame, committed suicide.

    The three-zhu coins were discontinued, and five-zhu coins were minted in their place. This change led to a rise in counterfeiting, especially in the Chu region.

    The Emperor appointed Ji An as the new Prefect of Huaiyang, located on the outskirts of the Chu region. Despite Ji An‘s humble refusal to accept the seal of authority, the decree was repeatedly insisted upon until Ji An reluctantly acquiesced. With tears in his eyes, Ji An spoke to the Emperor: “I have always thought of myself as being cast aside in ditches and valleys, never expecting to be employed by Your Majesty again. I often suffer from ailments, like dogs and horses, that rendered me incapable of handling the duties of a commandery. I am only fit to serve as a Palace Attendant, assisting in the rectification of mistakes and oversights within the imperial court.”

    The Emperor responded, “Do you disdain the position of Prefect of Huaiyang? I will call you back soon enough, but the officials and people of Huaiyang are not in their rightful places. I rely solely on your renown and stature. You will surely manage it, even from your bed.”

    After Ji An bid farewell and departed, he encountered Li Xi, the Grand Usher, and said, “By being exiled and accepting the commandery post, I have lost the opportunity to engage in state affairs with the court. The Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhang Tang, is shrewd enough to counter objections, deceptive enough to conceal faults, and skilled in the art of flattery and rhetoric. However, he refuses to speak truthfully for the good of the world, instead catering solely to the Emperor’s desires. If the Emperor dislikes something, Zhang Tang disparages it; if the Emperor likes something, Zhang Tang praises it. He eagerly engages in petty matters, using convoluted arguments to sway the Emperor’s thoughts, and employs corrupt officials to strengthen his own authority. You, being one of the Nine Ministers with access to the Emperor, must speak out early; otherwise, you will fall with him and be destroyed.”

    Li Xi, fearing Zhang Tang, dared not oppose him. Later, when Zhang Tang was prosecuted, the Emperor accused Li Xi of complicity.

    Ji An was assigned to govern Huaiyang with the salary of a minister of a feudal lord (2000 picul), where he remained for ten years until his death.

    An edict was issued to relocate corrupt officials and lawbreakers to the border regions.

    In the summer, On April 2, the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince, Marquis Wuqiang, Zhuang Qingzhai, was appointed as Chancellor.

    The Emperor fell gravely ill at Dinghu Palace. Despite the efforts of sorcerers and physicians, there was no improvement. Youshui Fagen mentioned a shaman in Shangjun Commandery who could communicate with spirits and cure illnesses. The Emperor summoned the shaman and allowed him to preside over sacrifices at Ganquan Palace.

    As the illness worsened, an emissary was sent to consult the demigod(i.e. the shaman) for advice. The demigod responded, “The Emperor’s illness is not a cause for concern; it will soon subside. You should come to meet me at Ganquan despite how you feel.” Soon after, the Emperor’s condition improved, and he visited Ganquan Palace, recovering quickly.

    Once the illness had fully subsided, a banquet was arranged at the Shou Hall, where the demigod resided. Though the demigod could not be directly seen, his words were heard by others and sounded human. He appeared and then disappeared, accompanied by a solemn wind, and resided within curtained chambers. His words, which the Emperor received, were recorded as “The Plan.” While his advice contained nothing extraordinary and was rooted in common knowledge, the Emperor took great pleasure in it. The details were kept secret, and no one outside the palace knew of them.

    While traveling to Ganquan Palace, the Emperor passed through the Right Interior Minister’s jurisdiction and discovered many paths were neglected and poorly maintained. Enraged, the Emperor exclaimed, “Does Yi Zong think I would never use this road again?” He bit his own lip in anger.

    The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (117 B.C.)

    In October of winter, it rained, though there was no ice.

    The previous year, the Emperor issued the min coinage edict, urging people to declare their assets and donate in the manner of Bu Shi. However, the people refused to contribute their wealth to support the county officials. As a result, Yang Ke dispatched agents to report on those who hid their assets and violated the min coinage laws. Yi Zong, seeing the agents’ actions as disruptive to the people’s lives, arrested them. The Emperor considered this an act of defying imperial orders and interfering with law enforcement, leading to Yi Zong‘s public execution.

    Chamberlain Li Gan, harboring resentment for the death of his father, Li Guang, at the hands of the Grand General Wei Qing, attacked and wounded Wei Qing. The General concealed the incident. Shortly thereafter, Li Gan accompanied the Emperor to Yong and arrived at the hunting grounds of Ganquan Palace. There, General of the Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, shot and killed Li Gan. At that time, Huo Qubing enjoyed great favor and held a high rank, so the Emperor covered up the killing, claiming that Li Gan was killed by a rampaging deer.

    On April 28 of the summer, in a ceremony at the Grand temple, Prince Liu Hong was named the Prince of Qi, Liu Dan as the Prince of Yan, and Liu Xu as the Prince of Guangling. This marked the precedence of the initial enunciation of the prince titles by imperial written certificates.

    Since the minting of silver and five-zhu coins, tens of thousands of officials and civilians who were caught counterfeiting coins had been executed. The number of undetected cases was countless, and practically throughout the entire country, there was no one who had not been somehow involved in the casting of metal coins. The offenders were numerous, and the officials could not execute them all.

    In June, an edict was issued to send six erudites, including Chu Da and Xu Yan, to thoroughly investigate the states and commanderies. They were tasked with identifying those engaged in illegal annexation of private properties or farm land, as well as officials, governors, and others guilty of crimes.

    In September of the autumn, the Marquis of Guanjun [Champion] and Marquis of Jinghuan, Huo Qubing, passed away. The Emperor mourned his death deeply and had a tomb constructed in his honor, shaped like Qilian Mountain.

    Huo Qubing’s father, Huo Zhongru, had completed his government service and returned home. There, he married and had a son named Huo Guang. As Huo Qubing grew older, he learned that Huo Zhongru was his father. While serving as the General of Agile Cavalry and battling against the Xiongnu, he passed through Hedong. He sent officials to invite Huo Zhongru to meet him and bought land, houses, slaves, and maidservants before departing. Upon his return, Huo Qubing brought Huo Guang with him to Chang’an, appointing him as an attendant-gentleman. Huo Guang was gradually promoted to the rank of Colonel of Royal Carriages and Grandee of Chamberlain.

    During this year, the Minister of Agriculture, Yan Yi, was executed.

    Yan Yi was renowned for his integrity and gradually rose to the position of one of the Nine Ministers. When the Emperor inquired about the creation of the white deerskin coins with Zhang Tang, Yan Yi expressed his opinion, saying, “Now, when princes and marquises offer tribute in the form of black jade discs, worth only a few thousand, the jade discs are wrapped in deerskins valued at hundreds of thousands. That is like putting the cart before the horse.” The Emperor was displeased with this response.

    Later, Zhang Tang had a personal conflict with Yan Yi. When someone accused Yan Yi of another offense, the Emperor ordered Zhang Tang to decide on his punishment. On one occasion, Yan Yi‘s retainer remarked that an edict had certain improprieties, and Yan Yi responded with a slight movement of his lips, without speaking a word. Zhang Tang reported this, “Yan Yi, one of the Nine Ministers, noticed an inappropriate decree but failed to speak out about it, instead silently expressing his negative view. He is to be sentenced to death.” This incident established a criminal precedent in the law regarding “silent badmouthing” (Silence Disaccord), leading three excellencies and ministers to flatter and seek favor by speaking in a subservient manner.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 154): Favorability Contest

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Gobi Desert, Mongolia

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C. continued)

    Another office of Grand Marshal was established. Both the Grand General and the General of Agile Cavalry were appointed as Grand Marshals. A decree was issued, establishing the salary and status of the General of Agile Cavalry equivalent to that of the Grand General. From then on, while Grand General Wei Qing gradually receded in prominence, the General of Agile Cavalry Huo Qubing became increasingly esteemed.

    Many of Grand General Wei Qing‘s former associates and scholars from his circle departed to serve under the General of Agile Cavalry, and they swiftly obtained official ranks and titles, except for Ren An, who refused to do so.

    The General of Agile Cavalry was a man of few words, not revealing much, yet possessing courage and a daring spirit. The Emperor once wanted to instruct him in the military strategies of Sun Wu and Wu Qi, to which he responded, “Wars are more concerned about battle strategies than learning ancient military tactics.”

    When the Emperor was constructing a palace for Huo Qubing, he asked the General of Agile Cavalry to inspect it. The general replied, “As long as the Xiongnu remain unconquered, what is the need of building a home for?” Due to such responses, the Emperor increasingly valued and favored him. 

    However, Huo Qubing rose to high positions when he was young. He didn’t pay much attention to the welfare of his soldiers. During military campaigns, the Emperor would send several tens of carriages loaded with supplies and delicacies from imperial kitchens, but upon their return, the vehicles would still be filled with leftover meat and grains, while some soldiers would suffer from hunger. When they were stationed outside the borders, the troops often lacked provisions, and sometimes they were underfed and displayed low morale, while the General of Agile Cavalry indulged in leisurely sports such as playing a ball game taju [similar to soccer], building a field for the game.  Many instances similar to these occurred.

    On the other hand, the Grand General was known for his benevolence, favoring soldiers who displayed humility and deference, endearing himself to the Emperor with his gentle and accommodating demeanor. Both individuals had such distinctive characters and principles, yet quite different.

    The Han Dynasty had slain around 80,000 to 90,000 Xiongnu, while several tens of thousands of Han soldiers had also perished. Subsequently, the Xiongnu retreated far away, and there were no more royal courts of Xiongnu to the south of the Gobi desert.

    The Han Dynasty crossed the river from the Shuofang region to the west towards Lingju, establishing canals for back and forth communication, setting up military farm offices, and deploying around 50,000 to 60,000 officers and soldiers. They gradually encroached northward into Xiongnu territory. However, due to the scarcity of horses, they ceased large-scale offensives against the Xiongnu.

    The Xiongnu employed Zhao Xin’s strategy and sent envoys to Han, using conciliatory language to request peace and marriage alliance. The Emperor sought counsel on this matter—some advocated for marriage alliance, while others proposed subjugation.

    The Chief staff of the Chancellor, Ren Chang, suggested, “The Xiongnu, having just suffered a defeat and hardship, might be made to become tributaries, visiting the court and seeking audience at the borders.”

    The Emperor dispatched Ren Chang as an envoy to the Chanyu. However, the Chanyu became greatly enraged and detained him.

    Erudite Di Shan proposed that seeking peace would be advantageous. The Emperor discussed the matter with Zhang Tang, the Grand Master of Censorate. Zhang Tang dismissed Di Shan‘s proposal, calling him an ignorant foolish scholar. 

    Di Shan retorted, “I might be foolish, but I am a faithful fool. As for the Grand Master of Censorate Zhang Tang, he is a deceitful loyalist.”

    This made the Emperor furious, and he asked, “If I were to let you be a prefect of a commandery, would you prevent the enemy from invading?” 

    Di Shan replied, “No, I could not.” 

    “How about in a county?” Di Shan replied similarly. 

    Finally, the Emperor asked, “How about in a small fortress?” 

    Di Shan, realizing the futility of arguing further and fearing the consequences of being court-martialed, replied, “I can.”

    Consequently, the Emperor sent Di Shan to a small fortress. After a month’s time, the Xiongnu beheaded Di Shan and departed. From then on, the courtiers were terrified and dared not oppose Zhang Tang.

    During this year, Ji An was dismissed from his position due to violation of laws. Yi Zong, the Prefect of Dingxiang, was appointed as the Right Interior Minister, replacing Ji An, and Wang Wenshu, the Prefect of Henei, was appointed as the Commandant of the Capital Guard.

    Before this, Ning Cheng held the post of Commandant at the Hangu Pass. People said, “One would rather encounter a nursing tiger, than face a raging Ning Cheng.” When Yi Zong became the Prefect of Nanyang, upon arriving at the Pass, Ning Cheng personally welcomed him, showing great respect. When Yi Zong reached the commandery, he put Ning’s family on trial and exterminated Ning Cheng‘s household. The people of Nanyang were terrified, all standing on one foot.

    Later, Yi Zong was transferred to be the Prefect of Dingxiang. Upon his arrival, he immediately took more than 200 people on various charges from the prison. Additionally, he arrested over 200 of relatives and friends who visited the prison, claiming they relieved shackles for prisoners on death row. On that day, more than 400 people were reported killed. This sent shockwaves through the commandery, and fear spread throughout the region.

    Around this time, Zhao Yu and Zhang Tang were known for their severity as the highest ranking Ministers. However, they emphasized legal governance in their administration. Yi Zong, on the other hand, solely focused on using oppressive methods to govern, particularly through punitive strikes like eagles on preys.

    Wang Wenshu, initially serving as the Commandant of Guangping, carefully selected around  a dozen bold and resolute officials from the commandery, using them as his henchmen. He overlooked their serious past offenses, using these crimes as leverage, and allowed them to  hunt thefts and criminals to their desire. As long as these individuals gratified his desires for more captives, they were not prosecuted, even if they had committed numerous crimes. If someone did not do his bidding, he would use their previous offenses against them, even wiping out their families. Due to his methods, the bandits and criminals from the borders of Qi and Zhao dared not approach Guangping. The reputation of Guangping became such a place that no one picks up lost articles in the street.

    Later, when Wang Wenshu was appointed as the Prefect of Henei, he arrived in September. He ordered the commandery to provide fifty privately owned horses as express couriers. He arrested numerous powerful and dishonest figures in the commandery, involving more than a thousand families implicated by association. He submitted memorials to the Emperor requesting punishment: the major offenders were executed together with their whole clans, while the minor ones were put to death, and their families’ assets were confiscated to compensate for the crimes. The edict of approval came down swiftly within two or three days, and the resulting blood flow extended for over ten li (approximately 5 kilometers), causing awe among the people of Henei for his memorial due to their rapid response. 

    By the end of December, the commandery fell silent, and people dared not travel at night. There were no thieves that dared to disturb the peace, and even in the fields, no dogs barked. For the few who managed to escape, they were pursued in neighboring commanderies and princedoms. When spring arrived, Wang Wenshu sighed and said, “Alas! If only the winter months were extended by one more month, I would have enough time for completing my initiative!”

    Upon hearing of Yi Zong, Wang Wenshu‘s actions, the Emperor considered them able administrators and promoted them to senior minister of 2000 picul salary.

    There was a man from Qi called Shaowong, known for his skills in dealing with spirits and ghosts, which attracted the Emperor’s attention. When the Emperor’s favored Madame Wang passed away, Shaowong used his methods to summon the deceased’s spirit, taking on the appearance of the deceased Madame. The Emperor glimpsed this from behind a curtain, watching this shadow play. 

    Shaowong was appointed as General Wencheng and received considerable rewards and honors, being treated with the courtesy reserved for a guest of the Emperor. General Wencheng also advised the Emperor to construct the Ganquan Palace, establishing chambers and halls within, painting images of various spirits and deities of Heaven, Earth, and the North Star, arranging offerings, and inviting celestial beings. After residing there for over a year, The magic of Shaowong‘s methods began to decline, and the spirits ceased to appear. 

    Shaowong fed a piece of silk with writing to a cow, then pretending ignorance, and said, “There’s something unusual in this cow’s belly.” When the cow was slaughtered, the silk was found, containing strange writings. The Emperor recognized the handwriting and interrogated the Shaowong, confirming that it was a forged artifact by him. Subsequently, General Wencheng was executed, but this episode was kept secret.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 153): Crash Landing of The Flying General

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Khentii(Langjuxu) Mountains, Mongolia

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C. continued)

    The Emperor discussed with his generals, “The Marquis of Xi, Zhao Xin, often plans on behalf of the Xiongnu. He believes that the Han forces cannot cross the desert quickly and will less likely linger. Now, with the massive mobilization of soldiers, we are sure to get what we desire.” Therefore provisions for 100,000 grain-fed horses were prepared. The Grand General, Wei Qing, and the General of Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, each led 50,000 cavalry.  Additionally they had 40,000 extra horses for private provisioning. Also, hundreds of thousands of infantry and supply porters followed behind the cavalry, and the daring and skilled warriors were all under the command of the General of Agile Cavalry Huo Qubing.

    The General of Agile Cavalry planned to cross the border from Dingxiang to face the Xiongnu Chanyu. Captured prisoners informed that the Chanyu had moved east. Subsequently, the General of Agile Cavalry was ordered to exit passes in Dai Commandery, while the Grand General Wei Qing went out of Dingxiang. Chamberlain, Li Guang, repeatedly requested to join the expedition. The Emperor initially refused due to his age, but eventually allowed him to be General of the Front. The Grand Coachman, Gongsun He, was appointed as the General of the Left, the Commandant of Title Ranking, Zhao Yi’ji, as the General of the Right, and Marquis Pingyang, Cao Rang, as the General of the Rear, all under the command of the Grand General. Zhao Xin, said to the Chanyu on strategy, “Once the Han forces have crossed the desert and exhausted their men and horses, the Xiongnu can easily take them prisoners.” Therefore, he sent his supply train far north and positioned elite troops to wait for the Han forces to the north of the desert.

    The Grand General Wei Qing, having advanced beyond the borders, captured a prisoner who knew the whereabouts of the Chanyu. Taking his elite troops, he went forth, while instructing the  General of the Front Li Guang to rendezvous with the forces of the General of the Right Zhao Yi’ji and proceed through the eastern route. The eastern path was circuitous, distant and lacked sufficient water and grass. Li Guang pleaded, “I am supposed to be the General of the Front and the vanguard, yet now the Grand General commands me to take the eastern path. I’ve fought the Xiongnu since adolescence, and now that I have the chance to confront the Chanyu, I wish to be in the front, to face the Chanyu first and duel with him.”

    The Grand General, aware of the private warning from the Emperor, “Li Guang is old and unlucky. It’s better not to let him confront the Chanyu because I am afraid that he might not accomplish what we want, the capture of Chanyu.” Additionally, the Grand General wished to send Gongsun Ao, recently demoted from his marquis status, to confront the Chanyu to earn merit credit, hence the transfer of the General of the Front Li Guang to the east. Li Guang, upon learning this, staunchly appealed to the Grand General. The Grand General stuck to his decision, Li Guang, without formal farewell, rose and departed, filled with deep resentment.

    The Grand General marched beyond the borders for over a thousand li, and crossing the Gobi desert, he saw the Chanyu’s forces arrayed and waiting. Thus, the Grand General ordered heavy chariots to encircle and create a camp, and then unleashed five thousand cavalry to confront the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu, in turn, released about ten thousand cavalry. As they were about to engage near sunset, a fierce wind stirred up sand and pebbles, obstructing visibility between the two armies. Taking advantage of this, the Han forces extended their left and right wings to encircle the Chanyu in a pincer maneuver.

    Assessing that the Han forces were numerous and the soldiers and horses were still robust, the Chanyu reckoned that he couldn’t contend with the Han forces in battle. Consequently, the Chanyu, riding on a team of six swift mules, accompanied by a few hundred sturdy riders, broke through the Han encirclement and fled swiftly to the northwest. It was already dusk, and both the Han and Xiongnu forces suffered about equal amounts of casualties and engaged in heavy fighting. A Xiongnu captive caught by the left wing Colonel confessed that the Chanyu had taken cover of the darkness and departed earlier. The Han troops, dispatching light cavalry, pursued the Chanyu through the night. The army of the Grand General followed behind. The Xiongnu forces were in disarray and dispersed. By dawn, having traveled over two hundred li, they failed to capture the Chanyu. Nevertheless, they seized and beheaded nine thousand enemy soldiers and reached the Tianyan Mountains and the City garrisoned by Zhao Xin, where they found the Xiongnu‘s stocked grain and replenished supplies for the Han army. They stayed for a day, burned the remaining grain in the city, and then returned.

    The General of the Front Li Guang, along with the General of the Right Zhao Yi’ji, lost their way due to a lack of local guide, which led to their arrival late for the battle against the Chanyu, missing the rendezvous with Grand General. As the Grand General returned and passed by the southern desert, he encountered the two generals. The Grand General instructed his chief of staff to question Li Guang and Zhao Yi’ji regarding their lost way, summoning Li Guang to the headquarter to file a report.

    Li Guang said, “The ranking colonels and captains are not at fault; it was my own mistake in losing the way. I will present myself to the headquarters before the higher authorities to account for my actions.”

    Li Guang then spoke to his subordinates, saying, “I have engaged in more than seventy battles with the Xiongnu, large and small, since I was sixteen. Today, I was fortunate to follow the Grand General to face the Chanyu’s forces. The Grand General transferred my command to the east route, and I lost my way. Isn’t this the will of heaven? Anyway, I am over sixty years old and do not want to face the scrutiny of bureaucratic officials anymore!” He then drew his sword and took his own life.

    Li Guang was known for his honesty and integrity; he would share rewards and gifts received with his subordinates and shared meals and drinks with his soldiers. He held the position of 2000 picul salary for over forty years, yet his family had no surplus wealth. He had long and strong arms like a gorilla and was skilled in archery; whenever he drew his bow, he wouldn’t shoot if he was not sure to hit the target. In places where there was a shortage of water, Li Guang refrained from drinking until all his soldiers had drunk enough. Similarly, when food was scarce, he abstained from eating until all his soldiers had been fed. His soldiers cherished and respected him for these reasons. Upon his death, the entire army sobbed in mourning.

    When news of his death reached the common people, regardless of whether they knew him personally or not, tears were shed by the old and young alike. However, the General of the Right, Zhao Yi’ji, being held accountable by the authorities, faced death but was pardoned and relegated to a commoner.

    After the Chanyu’s escape, his troops frequently scattered and followed him, causing disorder whenever they encountered the Han forces. For a long time, the Chanyu didn’t reunite with the majority of his forces. The Right Luli King assumed the Chanyu was dead and proclaimed himself as the new Chanyu. However, after around ten days, the real Chanyu emerged to regain his followers, causing the Right Luli King to abandon his claim to the Chanyu’s title.

    The General of the Agile Cavalry, with an equal number of cavalry and heavy chariots, had equivalent military strength to the Grand General’s forces but lacked subordinate generals. Li Gan [a son of Li Guang] and others were appointed as senior colonels, acting as his lieutenants. They traveled over two thousand li, crossing the Dai and Youbeiping, traversing the great Gobi desert, and directly confronted the east division of Xiongnu’s troops. They captured three junior kings including the Prince of Tuntou, the king of Han, and eighty-three military and civil officers, including generals, ministers, chiefs and commandants. They ascended Khentii Mountains (Langjuxu Mountain) to worship the heavens, offered sacrifices at Guyan Mountain to the earth, and reached Lake Baikal (Hanhai). They captured 74443 prisoners. 

    The Emperor increased the fiefdom of the General of the Agile Cavalry by 5,800 households. He also granted titles to four individuals, including the Youbeiping Prefect Lu Bode, and augmented the households of two marquises, including Marquis of Congbiao, Zhao Puonu, and appointed Senior Colonel Li Gan, as the Marquis within Passes with a fief. Many military officers and soldiers received official positions, rewards, and honors. However, the Grand General did not receive an increase in his fiefdom, and none of his military officers or soldiers were granted noble titles.

    When the two armies departed beyond the border passes, the tally of official and privately-owned horses amounted to a total of 140,000 horses. However, upon their return within the borders, the number of horses did not exceed 30,000.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 152): Monopolizing Salt And Iron Production

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Dian Lake, Kunming, Yun’nan Province. Photo by Emitchan

    The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (120 B.C.)

    In the spring, a comet appeared in the eastern sky.

    In May, during the summer, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    During the rebellion of the Prince of Huainan, the Prince of Jiaodong, Liu Ji, had heard rumors of the matter and, sensing danger, secretly made preparations for defense. When government officials investigated the Huainan case, some testimonies implicated Prince Liu Ji. His mother, Madame Wang, the younger sister of the Empress Dowager, had a close relationship with the Emperor. Distressed by the circumstances, Liu Ji fell ill and passed away, daring not to leave a will regarding his heir.

    When the Emperor heard of his death, he was moved with compassion and appointed Liu Ji’s eldest son, Liu Xian, as the new Prince of Jiaodong. In addition, the Emperor enfeoffed Liu Ji’s younger son, Liu Qing, as the Prince of Liu’an, granting him the land that had once belonged to the Prince of Hengshan.

    In the autumn, the Xiongnu invaded the regions of Youbeiping and Dingxiang, each with several tens of thousands of cavalry. They killed and plundered over a thousand people.

    A severe flood struck the region east of Mount Xiao, causing widespread famine and scarcity among the populace. In response, the Emperor dispatched envoys to empty the granaries of various counties and commanderies, providing relief to the impoverished. However, the supplies were insufficient. The wealthy, officials, and notable individuals were encouraged to lend aid to the poor, with their names recorded on an honor roll to be presented to the court. Yet, even this was not enough to alleviate the suffering. As a result, over seven hundred thousand destitute individuals were relocated west of the passes and southward to regions around Shuofang and the Xinqinzhong area. These people were entirely dependent on the government for their clothing and sustenance, receiving assistance for several years. Officials were appointed to oversee their welfare, and their carriages moved along the road in a continuous procession. The expenses incurred in this relief effort amounted to billions, a sum beyond calculation.

    After Han acquired the territory of the Hunye King, incursions by the nomadic tribes into the Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun Commanderies significantly decreased. In response, an edict was issued to reduce the garrison troops in these three commanderies by half, thereby alleviating the burden of conscription across the empire.

    The Emperor then set his sights on pacifying Kunming. As Kunming was home to Dian Lake, which spanned approximately three hundred square lis(one li is half a kilometer), the Emperor ordered the construction of Kunming Pond to serve as a site for naval warfare exercises. 

    During this time, the laws grew more stringent, leading to the dismissal or banishment of many officials. Military drafts became more frequent, and commoners often managed to buy their way out of service by purchasing the rank of Fifth Grandee, which led to a shortage of conscripts. Those exempted from service through the chiliarch or Fifth Grandee ranks were summoned to serve as low-ranking officials. Those unwilling to accept these positions were required to donate horses. Officials who manipulated the laws were sentenced to penal labor at the Royal Shanglin Park, where they were tasked with reclaiming wasteland and digging the Kunming Pond.

    A wonder horse was obtained from the depths of the Wowa pond, an oasis in the far Northwest. The Emperor, having recently established a music bureau, commissioned Sima Xiangru and others to compose poetry and lyrical compositions to celebrate the horse. Li Yannian, an eunuch, was appointed as Commandant of Harmony, wearing the seal of 2000-picul ranking. The poems were crafted to harmonize with the eight musical tones and often contained language drawn from the “Erya” (a classical Chinese dictionary). Scholars, familiar only with one branch of Confucius classics, found the language in these compositions incomprehensible and had to gather experts in Five Classics and study them together to decipher their meaning.

    When the wonder horse was obtained, it was incorporated into a song. Ji An, observing this, remarked, “Whenever a king creates music, it should honor the ancestors above and educate the people below. Your Majesty has obtained a horse, and now you’re turning poems into songs. But will the ancestor kings and the common people understand the meaning of these songs?” The Emperor, though silent, was clearly annoyed by the remark.

    The Emperor constantly sought scholars and officials, seemingly never satisfied with their numbers. Yet, his nature was stern and severe. Even those courtiers who had once been trusted and favored, if they committed minor offenses or engaged in trivial deceit, were swiftly punished or executed without leniency.

    Ji An, ever the voice of caution, remonstrated, saying, “Your Majesty, you exhaustively seek out talents, yet before they can be fully utilized, you have them executed. By indiscriminately punishing those with limited capabilities, I fear the pool of talented individuals throughout the realm will dwindle. Who then, will assist Your Majesty in governing?”

    Ji An spoke with indignation, but the Emperor smiled and explained, “Why worry about a scarcity of talent? It’s merely a matter of not being able to recognize them. If one could, would there be a lack of capable individuals? Talent is like a tool; if one possesses it but refuses to make the most of it, it is as good as not having it. If they are not put to death, what other way would you have me deal with them?”

    Ji An responded, “Although I cannot convince Your Majesty with my words, I still believe this approach is inappropriate. I hope Your Majesty will consider this matter carefully and rectify it moving forward. Do not dismiss my reasoning simply because I am a foolish man.”

    The Emperor turned to the courtiers and, with a wry smile, said, “If Ji An claimed to be sycophantic, that would have not been the case. He claims he is a foolish man, and that is certainly true!”

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (119 B.C.)

    In the winter, officials reported, “Local officials have overly expansive expenditures, while wealthy merchants and great traders engage in metal smelting and salt boiling, accumulating fortunes amounting to tens of thousands of gold, yet they do not assist in the urgent needs of the state. We request that a currency reform to mint new coins, to meet the demands of the treasury, and that actions be taken to suppress the extravagance and those who exploit the system for personal gain.”

    At this time, within the Imperial Park, there were white deer, and the Privy Treasury possessed a surplus of silver and tin. With these resources, they created leather currency from the hides of the white deer, each piece measuring a square foot, with edges embroidered in colorful patterns. These leather notes were valued at 400,000 copper coins. Princes, dukes, and other relatives of the imperial family were required to present jade discs on top of the leather notes as part of court tributes and ceremonial offerings.

    Additionally, three types of silver coins were minted: the largest, circular in shape, bore a dragon design and was valued at 3,000 copper coins; the next size, square, featured a horse design and was valued at 500 copper coins; and the smallest, oval-shaped, bore a turtle design and was valued at 300 copper coins. The government ordered the county treasuries to withdraw half-tael coins and replace them with three-zhu (1/24 tael) coins. Counterfeiting any of these metal coins was punishable by death. Yet, despite the severity of the penalty, countless cases of both officials and commoners engaging in the counterfeiting of silver coins were reported.

    To manage these economic reforms, Dongguo Xianyang and Kong Jin were appointed as treasurers in the Ministry of Agriculture (Revenue), overseeing salt and iron affairs. Sang Hongyang rose to prominence for his adeptness in accounting. Dongguo Xianyang was a major salt-boiling operator in Qi, while Kong Jin managed large-scale smelting operations in Nanyang. Both scaled their production, generating profits worth thousands of catties of gold. Sang Hongyang, the son of a merchant from Luoyang, exhibited remarkable mental arithmetic skills from a young age, and began serving as an attendant at the age of thirteen. The trio’s influence on economic affairs was paramount, and they meticulously analyzed financial matters, down to the smallest figures.

    An edict was issued forbidding the populace from privately forging iron tools or boiling salt, under penalty of fettering the left big toe and confiscating their tools. Furthermore, ministers demanded that all merchants and craftsmen declare their assets. One thousand coins were counted as one min (also known as Guan, or one string of coins equaling one tael of silver), and a tax of 120 coins was imposed on every 2,000 min in possession. Any individual owning a carriage or boat longer than five zhang (approximately 15 meters) was also subject to this levy. Failure to declare assets resulted in a year of military service on the borders and the forfeiture of the undeclared coins. Those who brought to light on undeclared assets received half of the seized coins. This policy was primarily proposed by Zhang Tang, the Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Zhang Tang presented memorials to the court daily, discussing national expenditures to the point of exhausting the Emperor; at times, the Emperor would forget to eat. The Chancellor, Li Cai, occupied his position but refrained from engaging in governance, leaving Zhang Tang to make all decisions regarding national matters. The populace, feeling unrest and discontent, largely blamed Zhang Tang for their hardships.

    Bu Shi of Henan repeatedly offered to donate his wealth to the county authorities to support the border defenses. The Emperor, curious about Bu Shi’s motivation, sent an envoy to inquire.

    The envoy asked, “Do you wish to become an official?”

    Bu Shi replied, “I am a humble farmer and shepherd. I am not accustomed to serving in official positions, nor do I desire such a role.”

    The envoy then asked, “Is there any injustice or grievance in your family that you wish to report?”

    Bu Shi responded, “I have no disputes with anyone. I assist those in need among my fellow townspeople and educate those who lack virtue. The people in my village all live in harmony with me. Why would I feel wronged by anyone? I have nothing to report.”

    The envoy, intrigued, asked, “If that is the case, what do you wish for?”

    Bu Shi answered, “If the Emperor is punishing the Xiongnu, I believe that wise men should sacrifice themselves at the borders, and the wealthy should contribute their resources. This way, the Xiongnu can be annihilated.”

    Impressed by his words, the Emperor appreciated Bu Shi’s character and wished to set him as an example for the people. Consequently, Bu Shi was summoned and appointed as a Gentleman of the Household, bestowed with the title of Left Chief Councilor (ranked 10 out of 20 orders of merit), granted ten hectares of land, and a public announcement was made to demonstrate the Emperor’s recognition. Shortly after, Bu Shi was further promoted to the Grand Tutor of the principality of Qi.

    In the spring, a meteor was seen in the northeast. During the summer, a long comet appeared in the northwest.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 151): Dimitri, from Prince, to Slave and Fidus Achates

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Jin Midi and the golden status of King of Xiutu

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (121 B.C. continued)

    The Prince of Jiangdu, Liu Jian, engaged in numerous heinous acts, including an affair with Consort Nao, the favored concubine of his father, Prince Yi, and an incestuous relationship with his younger sister, Liu Zhengchen. On one occasion, during a tremendous storm, Liu Jian went boating on Leibei Lake. He ordered two attendants to board a small boat despite the perilous conditions. The boat capsized, and the attendants struggled helplessly in the water, unable to save themselves. Liu Jian, standing by, laughed heartily and ordered no rescue, leading to their tragic deaths. He indulged in lewd and cruel activities, wantonly taking the lives of thirty-five innocent people.

    Realizing the extent of his crimes and fearing retribution, Liu Jian conspired with his consort, Cheng Guang, to invoke witchcraft. They employed a maid from Yue to pray for divine intervention, cursing the Emperor. Furthermore, upon hearing of the plots in Huainan and Hengshan, Liu Jian began manufacturing weapons and forging the imperial seal in preparation for rebellion. When these treasonous acts were discovered, the authorities demanded his arrest and execution. In the face of inevitable punishment, Liu Jian chose to take his own life, while Cheng Guang and the others involved were executed publicly. The principality of Jiangdu was thus brought to ruin.

    In the same year, Prince Kang of Jiaodong, Liu Ji, passed away.

    In the autumn, the Hunye King of the Xiongnu surrendered. At that time, the Chanyu, enraged, sought to exact vengeance upon the Hunye King and the Xiutu King in the western regions, whose forces had suffered great losses at the hands of the Han—tens of thousands slain or taken captive. The Chanyu, in his fury, intended to summon and execute these two kings. Fearing for their lives, the Hunye King and the Xiutu King secretly conspired to surrender to the Han. They first sent envoys to the border, where they were intercepted by Han forces, who relayed their intentions to the Emperor.

    At this time, the Grand Usher, Li Xi, was constructing a fortress along the Yellow River. He intercepted the Hunye King’s messengers and swiftly reported the matter to the Emperor. Suspecting that this surrender might be a ruse to launch a surprise attack, the Emperor commanded the General of Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, to lead his troops and meet with the Hunye King’s emissaries. The Xiutu King, regretting his decision to surrender, was killed by the Hunye King, who then assumed control over his followers.

    When General Huo Qubing crossed the Yellow River, he encountered the Hunye King’s forces. Some of the Hunye King’s subordinate commanders, seeing the Han army, hesitated to surrender and attempted to flee. Without delay, Huo Qubing struck swiftly, capturing and executing eight thousand of those who sought to escape. The Hunye King was then placed in a government carriage and sent alone to the Emperor, while the rest of the surrendered forces were escorted across the Yellow River.

    More than forty thousand surrendered, though their numbers were exaggerated to a hundred thousand. Upon reaching Chang’an, the Emperor rewarded the surrendering forces with numerous grants, enfeoffing the Hunye King with ten thousand households and bestowing upon him the title of Marquis of Luoyin. Four of his subordinate kings, including Hudu Ni, were likewise ennobled as marquises. In addition, the General of Agile Cavalry, Huo Qubing, was granted an increase of 1,700 households in his fief.

    When the Hunye King surrendered, the Han court summoned twenty thousand carriages to welcome them. However, the county officials lacked the necessary funds and were forced to borrow horses from the people. Some citizens, unwilling to part with their horses, hid them, and there were not enough horses to meet the demand. The Emperor, enraged, ordered the execution of the magistrate of Chang’an. But the Right Interior Minister, Ji An, interjected, saying, “The magistrate of Chang’an is innocent. If anyone is to be punished, let it be me. Only then will the people be willing to bring forth their horses. Moreover, the Xiongnu have abandoned their ruler and come to surrender to Han. We should gradually assimilate these migrants, county by county. How could we cause turmoil throughout the country, exhausting the resources of the Middle Kingdom to serve these outsiders and barbarians?” The Emperor fell silent.

    When the Hunye King and his followers arrived, more than five hundred merchants and traders were sentenced to death for violating the laws prohibiting trade with foreigners. Ji An requested an audience at the Gaomen Hall of Weiyang Palace and spoke: “The Xiongnu have invaded our borders, shattered our marriage alliances, and caused countless casualties when the Middle Kingdom mobilized troops to suppress them. The expenses for this campaign have been enormous. I, foolishly, suggest that Your Majesty consider taking the surrendered Xiongnu people and distributing them as slaves and servants to the families of those who died serving in the army. The spoils of war could be distributed among the people as compensation for their losses, alleviating their suffering. But now, even though tens of thousands of the Hunye have surrendered, the treasury is drained to reward them, and good citizens are levied to serve the foreigners. This is akin to pampering spoiled children. How could the common folk in Chang’an, who buy and sell, understand that the bureaucratic officials have interpreted their actions as smuggling wealth and goods across the borders and punished them for it? Your Majesty, if you cannot gain benefits from the Xiongnu to compensate the nation and, instead, wrongfully execute more than five hundred innocent people, you are protecting the leaves but damaging the branches. I humbly advise against it.”

    The Emperor, displeased, remained quiet and then remarked, “I have not heard Ji An speak for some time, and now he speaks foolishly once again.”

    In a short time, the surrendered Xiongnu were relocated and distributed across the borders of five commanderies(Longxi, Beidi, Shangjun, Shuofang, Yunzhong). These commanderies, originally situated outside the old passes but within the territory of Henan, were transformed into five satellite states, each adhering to their former customs. In the region west of Jincheng and beyond, extending from the Hexi Corridor and southern mountains to the Salt Marsh(Lop Nur), there were no Xiongnu to be found. Occasionally, there were rare visits from Xiongnu scouts, but these visits were infrequent.

    The son of the Xiutu King, Midi(sinicized form of Dimitri), along with his mother, Yanzhi (Madame/Queen), and his younger brother, Lun(sinicized form of Leo), entered imperial service. They were assigned to care for the imperial horses under the supervision of the Privy Treasurer. One day, during the Emperor’s leisure activities, when he was inspecting the horses, he was surrounded by his harem. Midi, along with several dozen others, led the horses past the hall, and while every servant man stole glances at the beauties, Midi alone dared not look. Midi, standing eight (Chinese)feet and two (Chinese)inches tall, had a stern countenance, and the horses he led were exceptionally healthy and well-groomed. The Emperor, intrigued by this, inquired about Midi‘s background. Midi spoke honestly, and the Emperor, amazed by his appearance and character, immediately ordered a bath for him, along with proper attire. He was appointed as the horse stable supervisor, later promoted to an attendant-in-waiting, then to the Commandant of Cavalry, and finally elevated to the rank of Grandee of the Chamberlain.

    As Midi grew closer to the Emperor, he made no mistakes in his service. The Emperor trusted him deeply and showered him with rewards, giving him gifts worth thousands of gold. Midi would drive for the Emperor when he went out and closely attend to him when indoors. Many among the nobility secretly complained, “Your Majesty has unwittingly elevated this boy from the barbarians and now treasures him as one of your own.” Yet, when the Emperor heard these murmurs, his esteem for Midi only grew. Because the Xiutu King had made a golden statue as an offering to the heavenly lord, the Emperor bestowed upon Midi the surname Jin, meaning “gold.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 150): Out to The Unknown

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    A Goddess stone figure, Bronze Age Bactria (Daxia), photo by Jumbokedama

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (122 B.C. continued)

    In April of summer, a general amnesty was declared throughout the realm.

    On April 9, the imperial son, Liu Ju, was declared Crown Prince at the tender age of seven.

    On May 30, a solar eclipse occurred.

    In that same period, a large group of ten thousand Xiongnu entered Shanggu and slaughtered several hundred Han people.

    Earlier, Zhang Qian had returned from his western expedition to Yuezhi and presented a detailed report to the Emperor, recounting the customs and cultures of various polities in the western territories. He stated:

    “Dayuan lies directly to the west of the Han, approximately ten thousand li away. The people of Dayuan live in settled communities and engage in agriculture. They breed a brand of horses known as the Ferghana horse, whose sweat is red, and they are highly prized. Their cities and houses resemble those of the Middle Kingdom.

    “To their northeast lies the Wusun, and to the east are the Kingdom of Khotan. West of Khotan, all rivers flow westward into the Western Sea, while to the east, the rivers flow toward a salt marsh. This salt marsh runs underground, and to the south lies the source of the Yellow River, approximately five thousand li from Chang’an.

    “East of the salt marsh lies the western boundary of the Xiongnu, extending to the Great Wall at Longxi. To the south, they border the Qiang, who have cut off the road from Han to the west.

    “The Wusun, Kangju, Yancai (Alans), and the Greater Yuezhi are nomadic peoples who move with their herds and have customs similar to those of the Xiongnu. Daxia lies southwest of Dayuan and shares many similar customs. During my time in Daxia, I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth from Shu. Upon inquiry, the people of Daxia told me, ‘Our merchants travel to Juandu (India) to trade with them.’

    “Juandu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia, and its customs resemble those of Daxia. In my estimation, Daxia is twelve thousand li from the Han, located to the southwest. Now, Juandu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia and possesses goods from Shu. Therefore, its distance from Shu cannot be too great. Should we send emissaries to Daxia, traveling through Qiang territories would be dangerous, as the Qiang people despise outsiders. Going northward would bring us into the hands of the Xiongnu. The safest and shortest route is through Shu, which is free from raiders.”

    Upon learning of the existence of Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi (the Parthian Empire), and other such powerful and prosperous kingdoms, the Emperor recognized their abundance of exotic goods, their settled communities, and their shared commercial activities with the Middle Kingdom. He observed their military weakness and noted their apparent inclination to value the wealth and goods of the Han. To the north of these territories lay Daxia, Kangju, and similar regions known for their military strength, presenting a potential opportunity for suzerainty through gifts and offerings.

    The Emperor firmly believed that it would expand the empire’s territory by thousands of li if these territories were brought under righteous allegiance, rather than military conquest. It would allow distant peoples to trade and pay homage, utilizing interpreters who spoke nine different languages. This would also introduce diverse cultures and spread the prestige and virtue of the Han Empire throughout the four seas. The Emperor approved of Zhang Qian’s report and ordered that he send emissaries to explore routes via Shu and Qianwei. Envoys, including Wang Ranyu and others, were dispatched in four directions: through Mang tribe, Ran tribe, and Xiyu tribe, and through Qiong tribe and Bo tribe, with each team traveling one to two thousand li towards Shendu.

    To the north, the envoys were blocked at Jiandi and Zuodu, while to the south they were halted at Yuexi and Kunming. In the region around Kunming, there were no recognized rulers and the area was rife with banditry, with frequent attacks on Han envoys, making communication impossible.

    Despite these challenges, Han’s efforts to reach Shendu (India) eventually led to communication with the Dian kingdom. The King of Dian, whose name was Dangqiang, asked the Han envoys, “Who is greater, Han or us?” Similarly, the Marquis of Yelang posed the same question. With no established communication channels between these territories and the Han Empire, each considered itself a sovereign state and was unaware of the vastness of the Han Empire. When the envoys returned and highly praised the magnificence of the Dian kingdom, suggesting it should be ruled as a vassal state, the Emperor renewed his attention to the southwestern uncivilized regions.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (121 B.C.)

    In October of the winter, the Emperor made a pilgrimage to Yong and performed ceremonies at the Five Altars.

    On March 3, the Marquis of Pingjin, Gongsun Hong, passed away. On March 22, Li Cai, the Marquis of Le’an and the Grand Master of Censorate, was appointed as the Chancellor, and Zhang Tang, the Minister of Justice, was appointed as Grand Master of Censorate.

    Huò Qùbīng was appointed as the General of Agile Cavalry and led ten thousand cavalry troops from Longxi to attack the Xiongnu. He traversed through five kingdoms, engaging in battles for six days and covering over a thousand li across the Yanzhi Mountains. They killed the King of Shelan, beheaded the King of Luhou, captured the son of King Hunye along with the Prime Minister and Commandant, and seized over 8,900 enemy soldiers. They also obtained the golden statue that the King of Xiutu dedicated for sacrificial rituals. The Emperor decreed to increase Huo Qùbīng‘s land holdings by two thousand households.

    During the summer, Huo Qubing, along with the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, led tens of thousands of riders separately into Beidi along different routes. The Commandant of Capital Guard Zhang Qian and the Chamberlain Li Guang also traveled towards Youbeiping on separate paths. Li Guang led four thousand riders in advance for several hundred li, while Zhang Qian followed behind with ten thousand riders.

    The Xiongnu’s Left Tuqi King besieged Li Guang with forty thousand riders, causing fear among Li Guang‘s troops. Li Guang sent his son Li Gan alone with several dozen riders to penetrate the enemy’s ranks, riding through their formation and returning to report to his father, saying, “The enemy is easily dealt with!” This reassured the soldiers. Li Guang then formed his troops into a circular formation, facing outwards. The enemy attacked fiercely, and arrows fell like raindrops. More than half of the Han soldiers were killed, and the Han‘s arrows were nearly exhausted.

    Li Guang ordered his soldiers to hold arrows without shooting while he personally used a large yellow bow to shoot at the enemy’s subordinate generals, killing several of their leaders, which deterred the Xiongnu further. As the day drew to a close, the soldiers were frightened, losing their countenance, but Li Guang remained composed and continued to rally his troops, earning the respect of all within the army. The next day, they fought again with even greater force, resulting in casualties exceeding half of the troops, but killed many more enemies. At this time, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian‘s army also arrived, causing the Xiongnu to retreat. The Han troops were too tired to pursue and returned.

    According to Han’s military law, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian was late and deserving of execution, but he was allowed to redeem himself as a commoner. Although Li Guang demonstrated significant military achievements, he received no reward because of substantial loss of troops. 

    Huo Qubing, the General of Agile Cavalry, ventured more than two thousand li deep into enemy territory, but he and the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, missed communication with each other. Huo Qubing ventured beyond Juyan Lake, passing through the Lesser Yuezhi, and arrived at the Qilian Mountains, where he captured Shanhuan and Qiutu, two Xiongnu kings, along with the Prime Minister, Commandant, and their 2500 followers. They beheaded thirty-two thousand enemy soldiers and captured more than seventy lesser chieftains. 

    The Emperor further increased Huo Qubing‘s land holdings by five thousand households. Additionally, his lieutenants who performed meritorious deeds were rewarded: the Falcon Striker Marshal Zhao Ponu was appointed as an Marquis of Congpiao, Colonel Gao Bushi became Marquis of Yiguan, and Colonel Pu Duo was titled as the Marquis of Huiqu. Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, was found guilty of dereliction of duty for not meeting Huo Qubing at rendezvous and was sentenced to death, later redeeming himself as a commoner.

    At that time, all the commanders of various camps had soldiers, horses, and weapons which were inferior compared to the General of Agile Cavalry. The General of Agile Cavalry always selected his troops meticulously, yet dared to venture deep into the enemy lines, often taking the lead with valiant cavalry ahead of the larger army. This forerunner force was also blessed with good fortune and was never in a desperate situation. Meanwhile, the other camp commanders often remained stagnant and were not equally matched. Consequently, the General of Agile Cavalry gained increasing favor and affection by the Sovereign, approaching the status of the Grand General Wei Qing.

    The Xiongnu invaded Dai and Yanmen, killing and plundering several hundred people.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 149): Botched Mutiny of A Nerdy Prince

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Liu An, the Prince of Huainan

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (122 B.C.)

    In the winter of October, the Emperor journeyed to Yong to perform sacrifices at the Five Altars in honor of the Five-Deities. During the ceremony, a mythical creature with a single horn and five hooves was captured. The rite officials, in their memorial, declared, “In response to your Majesty’s solemn ceremony, Heaven has bestowed a unicorn, likely the legendary Qilin.” The unicorn was offered in sacrifice at the Five Altars, and an ox was added to the roast fire at each altar.

    After some time, the officials further expounded on the omen, interpreting the event as a celestial sign of unique importance. They declared, “This rare occurrence—capturing a mythical beast with a single horn—reveals that Heaven wishes for the reign to be designated with auspicious titles, rather than mere numerical sequences. The first era of your reign shall be named ‘Jian’ [Establishment], the second ‘Guang’ [Light], following the appearance of the comet. As for the current era, it shall be named ‘Shou’ [Hunting], due to the appearance of the unicorn during the ceremonial rites.”

    The Prince of Jibei, discerning in these signs that the Emperor was poised to undertake the Feng-Shan ceremony, proposed placing Mount Tai and its surrounding regions directly under the control of the Han Household. The Emperor accepted this proposal and compensated the Prince with lands from other counties.

    Prince of Huainan, Liu An, and his retainers, including Zuo Wu, plotted day and night, deliberating over rebellion. They studied maps and devised strategies for troop movements, planning their routes for the march. Meanwhile, various envoys arrived from Chang’an, bearing conflicting reports. Some brought false tidings, saying, “The Emperor has no male heir; the Han court is in turmoil.” Upon hearing this, Prince Liu An was momentarily overjoyed. However, other envoys contradicted this, stating, “The Han court is well-governed, and the Emperor has a male heir.” Enraged, the prince dismissed these claims as lies.

    In his anger, the Prince summoned the Gentleman of the Household, Wu Bei, to discuss the matter of rebellion. Wu Bei, ever cautious, spoke, “How could Your Majesty speak words that would bring ruin to the state? I foresee a dark future: thorns within the palace and morning dew soaking our clothes.” The prince, infuriated by this warning, casted Wu Bei‘s parents into prison.

    After three months, the Prince summoned Wu Bei once more. Wu Bei, in his counsel, said, “In the past, the House of Qin ruled with ruthless cruelty and excess, leading six or seven out of ten households to desire rebellion. Amidst this turmoil, Emperor Gaozu rose to power, becoming Emperor. He was known as one who exploited the weaknesses of the Qin, seizing the opportunity brought by their downfall. Now, Your Majesty, having witnessed how easily Emperor Gaozu acquired the world, Have you not considered the recent history of the Principalities of Wu and Chu?

    “The Prince of Wu governed four commanderies, with a wealthy state and a large population. He planned meticulously, yet failed. He raised troops to march westward, but was defeated at the principality of Liang. Forced to flee eastward, he perished, and his ancestral sacrifices ceased. Why? Because he defied the natural order, failing to understand the proper timing.

    “At present, Your Majesty’s army, though mighty, is but even a tenth of the power of the Principalities of Wu and Chu. The world is at peace now, thousands of times more so than in the days of the Wu and Chu Uprisings. Your Majesty, if ignoring my counsel, will forsake a monarch ruling thousands of chariots and face the decree of self-destruction, dying before all the courtiers in the Eastern Palace.”

    The prince, upon hearing these words, rose and left, weeping.

    The Prince had an Ishmael son named Liu Buhai, the eldest of his progeny, yet he was not favored by the Prince. Neither the Queen nor the Crown Prince of Huainan regarded him as a son or a brother. Liu Buhai, in turn, had a son named Liu Jian, a youth of remarkable talent and vigor. Liu Jian, however, harbored a deep resentment toward the Crown Prince of Huainan(Liu Qian) and secretly accused him of conspiring to assassinate Duan Hong, the Han envoy and Commandant of the Capital Guard. The Emperor, upon learning of this,  handed down this case to the Justice Minister for investigation.

    The Prince, troubled by the affair, sought a resolution. Once again, he turned to Wu Bei, asking, “Do you think it was wise for the Prince of Wu to raise troops against the Han Empire, or not?”

    Wu Bei replied, “No, it was not wise. I have heard that the Prince of Wu deeply regrets his actions. I hope, Your Majesty, do not repeat the same mistake, and regret as the Prince of Wu did.”

    The Prince said, “What did the Prince of Wu truly understand of rebellion? There were usually more than forty Han officers passing through Chenggao each day. Now, I have sealed off Chenggao, secured the strategic confluence of the Three Rivers—Yi River, Luo River, and Yellow River—and rallied the forces east of Mount Xiao. By such actions, Zuo Wu, Zhao Xian, and Zhu Jiaoru are confident the plan has nearly a ninety percent chance of success. Yet, you alone foresee misfortune and no happy ending. Why? Do we truly have no chance, as you claim?”

    Wu Bei countered, “If there is no other way, I offer a foolish plan. At present, the feudal lords harbor no rebellious intentions, and the common people bear no grievances. We can forge a petition, purportedly from the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate, calling for the relocation of influential and wealthy individuals from various commanderies to Shuofang. This would also involve increasing the recruitment of soldiers and setting an urgent assembly deadline. Furthermore, we could fabricate sentences to arrest the crown princes of the principalities and favored courtiers of the feudal lords. This would stir resentment among the people and instill fear among the monarchs. Then, we could send skilled lobbyists to persuade them. Perhaps, on a lucky day, we might achieve a ten percent success rate.”

    The Prince said, “This plan is feasible. However, I do not believe we would need to resort to such extremes.”

    Thus, the Prince crafted an imperial seal and seals for the Chancellor, Grand Master of the Censorate, generals, military officers, officials holding 2,000-picul rank, as well as seals for the nearby prefects and commandants. He also forged the insignia and scepters of the Han envoy. His intention was to falsely implicate someone and send them running westward to seek refuge under the Grand General Wei Qing. On a chosen day, troops would be mobilized, and the Grand General would be assassinated.

    Additionally, he remarked, “Among the prominent ministers of the Han court, only Ji An values straightforward admonitions, upholds integrity, and is difficult to deceive with falsehoods. Others, such as Chancellor Gongsun Hong and the rest, are easily swayed, like drapes being removed or leaves shaken off trees.”

    The Prince, desiring to deploy the local troops, feared that the Prime Minister and the officials appointed by the court, those with 2,000-picul rank, might not comply. Therefore, he conspired with Wu Bei to first assassinate the Prime Minister and the officials appointed by the court. He also devised a plan to have someone dressed as a police officer, carrying a feather message, arrive from the east and shout, “The troops of Nanyue have entered the borders!” This would serve as a pretext for the deployment of troops.

    The Minister of Justice in the Han Court was ordered to arrest the Prince of Huainan. Upon hearing of this decree, the Prince conspired with the Crown Prince(Liu Qian), summoning his Prime Minister and the officials of 2,000-picul rank with the intent to murder them and initiate a rebellion. When the Prime Minister arrived, the Minister of Interior and the Commandant of the Guard of the principality failed to appear. Realizing that the death of the Prime Minister alone would bring him no gain, the Prince dismissed him, remaining hesitant and indecisive. The Crown Prince, in despair, chose to take his own life by slitting his throat, but was unsuccessful.

    Wu Bei, moved by conscience, voluntarily approached the authorities and revealed the details of the Prince’s conspiracy. The authorities swiftly apprehended the Crown Prince and the Queen of Huainan, surrounded the royal palace, and identified all those within the principality implicated in the rebellion. Evidence of the mutiny was presented to the Emperor. The Emperor ordered the prosecution of the Prince’s retainers, while commanding the Minister of the Imperial Clan to oversee the investigation with the Emperor’s personal insignia. Before the Minister could reach the Prince, the latter took his life by slitting his throat. The Queen of Huainan, Tu, and the Crown Prince, Liu Qian, were executed, and all involved in the conspiracy met with punishment.

    The Emperor, having acknowledged Wu Bei’s eloquence and his prior praise of the virtues of the Han, was initially inclined to spare him. Yet the Minister of Justice, Zhang Tang, asserted, “Wu Bei was the first to plot rebellion for the Prince; such a crime cannot be pardoned.” As a result, Wu Bei was executed.

    Zhuang Zhu, the Attendant-in-Waiting, maintained a close relationship with the Prince of Huainan, engaging in private discussions and receiving generous gifts from him. The Emperor, hoping to pardon his guilt and spare him from execution, was opposed by Zhang Tang, who remarked, “Zhuang Zhu, as an intimate attendant, moves freely in and out of the imperial gates. If he deals privately with feudal lords, pardoning him would set a dangerous precedent.” Ultimately, Zhuang Zhu was executed publicly in the market.

    Meanwhile, Prince of Hengshan, Liu Ci, submitted a memorial requesting the removal of the Crown Prince of Hengshan, Liu Shuang, and the appointment of his younger brother, Liu Xiao, as the new Crown Prince. In response, Liu Shuang dispatched his confidant, Bai Ying, to Chang’an, accusing Liu Xiao of secretly constructing chariots, forging arrowheads, and engaging in illicit relationships with his father’s concubines. In the course of capturing conspirators linked to the Prince of Huainan, officials discovered Chen Xi hiding in Liu Xiao’s residence. Liu Xiao, upon hearing of the law granting immunity to those who confess first, readily confessed his involvement with the conspirators Mei He and Chen Xi. The authorities called for the arrest of Prince Hengshan, but the prince chose to end his own life.

    The Queen of Hengshan, Xu Lai, the Crown Prince Liu Shuang, and Liu Xiao were all executed in the public market, alongside all those involved in the conspiracy.

    The fall of the Princes of Huainan and Hengshan brought ruin to many, implicating numerous marquises, officials with 2,000-picul rank, and other influential figures. In total, the upheaval led to the loss of tens of thousands of lives.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 148): A Rising Star

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    Portrait of General Huo Qubing

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (124 B.C. continued)

    In the summer month of June, an edict was issued, declaring, “It is known that guiding the people through rituals and nurturing them with music are essential. Yet now, with rituals in decline and music absent, We are deeply concerned. Let the officials responsible for rituals promote the study and revive the rites, thereby leading the entire nation!”

    In response, Chancellor Gongsun Hong and others suggested, “We request the establishment of fifty students for the Erudite, exempting them from public taxes and duties, to be assessed for their abilities and appointed to positions such as Attendant-in-waiting, Literary, and Office Clerks. Those who display exceptional talent will be honored and recommended for higher positions. Conversely, those who show no dedication to learning and possess lesser abilities shall be dismissed. Furthermore, officials who are proficient in at least one of the Five Confucian Classics shall be selected as candidates for roles with a salary of 2,000 picul.”

    The Emperor gave his approval. From that time forth, more scholars appeared among the ministers, grandees, gentry, and local officials.

    In autumn, ten thousand riders from the Xiongnu invaded the territory of Dai, killing Commandant Zhu Ying and capturing over a thousand people.

    The Prince of Huainan, Liu An, was greatly fond of reading and literature. He took pleasure in gaining fame and attracted thousands of guests and scholars versed in various teachings. Among his courtiers and guests were many frivolous individuals from the Yangtze and Huai River basins, who bore longstanding resentment towards the Prince Li of Huainan, Liu Chang, due to his banishment to Qiong and eventual death. These men often brought up the matter to provoke Liu An.

    In the sixth year of the Emperor Wen‘s Early Era, a comet appeared. Some lobbied the Prince of Huainan, saying, “In the time when the Prince of Wu(Liu Pi) raised his army, a comet appeared, stretching several feet, and it led to bloodshed across a thousand miles. Now, with a comet filling the entire sky, it may signal a large-scale uprising of armies across the realm.” The prince believed these words to be true and thus increased preparations for siege weapons, while also amassing gold and wealth.

    Guard Lei Bei, in an accident during fencing practice, had wounded the Crown Prince of Huainan, Liu Qian. An edict was issued proclaiming that anyone willing to join the campaign against the Xiongnu should report to Chang’an. Lei Bei expressed his eagerness to fight against the Xiongnu. However, the Crown Prince Liu Qian disparaged Lei Bei in front of Liu An. The Prince of Huainan scolded and dismissed him to set an example for others.

    In the same year, Lei Bei fled to Chang’an and submitted a petition to clear his name. The matter was sent to the magistrate for investigation, and Lei Bei’s complaint was linked to the Prince of Huainan. The court officials requested the arrest and trial of the Prince of Huainan. The Crown Prince of Huainan then devised a plan to dress someone as a palace guard, who would hold a halberd by the prince’s side. If any envoy from the Han was found to be suspicious, the guard would kill the person, triggering a rebellion. The Emperor dispatched the Capital Guard commandant Duan Hong to interrogate the prince. However, upon observing Duan Hong‘s composed demeanor, the prince refrained from carrying out the plan.

    The court officials reported, “Liu An, who obstructed a warrior willing to fight the Xiongnu, defied the clear decree and must be punished by execution.” A decree was issued, stripping him of two counties. Deeply ashamed, Prince Huainan lamented, “Even when I act with benevolence and righteousness, I am met with territorial losses.” Out of this shame and humiliation, his plot to rebel grew more intense.

    Liu An‘s relationship with the Prince of Hengshan, Liu Ci, had long been strained and grew more distant with time. When the Prince of Hengshan heard of a potential rebellion by Liu An, he feared being annexed by his brother and began preparing countermeasures by gathering retainers and weapons for rebellion. He believed that if the Prince of Huainan were to conquer the west, he would raise an army to seize control of the Yangtze River and Huai River basins.

    The Queen of the Princedom of Hengshan, Xu Lai, accused the heir-apparent of Prince Hengshan, Liu Shuang of wrongdoing, hoping to depose him and install his younger brother, Prince Liu Xiao, in his place. The Prince of Hengshan detained his heir Liu Shuang and bestowed the royal seal upon Prince Liu Xiao, commanding him to gather retainers. When these retainers arrived, they, from illusive signs, understood the rebellious intentions of both the Princes of Huainan and Hengshan, and clandestinely aided and abetted them day and night.

    The Prince of Hengshan then instructed Mei He and Chen Xi of Jiangdu, retainers of Liu Xiao, to manufacture chariots, forge arrows, and carve imperial seals and insignias for generals and military officers. In the autumn, when the Prince of Hengshan was due to attend court, he planned to pass through Huainan. At this moment, the two brothers, reconciled as siblings, resolved their previous differences and agreed to unite in their rebellion.

    Upon their reconciliation, Prince Liu Ci sent a letter pleading illness, thereby securing exemption from the Emperor’s summons and avoiding his visit to the capital.

    The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (123 B.C.)

    In February of spring, the Grand General Wei Qing set forth from Dingxiang to confront the Xiongnu. The Emperor appointed Gongsun Ao, the Marquis Heqi, as General of the Center; Grand Coachman Gongsun He as General of the Left; Zhao Xin, the Marquis Xi, as General of the Front; Capital Guard Commander Su Jian as General of the Right; Chamberlain Li Guang as General of the Rear; and Li Zu, the Left Interior Minister, as the Mighty Crossbow General, all under the command of the Grand General. They returned after slaying several thousand enemies, resting their soldiers and horses in Dingxiang, Yunzhong, and Yanmen.

    A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    In April of summer, Wei Qing once more led the six generals from Dingxiang to engage the Xiongnu, resulting in the slaying and capturing of more than ten thousand enemies. The General of the Right, Su Jian, and the General of the Front, Zhao Xin, leading over three thousand cavalry, encountered the Chanyu’s forces alone. After battling for more than a day, the Han forces were nearly exhausted. Zhao Xin, once a minor king among the Nomad tribes who had surrendered to the Han and been granted the title of Marquis Xi, was lured by the Xiongnu after being defeated. He led the remaining eight hundred riders to defect to the Xiongnu. Su Jian, having lost his entire army, managed to escape and returned to the Grand General’s camp.

    Gentleman Consultant Zhou Ba proposed, “Since the Grand General has assumed command, no general has been executed. Now that Su Jian has abandoned his army, he must be executed to uphold the authority of the Grand General.”

    The military judge Hong and Chief of Staff An countered, “Not so. According to the ‘Art of War,’ even the toughest small forces may fall before much larger ones. Su Jian faced tens of thousands of enemies with only a few thousand troops, fought fiercely for over a day, exhausted his soldiers, yet did not entertain thoughts of defection and willingly returned. Executing him would suggest that failure is intolerable in all circumstances, which is inappropriate.”

    The Grand General responded, “I, Wei Qing, am fortunate enough to have the Emperor’s trust and command a great army. I am not concerned with lacking authority. Zhou Ba advises me to behead a general to assert my power; however, this does not suit my station as a subject of the court. Even if I have the authority to execute a general, with all the favor and privilege I possess, I cannot unilaterally pass judgment without first reporting to the Emperor. I will send Su Jian to the imperial court, and the Emperor shall determine his fate. This demonstrates that as a servant, I do not dare wield arbitrary power. Is this not the proper course?”

    The military officers all agreed, saying, “Well said!” They then imprisoned Su Jian and sent him to the Emperor for trial.

    An official in Pingyang County, named Huo Zhongru, served in the household of the Marquis of Pingyang[the husband of Princess Pingyang]. He had an affair with Wei Qing’s elder sister, Wei Shao’er, a maid, resulting in the birth of Huo Qubing. At the age of eighteen, Huo Qubing became an attendant to the Emperor. He excelled in horse riding and archery. He accompanied the Grand General twice in wars against the Xiongnu, serving as Colonel of Piaoyao [Soaring Hawk]. Displaying immense bravery, he led 800 light cavalry troops, charging ahead of the main army, capturing or killing numerous enemies, far surpassing expectations.

    The Emperor issued a decree, saying: “Colonel Piaoyao Huo Qubing has slain over 2,000 enemy soldiers, captured the prime minister and chieftains of the Xiongnu, beheaded the Chanyu’s Grand Uncle, Chan, Marquis of Jiruo, and seized Chanyu’s uncle, Luobi. His feats surpass all others in the army. He shall be honored as Marquis of Guanjun [Champion]. The Prefect of Shanggu, Hao Xian, has followed the Grand General in four campaigns against the Xiongnu, capturing and beheading over 2,000 enemies. For his contributions, Hao Xian shall be bestowed with the title of Marquis Zhongli.”

    That year, due to the loss of two generals, the defection of Marquis Xi, and lesser military accomplishments, the Grand General was not granted an increase in noble rank but was instead given a thousand gold coins. General of the Right, Su Jian, upon his return, was not executed but was demoted to commoner status and redeemed by paying a fine.

    At that time, the Chanyu, having Marquis Xi, Zhao Xin, surrendered, promoted him to Under King, second only to the Chanyu. He married his sister to Zhao Xin and plotted against the Han. Zhao Xin counseled the Chanyu to move further north to a distant location, making it appear as though the Xiongnu were withdrawing, intending to lure and exhaust the Han forces for a future attack at a remote location, far from the border. The Chanyu followed Zhao Xin‘s plan.

    During those years, the Han Household annually dispatched over a million soldiers to fight against the nomadic tribes. The soldiers who captured or killed enemies were rewarded with more than two hundred thousand catties of gold, yet over a hundred thousand Han soldiers and horses perished. The expenses for the military campaigns and supplies drained the treasury, resulting in insufficient provisions for the soldiers.

    In June, a decree was issued allowing civilians to purchase noble titles and amnesty for past crimes by paying a fine. A system of rewarding military achievements was also established, called “Military Merit Lordship,” with seventeen ranks and over three hundred thousand gold coins allocated. Those who purchased these titles and attained the rank of “chiliarch” were granted priority for official appointments. The system of governance became muddled and riddled with various loopholes, leading to a decline in administrative efficacy.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 147): The Right To Bear Arms

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19

    Duration of 6 years

    A Crossbow, Terra Cotta Warrior Museum

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shuo Era (124 B.C.)

    In winter, on November 5, Xue Ze was relieved of his office. In his place, Gongsun Hong was appointed Chancellor and ennobled as the Marquis of Pingjin. From that time forth, the custom of conferring noble titles upon those who held the chancellorship began with Gongsun Hong.

    The Son of Heaven set his heart upon vast enterprises and the glory of national achievement. Gongsun Hong, opening the Eastern Gate of the Chancellor’s Office, summoned worthies and men of counsel, discoursing with them on state affairs. Whenever he entered court to present matters for deliberation, he would bring up proposals aimed at the benefit of the realm. The Emperor, esteeming his words, would summon scholars of the court to contend in debate with him.

    On one occasion, Gongsun Hong memorialized, saying: “Let it be forbidden for the people to bear bows and crossbows. For the sake of public safety, such arms must be restrained. Ten brigands with crossbows may cause a hundred officials to shrink in fear and not step forward.”

    The Emperor commanded the court to deliberate upon this proposal.

    Thereupon Yuqiu Shouwang, an Attendant-in-waiting, stepped forth and replied: “I have heard that the Five Arms—spear, halberd, bow, sword, and dagger-axe—were not devised to bring harm, but to subdue evil and restrain violence. In the time of Qin, when the empire was first united, weapons were cast into molten cauldrons and swords were blunted. Thereafter, the people fought each other with hoes, riding crops, and clubs. Crimes multiplied, banditry spread, and rebellion ensued. In the end, the state fell to ruin.

    “Thus, the sage kings of old taught the people by virtue and governed by rites, knowing that prohibitions alone could not suffice. The Book of Rites records: ‘When a male child is born, raise the mulberry-wood bow, and shoot arrows of reed to Heaven, to Earth, and to the four directions’—signifying that the man is destined to serve in arms throughout his life. The Grand Archery Rite, practiced from the Son of Heaven to the commoner, has been a ceremony passed down since the Three Dynasties.

    “I have heard of kings instructing the people through archery rites, but never of those who banned bows and arrows. What is forbidden is intended to prevent theft and assault; yet though death is decreed as punishment, still such crimes do not cease. This shows that even the severest law does not check the greatest of transgressions. If evil men conceal arms in secret while honest men are stripped of means to defend themselves, the law serves not justice but misfortune. I humbly submit: this measure is ill-advised.”

    This memorial was entered into the official record and submitted for imperial consideration. The Sovereign summoned Gongsun Hong and inquired of him regarding the matter, but Gongsun Hong could offer no rebuttal.

    Gongsun Hong was by nature suspicious and inwardly vindictive. All who had once opposed him, whether near or distant, though they might appear on cordial terms, would in time meet with his concealed vengeance.

    Dong Zhongshu, a man of upright character and moral resolve, regarded Gongsun Hong as sycophantic and insincere. Gongsun Hong, harboring envy, bore ill will toward him. The Prince of Jiaoxi, Liu Duan, indulged in lawlessness and brought about many deaths, including the demise of several officials of the 2,000-picul rank. Gongsun Hong, seeking to distance Dong Zhongshu from the Emperor, recommended him to serve as prime minister of the Principality of Jiaoxi. Yet Dong Zhongshu, pleading illness, did not assume the post.

    Ji An, who often voiced criticisms of Confucian doctrine, had long held differences with Gongsun Hong. Desiring to entrap him, Gongsun Hong seized upon an opportunity to destroy him. He memorialized the Emperor, saying: “The jurisdiction of the Right Interior Minister(intendant of Right Fufeng) is replete with nobles and high ministers. It is a post fraught with difficulty, and only one of great stature may govern it. I propose the transfer of Ji An to serve as Right Interior Minister.” The Emperor approved this request.

    In January of spring, a great drought afflicted the land.

    At that time, the Right Tuqi King of the Xiongnu made repeated incursions into Shuofang Commandery, harassing the border regions. The Sovereign dispatched the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Wei Qing, with thirty thousand cavalrymen departing from Gaoque Pass. Su Jian, Commandant of the Palace Guard, was appointed as Guerrilla General; Li Zu, the Left Interior Minister, was made Strong Crossbow General; Gongsun He, Grand Coachman, was named Cavalry General; and Li Cai, Prime Minister of Dai, was appointed Light Chariot General. All were placed under the overall command of Wei Qing. They departed from Shuofang to strike the enemy.

    In addition, the Grand Usher Li Xi and the Marquis of Antou, Zhang Cigong, were each appointed as generals and marched from Youbeiping. Altogether, the expeditionary force exceeded one hundred thousand men, advancing in concert against the Xiongnu.

    The Right Tuqi King, believing the Han troops too distant to pose a threat, indulged in wine and became inebriated. But Wei Qing led his men swiftly by night, advancing six to seven hundred li without pause, and fell upon the Right Tuqi King’s encampment. Caught unawares, the Right Tuqi King was seized with panic. In the dead of night, he broke through the encirclement and fled northward with but a few hundred elite riders.

    The Han forces captured more than ten subordinate kings under the Right Tuqi King, and seized over fifteen thousand men and women. Livestock taken numbered in the hundreds of thousands. With their objectives achieved, the army withdrew in good order and returned in triumph.

    When the army reached the border pass, the Son of Heaven dispatched an envoy bearing the seal of the Grand General, and in the field conferred upon Wei Qing the title of Grand General. All other generals were henceforth subordinated to his command.

    In April of summer, Wei Qing was further rewarded with an increase of fief comprising 8,700 households. His three sons—Wei Kang, Wei Buyi, and Wei Deng—though yet in infancy, were each ennobled as marquises.

    Wei Qing respectfully declined, memorializing thus: “By the grace of Heaven and the favor of Your Majesty, I have received fortune beyond measure. The great victory of the army was due to the valor and exertions of all the colonels and officers. The generous increase of my fief, and the enfeoffment of my sons with marquisates, though they are yet swaddled in cloth, is not the example I had hoped to set for those soldiers who risked their lives in the field.”

    The Emperor replied, “I have not forgotten the meritorious deeds of all the colonels.”

    Thereafter, the Emperor granted titles and honors to the various officers of distinction:
    Gongsun Ao, Colonel of Army Protectors, was made Marquis of Heqi;
    Han Yue, Commandant, was made Marquis of Long’e;
    Gongsun He, Commandant, was made Marquis of Nanjiao;
    Li Cha, Commandant, was made Marquis of Le’an;
    Li Shuo, Colonel, was made Marquis of Shezhi;
    Zhao Buyu, Colonel, was made Marquis of Suicheng;
    Gongsun Rongnu, Colonel, was made Marquis of Congping.

    In addition, Li Zu, Li Xi, and Colonel Dou Ruyi were each granted the title of Marquis Within the Passes.

    At this time, Wei Qing stood in highest favor among all court officials and ministers; none within the realm equaled his prestige. From the Three Excellencies down through the Nine Ministers, all bore themselves with deference before him. Only Ji An alone treated Wei Qing as an equal, neither yielding nor posturing.

    Some among the court cautioned Ji An, saying, “Now that the Son of Heaven commands all officials to bow before the Grand General, and the Grand General’s rank is exalted beyond compare, how can you refrain from bowing?”

    Ji An replied, “When the Grand General salutes his peer, does his status thereby lessen?”

    When these words reached the ears of the Grand General, he held Ji An in even greater esteem. Thereafter, Wei Qing often consulted Ji An concerning affairs of state and matters of court, treating him with a respect greater than he accorded others.Though Wei Qing’s position was lofty, when he came into an audience, the Emperor would recline upon his couch and receive him with ease. When Chancellor Gongsun Hong was summoned for informal audiences, the Son of Heaven at times dispensed with donning his imperial crown. Yet on one occasion, when Ji An came to request an audience, the Emperor, seated in the armory tent without his crown, glimpsed Ji An’s approach, and at once withdrew to the rear tent. He dispatched an attendant to grant Ji An’s petition in full, without requiring his presence. Thus was the reverence accorded to Ji An.