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Tag: Emperor Cheng of Han

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 254): Mother Honored Through Son

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33

    Duration of 2 years

    Yanling Mausoleum, Xianyang, Shaanxi Province. Photo by Legolas1024

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor made royal progress to Ganquan and performed the rites at the Taiyi Altar.

    On February 13, Chancellor Zhai Fangjin died. At that time, Mars lingered in the Heart of the Scorpion. Li Xun of Pingling, a staff consultant in the Chancellery, submitted a memorial stating: “Calamities are imminent, and the burden of responsibility grows heavier by the day. How can we merely dismiss or punish the man in charge? The entire Chancellery, with more than three hundred personnel, should be thoroughly investigated, and all who have served there should be held accountable for the disaster.”

    Zhai Fangjin was deeply distressed and did not know what course to take. Meanwhile, the astrologer Fei Li advised that the senior ministers should be replaced. The Emperor then summoned Zhai Fangjin. After he returned home, before any resolution had been reached, he received an imperial edict reproaching him for failing to manage affairs of state properly, thereby bringing about disasters and causing widespread suffering among the people. 

    The Emperor wrote: “I wish to remove you from office, but I cannot bear to do so. I shall have the Excellency of Works provide you with ten liters of wine and a cow to sustain you. You must take care of yourself.” Zhai Fangjin committed suicide that very day.

    The Emperor kept the matter confidential. He dispatched the Nine Ministers to present an official seal and ceremonial regalia, and provided carriages, sacrificial vessels, and white mourning drapery, all funded and administered by the court treasury. The Emperor personally attended the mourning rites several times, showing exceptional honor beyond the customary treatment accorded to other chancellors.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Yan Ying once said, “Heaven’s mandate is not arbitrary, and fate does not alter its course.” The coming of fortune or disaster cannot be averted. In former times, King Zhao of Chu and Duke Jing of Song, though unwilling to shift disaster onto their officials, said, “If one transfers an illness from the heart to the limbs, what benefit is there?” Even if disaster could be transferred, a benevolent ruler would not do so—how much less when it cannot be done at all?

    If Zhai Fangjin’s offense did not merit death, yet he was put to death in order to answer for a great crisis, then this was to deceive Heaven. If Zhai Fangjin did deserve punishment, yet his execution was concealed and his funeral honors were made exceptionally grand, then this was to deceive men. Emperor Cheng sought to deceive both Heaven and men, yet in the end gained nothing by it. It may indeed be said that he did not understand the Mandate.

    In March, the Emperor made a tour to Hedong to offer sacrifices to the Earth Goddess.

    On March 18, the Emperor died in Weiyang Palace.

    The Emperor had been robust and free of illness. At that time, the Prince of Chu, Liu Yan, and the Prince of Liang, Liu Li, were in attendance at court and were to depart the following morning. The Emperor had spent the night in the White Tiger Hall of the palace, and he also intended to appoint the General of the Left, Kong Guang, as Chancellor, having already prepared the marquis seal and drafted the commendation. The evening and night passed in peace.

    The next morning, when the Emperor was about to rise, he drew up his trousers, whereupon his garments fell loose, and he became unable to speak. Within a few hours, he died. The people were thrown into an uproar, and all blamed Consort(Zhaoyi) Zhao.

    The Empress Dowager issued an edict ordering Grand Marshal Wang Mang, together with the Grand Master of the Censorate, the Chancellor, and the Minister of Justice, to investigate the Emperor’s condition and symptoms. Consort(Zhaoyi) Zhao committed suicide.

    Ban Biao’s praise of the late Emperor: My aunt, who once served as a consort(Jieyu) in his harem, had seen Emperor Cheng, and her father and brothers also served at court. They often told me: “Emperor Cheng was scrupulous in the maintenance of his bearing. When he ascended a carriage, he stood upright; he neither glanced about needlessly, nor spoke rashly, nor pointed with his own hand. In facing the court, he was deeply reverent and maintained a dignified demeanor. This may truly be called the bearing of a Son of Heaven. He studied widely, both past and present, accepted forthright remonstrance, and allowed officials and commoners alike to present their views. The age was one of peace and harmony, and those above and below lived in concord. However, he was deeply given to wine and sensual pleasures; the Zhao clan brought disorder within, and the affinal clan controlled the court, so that it made people short of breath when talking about it.”

    From the beginning of the Jianshi era, the Wang clan began to take control of state affairs; with the short reigns of Emperor Ai and Emperor Ping, Wang Mang ultimately usurped the throne. This was plainly the consequence of the power and favor he accumulated under Emperor Cheng.

    On that day, Kong Guang received appointment as Chancellor and the seal as Marquis of Boshan before the late Emperor’s casket.

    The Marquis of Fuping, Zhang Fang, upon hearing of the Emperor’s death, mourned and wept until he died.

    Xun Yue’s commentary: Zhang Fang did not lack affection for the Emperor, but he lacked loyalty. Thus, affection without loyalty is a theft of benevolence.

    The Empress Dowager decreed that the traditional sacrificial ceremonies held in the Southern and Northern Suburbs of Chang’an should be resumed.

    In summer, on April 8, the Crown Prince ascended the throne and visited the temple of Emperor Gaozu. The Empress Dowager(Wang Zhengjun) was honored as Grand Empress Dowager, and the Empress(Zhao Feiyan) was honored as Empress Dowager. A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    At the beginning of Emperor Ai’s reign, he personally practiced frugality, reduced various expenditures, and attended to affairs of state in person. Throughout the court, all aspired to a well-governed administration.

    On April 17, Emperor Cheng was buried at Yanling mausoleum.

    The Grand Empress Dowager(Wang Zhengjun) ordered Queen Dowager Fu and Consort Ding to come to Weiyang Palace every ten days.

    An edict asked the Chancellor and the Grand Excellency of Works: “Where should Queen Dowager Gong of Dingtao reside?”

    Chancellor Kong Guang, who had long known Queen Dowager Fu to be hot-tempered and strong-willed, and skilled in political maneuvering, advised that since she had raised and educated the Emperor from infancy to adulthood and had played a decisive role in his accession, she might interfere in affairs of state. He proposed that a separate palace be rebuilt for the Dowager Empress of Dingtao.

    The Grand Excellency of Works, He Wu, said, “She should reside in the Northern Palace.” The Emperor followed He Wu’s recommendation. The Northern Palace had a purple covered walkway leading directly to Weiyang Palace, and Queen Dowager Fu indeed used this passage to visit the Emperor morning and evening, seeking an exalted title and favoring her relatives, thereby preventing the Emperor from making decisions with full independence.

    The Marquis of Gaochang, Dong Hong, catering to the intentions of Queen Dowager Fu and the Emperor, argued: “The mother of King Zhuangxiang of Qin was originally of the Xia clan and was adopted by Madame Huayang; after he ascended the throne, both women were addressed as Empress Dowagers. Therefore, it is appropriate to establish the Queen Dowager of Dingtao as Empress Dowager Gong.”

    The matter was submitted to the ministers. The Grand Marshal, Wang Mang, and Shi Dan—General of the Left, Marquis Within the Passes, and Recorder of the State Secretariat—submitted a memorial impeaching Dong Hong, stating: “To compare the title of the Empress Dowager with that of the fallen Qin dynasty is to diminish the sanctity of our present reign and is wholly inappropriate.” The new Emperor, being humble and reverent, accepted the counsel of Wang Mang and Shi Dan and reduced Dong Hong to commoner status. Queen Dowager Fu was incensed and demanded that her title be confirmed.

    The Emperor then informed the Grand Empress Dowager and issued an edict honoring Prince Gong of Dingtao (the Emperor’s biological father Liu Kang) as Emperor Gong.

    On May 19, Empress Fu was installed; she was the daughter of Fu Yan, a niece of Queen Dowager Fu.

    The edict stated: “In the Spring and Autumn Annals, a mother is honored through her son. Therefore, the Queen Dowager of Dingtao should be honored as Empress Dowager Gong, and Consort Ding as Queen Dowager Gong. Each shall have her own Left and Right Masters of the Household and shall receive estates comparable to those of Changxin Palace (the residence of the Empress Dowager) and the Central Palace (the residence of the Empress).”

    The father of Queen Dowager Fu was posthumously honored as the Marquis of Chongzu, and Consort Ding’s father was honored as the Marquis of Baode. Consort Ding’s brother, Ding Ming, was created the Marquis of Yang’an; her cousin Ding Man was created the Marquis of Pingzhou; and Fu Yan, the father of the Empress, was created the Marquis of Kongxiang. Zhao Qin, the younger brother of Empress Dowager Zhao Feiyan—who also served as Privy Counselor and Grand Master of Merit—was created the Marquis of Xincheng.

    The Grand Empress Dowager(Wang Zhengjun) decreed that Grand Marshal Wang Mang should withdraw from court and return to his residence, to make way for the Emperor’s affinal relatives. Wang Mang submitted a memorial requesting retirement.

    The Emperor sent the Minister of the State Secretariat to issue an edict summoning Wang Mang, and also dispatched Chancellor Kong Guang, Grand Excellency of Works He Wu, General of the Left Shi Dan, and Commandant of the Guards Fu Xi to inform the Grand Empress Dowager: “The Emperor is deeply grieved by the Grand Empress Dowager’s decree. If the Grand Marshal is to retire, the Emperor will not dare to handle affairs of state.”

    The Grand Empress Dowager then permitted Wang Mang to remain in office and continue his duties.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 253): A Tattletale or Whistleblower

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    He Pu, Guangxi Province. A place for exiles.

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (8 B.C. continued)

    The Commandant of the Palace Guard and Privy Counselor, Chunyu Chang, enjoyed the Emperor’s favor and complete trust. He was held in greater esteem than the Three Excellencies and the Nine Ministers. He cultivated friendships with princes, governors, and prefects, accepted bribes and gifts amounting to tens of millions, and indulged extravagantly in pleasure and luxury. Empress Xu’s elder sister, Xu Mi, was the widow of the Marquis Si of Longluo. Chunyu Chang carried on an affair with Xu Mi and took her as a concubine.

    The deposed Empress Xu, residing at Changding Palace, used Xu Mi as an intermediary to bribe Chunyu Chang in hopes of being restored as a consort of the Emperor with the title Jieyu[Lady of Handsome Fairness]. Chunyu Chang received gold, carriages, and garments from Empress Xu worth more than ten million coins, and falsely claimed that he had spoken with the Emperor about establishing her as Left Empress. Whenever Xu Mi entered Changding Palace, she carried letters from Chunyu Chang. In these letters, Chunyu Chang mocked and teased Empress Xu, making lewd and wanton remarks without restraint. Thus, the exchange of letters and bribes continued for many years.

    At the time, Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang, who was assisting in the governance of the state, had been ill for a long period and had repeatedly requested permission to retire. Chunyu Chang, as an affinal relative, held rank among the Nine Ministers and was widely expected to succeed Wang Gen. The Privy Counselor, Cavalry Commandant, and Grand Master of Merit, Wang Mang, grew jealous of Chunyu Chang’s prominence and secretly investigated these matters. While attending to the Marquis of Quyang during his illness, Wang Mang said to him: “Chunyu Chang, seeing that the general’s illness has dragged on, is secretly pleased and regards himself as the one who will succeed in assisting the government. He has already been privately conferring with gentry and members of the imperial clan about official appointments and the creation of offices.” He then detailed Chunyu Chang’s various misdeeds.

    Wang Gen flew into a rage and said, “If this is so, why were these crimes not reported earlier?”

    Wang Mang replied, “I did not know the general’s intentions, and therefore did not dare to speak out.”

    Wang Gen said, “Go at once and report this to the Eastern Palace!”

    Wang Mang sought an audience with the Empress Dowager and reported that Chunyu Chang was arrogant and dissolute, plotting to replace the Marquis of Quyang, and that he had an illicit relationship with Empress Xu’s sister, from whom he had accepted clothing and valuables. The Empress Dowager was greatly angered and said, “Has that wretch gone so far? Go—report this to the Emperor!”

    Wang Mang then conveyed the matter to the Emperor. Under pressure from the Empress Dowager, Chunyu Chang was dismissed from office but not otherwise punished, and was sent back to his fief.

    The Marquis of Hongyang, Wang Li, was unable to assist in governing and suspected that Chunyu Chang had slandered him, which bred deep resentment. The Emperor was aware of this. When Chunyu Chang was about to return to his fief, Wang Li had his eldest son, Wang Rong, request carriages and horses from Chunyu Chang. Chunyu Chang presented Wang Rong with valuable gifts and bestowed substantial rewards upon Wang Li. Thereupon, Wang Li submitted a sealed memorial to the Emperor, requesting that Chunyu Chang be retained, stating: “Since Your Majesty has entrusted this matter to the Empress Dowager, it would indeed be inappropriate to impose further punishment upon Chunyu Chang.”

    The Emperor became suspicious and ordered an investigation. Officials arrested Wang Rong, whereupon Wang Li compelled Wang Rong to commit suicide in order to silence him. The Emperor grew even more suspicious, suspecting a major conspiracy, and thus had Chunyu Chang arrested and confined in the Luoyang prison for a thorough inquiry. Chunyu Chang was found to have mocked and insulted the resident of Changding Palace, conspired to establish a Left Empress, and committed grave acts of treason. He died in prison. His wife and children, who were subject to punishment, were exiled to Hepu, and his mother, Wang Ruo, was returned to her native place.

    The Emperor dispatched the Minister of Justice, Kong Guang, bearing the tally of authority, to administer poison to the deposed Empress Xu and compel her to commit suicide. The Chancellor, Zhai Fangjin, once again accused the Marquis of Hongyang, Wang Li, of cunning and unscrupulous conduct and requested that he be imprisoned. The Emperor said, “The Marquis of Hongyang is my uncle, and I cannot bear to apply the law against him; he shall be sent back to his march.”

    In addition, Zhai Fangjin requested that Wang Li’s posse—the General of the Rear, Zhu Bo, and Sun Hong, Prefect of Julu—as well as the former Grand Master of Merit, Chen Xian, be removed from office and returned to their native places. Chen Xian, knowing that he would be permanently banished, died of grief.

    Zhai Fangjin was intelligent and accomplished in both letters and administration, combining Confucian refinement with legal expertise, and was renowned for his clarity of judgment and insight. The Emperor valued him highly. He was also adept at discerning the subtle intentions of his superiors and handled affairs in a manner that consistently accorded with their wishes. When Chunyu Chang controlled official affairs, Zhai Fangjin maintained a close relationship with him and praised and recommended him. After Chunyu Chang was punished for treason, the Emperor concealed Zhai Fangjin’s culpability as Chancellor. Zhai Fangjin, however, felt inwardly ashamed and submitted a memorial apologizing and requesting retirement.

    The Emperor replied: “The Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Chang, has already been punished for his crimes. Although you were associated with him, doesn’t the Book of Documents say, ‘A gentleman rejoices when errors made in the morning are corrected in the evening’? Why be troubled by this? Attend solely to your duties, do not neglect your medicine, and take care of yourself.”

    Zhai Fangjin then resumed his duties and continued to submit memorials against those whom Chunyu Chang had favored, including Sun Bao, Intendant of Jingzhao, and Xiao Yu, Intendant of Fufeng. He also dismissed more than twenty officials holding ranks of two thousand piculs or above. Du Ye, Commandant of Hangu Pass and Marquis of Jianping, who had long been at odds with Zhai Fangjin, was accused by him of “receiving a letter from Wang Li, Marquis of Hongyang, and accepting his requests, thereby showing disrespect toward the Emperor.” Du Ye was dismissed and sent back to his march.

    The Emperor praised Wang Mang as the first to expose a grave act of treachery, commending his loyalty and integrity. Accordingly, Wang Gen recommended Wang Mang to succeed him. On November 26, Wang Mang was appointed Grand Marshal at the age of thirty-eight. Having risen above his contemporaries, he succeeded his four uncles in assisting the governance of the state and aspired to surpass the reputations of his predecessors, devoting himself to his duties without rest. He employed virtuous and capable men as clerks and aides, used the rewards bestowed by the Emperor and the income from his fief to support retainers, and was all the more frugal in his own conduct.

    When Wang Mang’s mother fell ill, ministers and marquises sent their wives to inquire after her health. Wang Mang’s wife received them wearing a plain gown that did not reach the ground and a simple cloth apron. Those who saw her mistook her for a maid; when they realized she was Wang Mang’s wife, they were all struck with awe. Such was the extent to which he pursued a reputation for virtue.

    The Chancellor, Zhai Fangjin, and the Grand Excellency of Works, He Wu, submitted a joint proposal, stating: “According to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, those of higher rank should supervise those of lower rank, not the reverse. At present, the provincial inspectors hold the pay grade of a lower grandee, at six hundred piculs, yet they oversee prefects ranked at two thousand piculs. This is inconsistent with proper function. We propose abolishing the office of inspector and restoring the ancient office of governor, with a rank of two thousand piculs.”

    In December, the office of provincial inspector was abolished and replaced with that of governor, likewise ranked at two thousand piculs.

    In Qianwei Commandery, sixteen ancient stone chimes were discovered by the riverbank, an event that court consultants regarded as an auspicious omen. Liu Xiang seized upon this occasion to admonish the Emperor, saying:

    “It would be fitting to establish an imperial school at the capital, to found academies of learning, to array rites and music, to exalt the sounds of the Elegantiae and Hymns, and to display the forms of deference and submission, thereby transforming and civilizing the realm. If this is done and order is still not achieved, such a case has never existed.

    “Some may object that the rites and vessels cannot yet be fully provided. Yet rites take the nourishment of men as their aim. Where there are excesses or deficiencies, this is an error in nourishing the people. Punishments today may extend even to death and bodily harm; they are not the criminal laws of Gao Yao, yet judicial officers still petition to establish statutes—cutting what should be cut and amending what should be amended—in order to meet present needs. But when it comes to rites and music, they claim they dare not proceed. This is the equivalence of daring to kill men, but not daring to nourish them.

    “Because ritual vessels and musical instruments suffer minor deficiencies, one therefore abandons them entirely and does nothing—this is to discard a small deficiency and incur a great one. No delusion is greater than this.

    “As for instruction and transformation in comparison with penal law: penal law is the lighter matter. To abandon what is weighty and hasten what is light is not the proper course. Instruction and transformation are what governance relies upon; penal law is that by which governance is assisted. To discard what is relied upon and to set up only what assists—this is not the way to attain Great Peace.

    “Even in the capital, there are disobedient and unruly sons and grandsons, down to those who fall under capital punishment and are executed without end. All this arises from not practicing the Way of the Five Constant Virtues(benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness). Bearing the decline of a thousand years since the Later Zhou and inheriting the residual corruption of violent Qin, the people have gradually been steeped in vicious customs—greedy, gluttonous, reckless, and deceitful—unacquainted with righteousness and principle. If they are not guided by great transformation but are driven solely by punishments, they will in the end never be reformed.”

    The Emperor transmitted Liu Xiang’s proposal to the officials. The Chancellor and the Grand Excellency of Works proposed establishing an imperial academy campus and ordered a survey south of Chang’an to select construction sites, but the project was never completed and was eventually abandoned. At the time, there was also discussion to the effect that “Confucius, though a commoner, taught three thousand disciples, whereas the Imperial Academy now has but few students.” Accordingly, the number of students at the Imperial Academy was increased to three thousand, but after a year it returned to its former level of about one thousand.

    Liu Xiang was trusted by the Emperor and therefore often exposed and criticized members of the imperial house and contemporary officials, his words sharp yet sincere. The Emperor repeatedly sought to appoint him as one of the Nine Ministers, but was continually obstructed by those in power, including the Wang clan, the Chancellor, and the Grand Master of the Censorate. Thus, he never advanced, remaining a Grandee for more than thirty years until his death. Thirteen years after his passing, the Wang clan usurped the Han dynasty.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 252): Imperial Adoption

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    A Jade Disk Excavated from the Tomb of Prince of Dingtao

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (8 B.C.)

    In the first month of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    The Emperor summoned the Chancellor Zhai Fangjin, Grand Master of the Censorate Kong Guang, General of the Right Lian Bao, and General of the Rear Zhu Bo to the inner court to deliberate on the selection of an heir between the Prince of Zhongshan and the Prince of Dingtao. Zhai Fangjin, Wang Gen, Lian Bao, and Zhu Bo all held that “the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, is the son of the Emperor’s younger brother. The Book of Rites states: ‘The son of a brother is as one’s own son; when established as heir, he becomes imperial son.’ Therefore, the Prince of Dingtao ought to be named heir.”

    Kong Guang alone dissented, arguing: “The Rites give precedence to closeness of kinship in establishing an heir. The Book of Documents, in the chapter Pan Geng, records that during the Shang dynasty succession passed from elder brother to younger brother. The Prince of Zhongshan is the son of the late Emperor and the Emperor’s own younger brother; he should therefore be the heir.”

    The Emperor rejected Kong Guang’s view, stating that “the Prince of Zhongshan lacks capability; moreover, according to the Rites, brothers may not enter the same ancestral temple.” Accordingly, on February 9, an edict was issued appointing the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, as Crown Prince. Feng Shen, the affinal uncle and Grand Master of Remonstration of the Prince of Zhongshan, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yixiang, and the Zhongshan princedom was augmented by thirty thousand households as compensation.

    The Bearer of the Mace, Ren Hong, was appointed Grand Herald and dispatched to summon the Prince of Dingtao. Liu Xin submitted a memorial expressing reluctance, saying: “I lack the competency and virtue required for the position of Crown Prince. I wish to remain in the residence of the Prince of Dingtao in the capital, attending daily upon the court and awaiting the birth of a worthy heir, after which I may return to my princedom and serve as a vassal.” The memorial was presented to the Emperor, who took note of it.

    On February 14, Kong Guang was demoted to Minister of Justice for opposing the decision on the heir, and He Wu was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Earlier, an edict had sought descendants of the Yin (Shang) dynasty, but those descendants were found to have split into more than ten surnames, and the direct line of succession could not be determined. Kuang Heng and Mei Fu both proposed that the descendants of Confucius be appointed as successors to the Yin dynasty. The Emperor approved and granted Kong Ji the title of Marquis Shaojia of Yin. In March, Kong Ji and the Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou, were both elevated to the rank of duke, each receiving a fief one hundred li in extent.

    The Emperor visited Yong and performed sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altar.

    While serving as Minister of Justice, He Wu submitted a proposal, stating: “The decline of customs and the increasing complexity of government affairs mean that present-day chancellors cannot compare with those of antiquity. The Chancellor alone now manages the affairs of the three highest offices, which is why state business has long been neglected and left unresolved. The Three Excellencies should be reestablished.” The Emperor agreed.

    In April of summer, the Emperor bestowed the seal of the Grand Marshal upon Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang, and established a public office for him, while abolishing the post of General of Agile Cavalry. He appointed He Wu, Grand Master of the Censorate, as Grand Excellency of Works and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Fanxiang. These offices were accorded honors equivalent to those of the chancellery, thus constituting the three highest offices.

    In autumn, on August 8, Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan, died.

    Xiongnu Juya Chanyu also died. His younger brother Nangzhiyasi succeeded him as Wuzhuliu Ruodi Chanyu. Wuzhuliu Chanyu appointed his younger brother Yue as Left Tuqi King and Yu as Right Tuqi King. The Han dispatched General of the Household Xiahou Fan and Lieutenant Colonel Han Rong as envoys to the Xiongnu.

    Someone informed Wang Gen: “There is a tract of Xiongnu land wedged deep into Han territory, extending as far as Zhangye Commandery. It produces distinctive resources, such as timber suitable for arrows and eagle feathers. If this land were obtained, it would greatly benefit the frontier: the state would gain abundant resources, expand its territory, and the general’s reputation would be enhanced without limit.”

    Wang Gen relayed this proposal to the Emperor, who was inclined to request the land directly from the Chanyu. However, fearing that a refusal might undermine imperial authority and damage the Emperor’s prestige, Wang Gen disclosed the Emperor’s intention to Xiahou Fan and instructed him to present the request as his own initiative. When Xiahou Fan reached the Xiongnu court, he addressed Wuzhuliu Chanyu, saying: “I have observed that the Xiongnu possess land that intrudes into Han territory as far as Zhangye Commandery. The Han maintain three commandant posts along the frontier, with hundreds of soldiers enduring cold and hardship and suffering prolonged exhaustion. The Chanyu should submit a letter offering this land, straightening the boundary. This would reduce the burden on the commandants and troops, repay the Emperor’s favor, and the recompense from Han would surely be generous.”

    Wuzhuliu Chanyu asked, “Is this an imperial edict, or merely a request from the ambassador?”

    Xiahou Fan replied, “It reflects the intent of an edict, though I am also presenting it here as a proposal for the Chanyu’s consideration.”

    The Chanyu said, “This land is occupied by King Wenyutu. We are not fully aware of its extent or resources. Let me dispatch a man to inquire into it.”

    Xiahou Fan and Han Rong returned to Han. Later, they were again sent as envoys to the Xiongnu and renewed the request for the land.

    The Chanyu responded: “Our ancestors have held this land for five generations. The Han never sought it before—why do they do so now? I have already consulted King Wenyutu. The western vassals of the Xiongnu built their yurts and carts from the timber of this mountain, and it was also land of my late father, which we dare not relinquish.”

    Xiahou Fan returned and was demoted to Prefect of Taiyuan. Wuzhuliu Chanyu sent a letter to the Han detailing Xiahou Fan’s request for the land. An imperial edict replied to the Chanyu: “Xiahou Fan falsely claimed the intent of an edict in requesting land from the Chanyu, an offense punishable by death. However, in light of two recent general amnesties, he has been reassigned as Prefect of Jinan and is henceforth forbidden from ever going to the Xiongnu.”

    In winter, on October 14, Wang Gen fell ill and was relieved of his duties.

    Since the Crown Prince, Liu Xin, had already been adopted as the Emperor’s heir, he could no longer attend to the sacrifices of his own forefathers. In November, the Emperor therefore appointed Liu Jing, grandson of the Prince of Chu, as Prince of Dingtao, to continue the lineage of Liu Kang, Prince Gong of Dingtao. The Crown Prince wished to present his gratitude by genuflection. The Junior Tutor, Yan Chong, argued: “According to the rites, one who has been adopted as heir may not attend to private kinship, nor is it proper for him to offer genuflection.” The Grand Tutor, Zhao Xuan, held that genuflection to one’s father should be allowed, and the Crown Prince agreed with him. An edict was issued to inquire into the grounds for this open expression of gratitude. The Minister of the State Secretariat submitted a memorial impeaching Zhao Xuan, and the Emperor demoted him to Privy Treasurer; the Chamberlain Shi Dan was appointed Grand Tutor in his place.

    When the Crown Prince was young, his grandmother, Queen Dowager Fu, personally raised and cared for him. After he was established as Crown Prince, an edict directed that Queen Dowager Fu and the Crown Prince’s mother, Consort Ding, should reside separately at the Dingtao official lodge in the capital and not see him regularly. After some time, Empress Dowager Wang proposed that Queen Dowager Fu and Consort Ding be allowed to visit the Crown Prince’s palace once every ten days. The Emperor replied: “The Crown Prince is the heir to the throne and should serve Your Majesty together with us; he should not attend to private relatives.”

    Empress Dowager Wang said: “The Crown Prince was small, and Queen Dowager Fu raised him. Now, visiting the Crown Prince’s residence is merely an expression of affection from his nurse and does not constitute impropriety.” Accordingly, Queen Dowager Fu was permitted to visit the Crown Prince’s palace, while Consort Ding, who had not raised him, was not allowed to do so.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 251): Shady Succession

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    Jetisu, Kazakhstan, which traced back to Wusun, Photo by Mheidegger

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (11 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor traveled to Ganquan and performed the rites at the Taiyi Altar. In March, he went to Hedong to offer sacrifices to Deity Earth. After completing the sacrifices, he proceeded to Mount Longmen, ascended the Daoist Temple at Mount Li(Li Guan), and climbed Mount Xiyue (Mount Hua, the western peak), before returning.

    In April of summer, he established Liu Shou, son of the Prince Xiao of Guangling Liu Ba, as the new Prince of Guangling.

    Earlier, the Wusun Minor Kunmi Anri had been killed by surrendered captives, plunging the Wusun chieftaincy into chaos. An edict summoned Duan Huizong, former Prefect of Jincheng, appointing him Left Bureau Manager, General of the Household, and Grand Master of Merit, and dispatching him to pacify the Wusun. Duan Huizong installed Anri’s brother Mozhenjiang as Minor Kunmi, restored stability to the state, and returned. 

    At that time, the Great Kunmi Cilimi was brave and powerful, and Mozhenjiang feared being absorbed by him. He therefore sent the nobleman Wu’riling to feign surrender and then assassinated Cilimi. The Han court intended to punish this with troops but was unable to do so, and instead sent General of the Household Duan Huizong to establish Yizhimi, grandson of Princess Liu Jieyou, as Great Kunmi.

    After some time, the Great Kunmi Yizhimi and the chieftain Nanqi killed Mozhenjiang, and Anri’s son Anlimi succeeded as Minor Kunmi. The Han regretted not having executed Mozhenjiang earlier and again sent Duan Huizong to mobilize the forces of the various states under the Wuji Colonel in order to put Mozhenjiang’s son Fanqiu to death. Duan Huizong feared that deploying a large army into Wusun territory would alarm Fanqiu and cause him to flee beyond reach. He therefore stationed the assembled troops at Dianlou, selected thirty elite crossbowmen, proceeded directly to the Kunmi’s camp, summoned Fanqiu, charged him with Mozhenjiang’s crimes, and personally executed him with his sword. The officials and attendants were struck with terror and hastened back.

    The Minor Kunmi Anlimi then surrounded Duan Huizong with several thousand cavalry. Duan Huizong explained the grounds for punishing Mozhenjiang, saying: “To surround and kill me now would be like plucking a single hair from a Han ox. The heads of the king of Dayuan and of Zhizhi Chanyu were hung in the marketplace—this is well known among the Wusun.”

    The Minor Kunmi and the others submitted, saying: “Mozhenjiang betrayed the Han, and the execution of his son was justified. But why were we not informed beforehand, so that we might have treated him to food and drink as a farewell?”

    Duan Huizong replied: “Had I informed Kunmi in advance, he would have fled and hidden himself, committing an even greater offense. Had he been treated to food and drink before being handed over, it would have wounded your family bonds. For these reasons, I did not give prior notice.” The Minor Kunmi and the others wept and withdrew.

    Duan Huizong returned and reported on his mission. The Emperor granted him the title of Marquis of the Inner Pass and awarded him one hundred catties of gold. Because Nanqi had killed Mozhenjiang, Duan Huizong appointed him Commandant of Solid Defense. He reprimanded the Dalu and the Dajian (Wusun officers) for their role in the assassination of Cilimi, stripped them of their golden seals and purple ribbons, and replaced these with copper seals and inked ribbons.

    Mozhenjiang’s brother, Beiyuanzhi, conspired to kill the Great Kunmi and led more than eighty thousand people north to Kangju, intending to borrow troops to annex the territories of the two Kunmies. The Han court again dispatched Duan Huizong, together with Protector-General Sun Jian, to guard against them.

    After the division of the Wusun into two Kunmies, the Han was beset by anxiety and unrest, and there were no years of peace. At this time, Kangju once more sent its prince to serve the Han and presented tributes. The Protector-General, Guo Shun, submitted a proposal, stating:

    “In the past, the Xiongnu were powerful not because they controlled both Wusun and Kangju; nor did they submit as vassals because they had lost these two states. Although the Han accepted hostages from all three countries, the states continued to exchange gifts and interact as before. They watched one another closely and seized opportunities to act aggressively. United, they could not trust one another; divided, none could dominate or control the rest.

    “At present, our alliance with Wusun has brought little benefit and instead caused trouble for the central regions. Yet since the alliance with Wusun was established earlier, and now both they and the Xiongnu acknowledge allegiance, it would be inappropriate to reject them. Kangju, however, is arrogant and deceitful, refusing to bow to our envoys. When the Protector-General’s officials arrive in their country, they are seated below the Wusun envoys, and the king and nobles finish eating and drinking before serving our representatives. This is done to display contempt and to boast before neighboring states. Given this, why would they send their son to serve us? It is a fraudulent gesture, feigning goodwill in order to facilitate trade and profit.

    “The Xiongnu, a great nation among the barbarians, now serve the Han with great respect. If the Chanyu hears that Kangju refuses to bow, he may regret having humbled himself. We should send Kangju’s prince back and sever all further exchanges, to demonstrate that the Han does not tolerate disrespectful states.”

    Despite this, as the relationship was newly established and the Han valued contact with distant lands and their envoys, the court did not completely sever ties with Kangju and maintained a relationship.

    The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (10 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 10, a landslide occurred on Min Mountains in Shu Commandery, blocking the river for three days and causing it to run dry. Liu Xiang deeply lamented this, saying: “In the Zhou dynasty of antiquity, when Mount Qi collapsed, the Three Rivers(Jingshi, Weishui, Luoshui river) dried up, and King You of Zhou perished. Mount Qi was the place from which the Zhou arose. The Han dynasty originated in Shu and Hanzhong, and now, in the land of its origin, a mountain has collapsed, the rivers have dried up, and a comet has appeared in the constellation of Scorpius, stretching from Orion to Sagittarius. This is a most dire omen, and the dynasty is likely to fall!”

    On February 20, Chunyu Chang was granted the title of Marquis of Dingling.

    In March, the Emperor went to Yong and performed sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altars.

    The Emperor intended to overawe the nomadic peoples with a grand display of animals. In autumn, he ordered the Intendant of Fufeng to mobilize the populace to enter the southern mountains (Zhongnan Mountains), ranging from Bao Valley and Xie Valley in the west to Hongnong in the east, and south as far as Hanzhong, to set nets and traps and capture bears, wild beasts, and birds. These were loaded into caged carts and transported to the Animal House of Changyang Palace, where they were released into an enclosed ground for the nomadic visitors to engage in hand-to-hand combat. The Emperor personally watched the spectacle.

    The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (9 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor visited Ganquan Palace and performed sacrifices at the Taiyi Altar.

    The Emperor’s younger brother, Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan, and his nephew, Liu Xin, Prince of Dingtao, came to court. Prince Liu Xing brought only his tutor, whereas Prince Liu Xin was accompanied by his Grand Tutor, Prime Minister, and Central Commandant. Finding this curious, the Emperor questioned the Prince of Dingtao about it. Liu Xin replied: “According to Han laws and regulations, princes coming to court may bring officials from their state holding ranks of two thousand piculs. In my princedom, the Grand Tutor, Prime Minister, and Central Commandant all hold ranks of two thousand piculs; therefore, I brought them all.” The Emperor then ordered Liu Xin to recite from the Book of Songs. Liu Xin recited fluently and was able to explain the text.

    On another day, the Emperor asked the Prince of Zhongshan, “Why did you bring only your tutor? Which law or regulation permits this?” Liu Xing was unable to reply. The Emperor then ordered him to recite from the Book of Documents, but he failed. Moreover, when the Emperor granted meals to eat together, Liu Xing continued eating after the Emperor had finished, until he himself was full, which was deemed impolite. When he rose and departed, his socks came loose. The Emperor therefore judged him to be lacking in ability and increasingly favored the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, often praising his talents.

    At that time, only these two princes were closely related to the Emperor. The grandmother of the Prince of Dingtao, Queen Dowager Fu, accompanied him to court. She secretly bribed Empress Zhao, Consort[Zhaoyi] Zhao, and Wang Gen, General of Agile Cavalry. Seeing that the Emperor had no sons, they sought to form alliances for the future and jointly recommended the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, as heir. The Emperor himself admired Liu Xin’s abilities, granted him the rites of adulthood, and sent him back to his state. He was seventeen years old at the time.

    In March, the Emperor visited Hedong and performed sacrifices to the deity of the Earth.

    Two meteorites fell in Duguan county.

    Wang Gen recommended Gu Yong, who was summoned and appointed Grand Minister of Agriculture. Gu Yong submitted more than forty proposals, many of them repetitive and largely focused on personal criticism of the Emperor and his harem. He aligned himself with the Wang clan, which the Emperor was aware of, and thus did not fully trust him. After serving as Grand Minister of Agriculture for more than a year, Gu Yong fell ill. When his sick leave exceeded three months, he was dismissed without extension. He died several months later.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 249): Not Airing Dirty Laundry

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32

    Duration of 6 years

    Xia Ji, Mother of Xia Zhengshu

    The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (13 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor visited Ganquan and offered sacrifices at the Taiyi Altar; a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire. In March, he visited Hedong and offered sacrifices to the Earth Deity.

    In summer, there was a severe drought.

    On April 11, Linhua Hall of Changle Palace and the Eastern Guarded (Sima) Gate of Weiyang Palace were both destroyed by fire. On June 23, the gate towers of the Baling Tomb also caught fire.

    In autumn, on the last day of July, there was an eclipse of the sun.

    In winter, on November 21, the General of the Guards, Wang Shang, was relieved of his duties due to illness.

    The Prince of Liang, Liu Li, was imperious and unrestrained, committing as many as eleven offenses in a single day. The Prime Minister of Liang, Yu, reported that Liu Li harbored resentment and spoke ill of the affine family. An investigation was conducted, and an illicit affair between Liu Li and his paternal aunt Liu Yuanzi was uncovered. On account of incestuous and beastly conduct, his execution was recommended.

    The Grand Master of the Palace, Gu Yong, submitted a memorial:

    “I have heard that propriety requires the Emperor to remain secluded behind screens, unwilling to see or hear of private matters. Thus, the intentions of former emperors lay in avoiding inquiry into personal affairs and refraining from listening to intimate conversations. The Spring and Autumn Annals deliberately concealed the faults of relatives. The Prince of Liang, Liu Li, is young and suffers from some mental infirmity. The investigation originally concerned malicious speech; when no substantial evidence was found, it extended instead into matters of private conduct unrelated to the initial charge. Though the prince denied the allegations, the authorities persisted, relying on dubious testimony to establish guilt on evidence difficult to substantiate—an approach that brings no benefit to governance. To expose the scandals of the royal house and proclaim them to the world neither preserves the dignity of the imperial clan nor enhances the authority of the court, nor does it advance moral transformation through virtue.”

    “In my foolish opinion, the prince is young, while his paternal aunt is older and of a different generation. The wealth of the Prince of Liang could attract flatterers and deceivers, while his aunt must surely possess a sense of shame. The investigation was originally concerned with malicious words against maternal relatives—why, then, would she gratuitously reveal her own private disgrace? Considering these three points, the alleged affair appears improbable and contrary to common sense. I suspect there was coercion or a slip of the tongue during interrogation. Under persistent pressure and questioning by officials, she was unable to retract her words and may have spoken in error.

    “At the first sign of transgression, leniency should have been applied. Since the investigation proceeded and the prince did not confess, the Minister of Justice should be ordered to select virtuous and knowledgeable officials to reexamine the case thoroughly, ascertain the facts, and correct any errors, then return the case to the lower authorities. This would extend the virtue of accommodating the distant branches of the imperial house and cleanse it of shame, truly embodying the principle of properly treating relatives within a family.”

    The Emperor thereupon halted further proceedings in the case.

    That year, He Wu of Shu Commandery, then Colonel of the Capital Inspectorate, was appointed Intendant of Jingzhao. As an official, He Wu adhered strictly to the law and acted with impartiality, promoting the honorable and dismissing the wicked. Wherever he served, he acquired no conspicuous fame, yet after his departure he was invariably remembered with affection.

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (12 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 1, there was a solar eclipse.

    On January 24, Wang Shang was reinstated as Grand Marshal and General of the Guards.

    In March, the Emperor visited Yong and offered sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altar.

    In summer, on April 1, there was thunder without clouds, and a meteor moved southeast from beneath the sun, its radiance spreading in all directions like rain, from afternoon until dusk.

    A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    In July of autumn, a comet appeared in the eastern Well Mansion.

    The Emperor, troubled by these omens and calamities, sought the counsel of his ministers. The Prefect of Beidi, Gu Yong, responded:

    “When a ruler personally cultivates virtue and accords with the natural order, the seasons arrive in due course, the people enjoy long lives, and auspicious signs appear. If, however, he loses the Way and acts recklessly—defying Heaven and harming the people—then ominous signs arise, disasters and anomalies occur, and famine becomes frequent. If he does not reform, evil accumulates and misfortune continues. In the end, Heaven will cease to issue warnings, and the Mandate of Heaven will pass to one who is virtuous. This is the constant principle of Heaven and Earth, observed by all the ancient kings. Moreover, the measure of an emperor’s merit differs; his lifespan may be long or short, his time earlier or later, and the Way of Heaven alternates between waxing and waning.

    “Your Majesty has inherited the accomplishments of eight generations, stands at the close of a luminous age, and has passed through a cycle of two hundred and ten years. You have encountered the fate of the hexagram Unexpected of the Book of Changes and now face a cycle of calamities in the one hundred and sixth year. Since the first year of the Jianshi era, disasters and anomalies of many kinds have converged and intertwined, now amounting to twenty years. Their number and strangeness exceed all that is recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals.

    “Internally, within the deep confines of the palace’s inner chambers, Your Majesty risks the influence of rash ministers and insolent consorts, and the dangers arising from drunkenness and reckless conduct, which could bring calamity upon the state. In the secluded quarters of the northern palace gardens and lanes, and within the houses of underlings and favored women, there lies the danger of upheavals like those of Xia Zhengshu or Cui Zhu—regicides brought about by adulterous entanglements. Externally, throughout the territories of the realm, there is the threat of uprisings like those led by Fan Bing, Su Ling, Chen Sheng, or Xiang Liang. The fine line between safety and peril, and the gravest concern for the ancestral temples—these are what fill me, Gu Yong, with deep apprehension and compel me to offer repeated warnings year after year.

    “Signs appear below before they manifest above—can we afford not to be cautious? Disasters arise from the smallest beginnings, and treachery grows from the most insignificant circumstances. I respectfully urge Your Majesty to rectify the principles governing ruler and minister, to cease indulging in casual and unrestrained banquets with petty officials, to adhere strictly to the three fundamental bonds—between lord and subject, father and son, and husband and wife—to reform the administration of the inner palace, to restrain and distance those who are insolent and jealous, and to promote and draw close those who are gentle and compliant. Only after proper court procedures are observed should you venture outside; roads should be cleared by troops in advance, and you should avoid traveling alone or visiting the homes of servants for food and drink. Eliminating such practices will block the path to internal disorder.

    “As for the uprisings in various regions, they arise from the people’s hunger and the officials’ indifference, from the people’s suffering under heavy taxation, and from grievances below that are unknown to above. The Hongfan (‘Great Plan’) of the Book of Documents states: ‘When there is hunger without relief, to proclaim peace and prosperity invites ruin.’ In recent years, many regions have suffered damage from floods, and harvests have failed. In such circumstances, it is appropriate to reduce the regular taxes. Yet officials have proposed increasing levies, which runs counter to the principles of good governance and violates the sentiments of the people, breeding resentment and inviting disaster. I hope Your Majesty will reject proposals to raise taxes, further curb extravagant expenditures, extend benevolence broadly, provide relief to the destitute, and encourage agriculture and sericulture, thereby soothing and stabilizing the hearts of the people. If this is done, the uprisings across the realm may yet be brought to an end.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 248): Greatest Peril to A State

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 23 Scroll 31 (continued)

    Young man with a zipper closed over his lips, symbolizing silence
    Shut Your Mouth

    The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (14 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 31, a solar eclipse occurred.

    Earlier, the Emperor had followed the advice of Kuang Heng and abolished the Taiyi(North Star) Altar at Ganquan. On that very day, a violent wind struck the Bamboo Palace at Ganquan, breaking and uprooting more than a hundred trees—each with a circumference of ten men’s embraces or more—within the precincts of the Taiyi Altar. The Emperor found this extraordinary and asked Liu Xiang for his view. Liu Xiang replied:

    “Even a single household does not wish to sever its ancestral rites—how much less should the state abandon its ancient altars dedicated to the deities. Moreover, when the altars at Ganquan, Fenyin, and the Five-Deity Altar at Yong were first established, each was preceded by divine signs and miraculous responses; they were not founded lightly. In the reigns of Emperor Wu and Emperor Xuan, these three gods were worshiped with full ritual and reverence, and their numinous power was especially manifest. The sacred sites established by our ancestors are truly not easy to alter. Previously, in accepting Gong Yu’s proposal, Your predecessor abolished these altars, and later administrations followed suit, though the basis for doing so was shaky. The Great Commentary to the Book of Changes says, ‘To deceive the spirits brings calamity upon three generations.’ I am afraid that the blame will not end with Gong Yu and his ilk.”

    The Emperor thereafter harbored resentment toward Gong Yu. As he had long been without an heir, in winter, on October 5, he reported to the Empress Dowager and ordered the officials to restore the Taiyi Altar at Ganquan, the Earth Altar at Fenyin, the Five-Deity Altar at Yong, the Treasure Ancestral Temple[for a meteorite] at Chencang, as well as the renowned altars in Chang’an and the celebrated temples in the various princedoms, all to their former state.

    At that time, the Emperor, still without an heir, had become deeply interested in spirits and supernatural practices. Many people submitted writings on rituals and occult arts, and crowds sought audiences to discuss such matters. The expenses for sacrifices and ceremonies grew exceedingly heavy. Gu Yong advised the Emperor, saying:

    “I have heard that those who understand the nature of Heaven and Earth cannot be deceived by supernatural phenomena, and those who comprehend the nature of all things cannot be misled by the falsehoods of occultists. Those who abandon the upright path of benevolence and righteousness, who do not follow the teachings of the Five Classics, but instead exalt esoteric spirits and portents, expand sacrifices to futile shrines in search of blessings, claim that immortals walk among men, take elixirs said to prolong life without end, and practice alchemy promising levitation and miraculous transformations—these are all charlatans who delude the multitude. They harbor hidden designs and falsehoods to deceive the rulers of the world. To listen to them is to have one’s ears filled with things that seem attainable, yet to pursue them is like trying to seize the wind or grasp a shadow—utterly impossible. Therefore, wise kings keep their distance from such practices and do not heed them, and sages avoid speaking of them altogether.

    “In former times, when the First Emperor of Qin sent Xu Fu with men and women across the seas to seek immortals and elixirs, they fled and never returned, sowing resentment throughout the realm. After the rise of the Han, figures such as Xin Yuanping, Li Shaoweng of Qi, Gongsun Qing, and Luan Da all gained notoriety through deceitful arts and were ultimately executed for their frauds. Only if Your Majesty keeps such practices at a distance can you prevent swindlers from gaining access to the court.”

    The Emperor approved what Gu Yong said.

    In November, thirteen men of Weishi county, including Fan Bing, plotted rebellion. They killed the Prefect of Chenliu, plundered officials and commoners, and proclaimed themselves generals. Corvée laborers Li Tan, Cheng Zhong, Zhong Zu, and Zi Shun joined together to kill Fan Bing and were lauded in the court; all were enfeoffed as marquises.

    In December, two hundred and twenty-eight corvée laborers under the Iron Production Office of Shanyang, led by Su Ling, rose in revolt. They attacked and killed the chief officials, seized weapons from the armory, and styled themselves generals. Passing through nineteen commanderies and principalities, they killed the Prefect of Dongjun and the Commandant of Runan. Yan Xin, Prefect of Runan, captured and beheaded Su Ling and his cohorts. Yan Xin was promoted to Grand Minister of Agriculture.

    Mei Fu of Jiujiang, formerly Commandant of Nanchang, submitted a memorial:

    “In the past Emperor Gaozu of Han accepted worthy counsel as though he could never take in fast enough of it and followed remonstrance as smoothly as a wheel turns. In hearing men’s words, he did not inquire into their credentials; in advancing men for merit, he did not scrutinize their previous status or past deeds. Chen Ping rose from the condition of a fugitive to become chief counselor; Han Xin was lifted from the ranks and established as Supreme General. Therefore, the gentlemen of all under Heaven gathered like clouds and attached to Han, competing to present what was rare and extraordinary: the wise exhausted their stratagems, the dull poured out their thoughts, the brave exerted the utmost of their integrity, and even the timid strove to the point of death. By uniting the wisdom of the world and combining the might of the world, he lifted Qin as though it were a swan’s feather and took Chu as though picking up what had been cast aside. This is why Emperor Gaozu stood without equal in All-under-Heaven.

    “Emperor Wu admired loyal counsel and cherished wise words, bestowing titles without waiting for local recommendation and granting rewards without requiring conspicuous merit. As a result, commoners from across the realm sharpened their ambitions and devoted their efforts to the court, with countless men presenting their talents. Thus, the Han dynasty flourished in its ability to attract worthy individuals. Yet had Emperor Wu fully heeded their plans, a reign of peace might have been achieved. Instead, bodies were heaped and bones lay exposed, merely to satisfy his desire of conquering the nomads and the Yue peoples, leading to the rebellion of Prince of Huainan, Liu An. The reason Liu An’s plots were uncovered and his schemes leaked was that so many virtuous men had gathered at the imperial court that the ministers of Prince of Huainan hesitated and dared not conspire.

    “Nowadays, commoners, peering into the state’s weaknesses and seizing opportunities to rebel—like those in Shu Commandery and the runaway Su Ling’s band in Shanyang, who invaded major cities and commanderies seeking allies and followers—show that they fear no officials. The state’s authority is light, so even ordinary men dare to contend with the Emperor. Talented individuals are the nation’s vital assets: to gain them is to grow strong, to lose them is to display weakness. The Book of Songs says, ‘A multitude of worthy men brought peace under King Wen of Zhou.’

    “The deliberations of the imperial court are not meant to be spoken of by those in the fields or in straw huts. I am afraid that my body may become fodder for wild grass and my corpse lie among the fallen soldiers; thus I have repeatedly sought an audience, only to be dismissed. I have heard that in the time of Duke Huan of Qi, there were those who presented even a multiplication table, and Duke Huan did not reject them, seeking thereby to draw in greatness. What I now submit is far more than a multiplication table, yet Your Majesty has dismissed me three times. This is why the talents of the world do not come forward.

    “In former days, when King Wu of Qin admired strength, he allowed Ren Bi to knock at the gates to recommend himself. Duke Mu of Qin achieved preeminence when You Yu returned from the Western Rong and aligned with him. If Your Majesty wishes to attract the talents of the world, then whenever someone petitions for an audience, refer him at once to the State Secretariat. If his words are worthy of adoption, reward him with a modest stipend and a bolt of silk. This will encourage scholars throughout the realm to speak their true minds and offer wise strategies day by day. Then the world will be set in order, and the state, within and without, will be clear and transparent.

    “Considering the vastness of the Four Seas and the multitude of scholars and commoners, many are able to speak with insight. Yet those who can eloquently articulate policies, present well-formed arguments, test their ideas against the sages of antiquity, and apply them aptly to present affairs are few. Thus, titles and bolts of silk are the whetstones of the world—this is how Emperor Gaozu honed and sharpened the blades of his age. Confucius said, ‘A craftsman who wishes to perfect his work must first sharpen his tools.’ The Qin dynasty, however, failed to follow this principle: it cast nets of slander that drove talent to Han, turning its own blade against itself and handing the hilt to Chu. By not losing the handle, even amid disorder in the realm, no one would dare challenge its edge. In this way Emperor Wu expanded the frontiers, established great achievements, and became the revered progenitor of the Han.

    “Now, Your Majesty, not only do you refuse to receive the words of the people, you slew them for speaking out. When hawks and magpies are harmed, the phoenix flies away; when the foolish are punished, the wise retreat even farther. Recently, many unlearned commoners have submitted petitions, often violating minor statutes, and many have been handed over to the Minister of Justice and executed. Since the Yangshuo era, people throughout the empire have regarded speaking out as a taboo, especially at court. The ministers all conform to Your Majesty’s wishes, and none hold fast to what is right. How, then, can the truth be heard? Take those petitions from the people that Your Majesty approves and refer them to the Minister of Justice; he will surely reply, ‘This is not fit to be discussed; it is gravely disrespectful.’ Try this, and it will not fail.

    “The former Intendant of Jingzhao, Wang Zhang, was by nature loyal and plain-spoken. He dared to argue directly at court, and Emperor Yuan promoted him to rouse the ministers and correct the court’s faults. Yet in Your Majesty’s reign he and his family were put to death. When one punishes evil, the penalty should fall on the person alone. Wang Zhang did not commit treason, yet his entire household was destroyed—breaking the spirit of upright officials and silencing those who would remonstrate. All the ministers knew this was wrong, yet none dared to speak. The greatest peril to a state is when the public is afraid to speak their minds. I beg Your Majesty to follow the path of Emperor Gaozu, avoid the errors of fallen Qin, abolish trivial statutes, and issue an edict encouraging free expression. Then Your Majesty will hear widely, seek counsel even from the humble, and ensure that deep thinkers are not concealed and distant voices not cut off. This is what is called ‘opening the four gates and clearing four views.’

    “The past cannot be undone, but the future can still be set right. At present, ministers violate imperial decrees, the Emperor’s authority is diminished, and the power of affinal relatives grows by the day. If Your Majesty does not see their actions, then at least perceive their effects. Since the Jianshi era, solar eclipses and earthquakes have occurred at triple the frequency recorded in earlier times in the Spring and Autumn Annals, and floods have been innumerable and without precedent. Yin forces flourish while Yang declines; molten metal and iron fly like stars. What do such signs foretell?

    “Since the founding of the Han dynasty, there have been three great crises to the state: the Lü clan, the Huo clan, and the Shangguan clan—all families of empresses. The proper way to treat kin is to support them with worthy teachers and good mentors, instructing them in loyalty and filial piety. Yet instead they are honored and indulged, given high office, and allowed to grow arrogant and unruly, bringing about their own destruction. This is a profound failure in the governance of kinship.

    “Even one as virtuous as Huo Guang could not secure the future of his descendants, showing that when the power of great ministers changes hands, danger inevitably follows. The Book of Documents says, ‘Do not be like fire, which begins with a single spark.’ When a minister’s power overshadows the ruler and his authority rises above that of the sovereign, it is already too late to avert calamity.”

    The Emperor did not accept this counsel.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 247): Breaking up Fraternity

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 23 Scroll 31 (continued)

    Jue, bronze wine cup from Han dynasty

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (15 B.C. continued)

    The Emperor once held a banquet in the inner palace with Zhang Fang and several attendants, along with the Zhao sisters, the concubine Li Ping, and several Privy Counselors. They drank freely, raising their cups and laughing loudly; anyone who failed to empty his cup was penalized. At the time, the Emperor sat before a painted screen depicting King Zhou of Shang drunkenly reclining with the concubine Daji, reveling in the pleasures of the night.

    The Privy Counselor and Grand Master of Merit, Ban Bo, who had recently recovered from a long illness, was present. The Emperor pointed to the painting and asked Ban Bo, “Did King Zhou truly become so depraved?”

    Ban Bo replied, “The Book of Documents says, ‘He heeded the words of women,’ but he never reclined so brazenly in court. This painting exaggerates his misdeeds to focus public hatred upon the woman; that is not what actually happened.”

    The Emperor asked, “If he was not like this, what warning does this painting give?”

    Ban Bo answered, “It is recorded that ‘he drowned in wine,’ which led Weizi to depart. The Great Odes speak of ‘shouting and yowling,’ describing downfall through drunkenness. The admonitions against debauchery in the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents all address excessive drinking.”

    The Emperor sighed and said, “I have not heard such frank words from Ban Bo for a long time.” Zhang Fang and the others were displeased and gradually withdrew.

    At that time, a Linbiao[female officer] from Changxin Palace visited the court as a messenger and witnessed the scene. Later, when the Emperor visited the Eastern Palace, the Empress Dowager wept and said, “The Emperor’s complexion has grown thin and dark. Privy Counselor Ban Bo was recommended by the Grand General and should be held in high esteem; seek out more men like him to assist in your virtuous rule. It is also fitting to send the Marquis of Fuping, Zhang Fang, back to his fief.”

    The Emperor replied, “Yes.”

    When the Emperor’s uncles heard this, they urged the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate to find grounds for impeaching Zhang Fang. Accordingly, Chancellor Xue Xuan and Grand Master of the Censorate Zhai Fangjin submitted a memorial stating: “Zhang Fang is insolent, indulgent, extravagant, and uncontrollable. He obstructs envoys, harms the innocent, and allows his followers to abuse their power and commit outrages. We request that Zhang Fang be dismissed and sent to his fief.”

    The Emperor, though reluctant, demoted Zhang Fang to the post of Commandant of Beidi.

    In the years that followed, a succession of calamities prevented Zhang Fang from returning, yet he received constant letters of concern from the Emperor. When Princess Jingwu fell ill, the Emperor summoned Zhang Fang back to attend to his mother. After several months, when the Princess recovered, Zhang Fang was reappointed Commandant of Hedong. Though the Emperor was deeply attached to Zhang Fang, he was constrained by the Empress Dowager and compelled to heed his ministers, and often sent him away in tears.

    When Empress Dowager Qiongcheng, the Emperor’s grandmother, passed away, the funeral arrangements were rushed, and officials imposed heavy levies to meet the expenses. On hearing of this, the Emperor held the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate responsible. In winter, on October 8, he demoted Chancellor Xue Xuan to the status of a commoner and reduced the Grand Master of the Censorate, Zhai Fangjin, to the post of Bearer of the Mace.

    For more than twenty days the office of Chancellor remained vacant, and many officials recommended Zhai Fangjin for the position. The Emperor also valued his abilities. On November 2, Zhai Fangjin was promoted to Chancellor and granted the title of Marquis of Gaoling. The Emperor appointed Kong Guang, Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary and Grand Chamberlain, as the new Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Zhai Fangjin rose through his mastery of the Classics, but in office he enforced the law with severity, favored the exercise of power, and sought to establish his authority. He harbored deep resentments and often assailed others with cutting memorials that caused lasting injury. There were accusations that he pursued private vendettas and acted deceitfully, but the Emperor believed his recommendations conformed to law and precedent and did not judge them to be improper.

    Kong Guang was the youngest son of Kong Ba, Marquis of Baocheng. He served as Minister of the State Secretariat, managing confidential documents and affairs for more than ten years, always adhering to law and established practice. When the Emperor consulted him, he answered according to the Classics and the statutes, speaking what he believed to be right without seeking to curry favor. If his advice was not adopted, he did not press the matter, and thus maintained his position in stability for many years. Whenever he drafted a memorial, he destroyed the rough copy, considering it a grave impropriety for a minister to appear loyal and upright by exposing the ruler’s faults. When he recommended someone, he feared that the person might learn of it. On his days of leave, he remained with his family and never spoke of court affairs. When asked about the trees in the Wenshi Palace, he would fall silent or reply with unrelated topics, maintaining such a tight-lip that he revealed nothing at all.

    The Emperor traveled to Yong to offer sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altar.

    General of Guard Wang Shang disliked Chen Tang and accused him of “falsely claiming that the construction of Changling would be resumed, and that the appearance of a black dragon in winter was a sign of the Emperor’s frequent incognito outings.” The Minister of Justice advised that “Chen Tang’s statements were improper and showed grave disrespect.” However, in consideration of Chen Tang’s past service, the Emperor pardoned him, reduced him to commoner status, and exiled him to the frontier.

    The Emperor, remembering that Zhao Feiyan’s elevation to Empress had been greatly aided by Chunyu Chang, sought to reward him. He cited Chunyu Chang’s earlier recommendation to halt the construction of Changling and ordered the ministers to deliberate on conferring a title upon him. The Grand Herald Ping Dang argued, “Although Chunyu Chang offered a sound proposal, it does not meet the standards for ennoblement.” For this, Ping Dang was demoted to the post of Prefect of Julu.

    The Emperor then issued an edict commending the Attendant-in-Ordinary Wang Hong and the Privy Counselor and Commandant of the Guards, Chunyu Chang, for their outstanding counsel, and granted both the title of Marquis within the Passes.

    At the same time, the Grand Architect Xie Wannian was accused of sycophancy and disloyalty, causing widespread harm among the people. He was exiled to Dunhuang along with Chen Tang.

    Previously, Chen Xian, the Privy Treasurer, and Pang Xin, the Commandant of the Guards, both held posts superior to that of Zhai Fangjin. Zhai Fangjin rose later, becoming Intendant of Jingzhao, and was on amicable terms with Chen Xian. When the post of Grand Master of the Censorate fell vacant, all three were prominent candidates, yet Zhai Fangjin was selected. When Chancellor Xue Xuan was later found guilty and implicated Zhai Fangjin, the Emperor ordered five ministers of the two-thousand-picul rank to investigate both the Chancellor and the Grand Master of the Censorate. Chen Xian accused Zhai Fangjin in hopes of taking his position, and Zhai Fangjin thereafter harbored deep resentment toward him.

    Chen Tang, favored by Wang Feng and Wang Yin for his abilities, was also on good terms with Chen Xian and Pang Xin. He often praised them before Wang Feng and Wang Yin, which helped them gain advancement among the Nine Ministers. When Wang Shang dismissed Chen Tang, Zhai Fangjin inculpated that Chen Xian and Pang Xin had colluded with him to seek recommendations and secure offices through improper means. As a result, all three were removed from their posts.

    That year, Zhu Bo, Prefect of Langya, was appointed Intendant of Pingyi. In governing the commandery, he often selected the influential and powerful in each county for high civil or military office, according to their qualification. When notorious bandits or unusual disturbances arose, he issued letters of censure; those who exerted themselves effectively were generously rewarded, while those who failed through deceit were punished at once. Thus the powerful were brought to submission, and every policy was carried out without obstruction.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 246): Mirror of History

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 23 Scroll 31 (continued)

    Bronze Mirror from Han Dynasty

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (15 B.C.)

    In the spring, on January 3, the Marquis Jing of Anyang, Wang Yin, passed away. Wang Yin was the only member of the Wang family who was diligent and upright, often offering corrections and counsel, and displaying loyalty and integrity.

    On February 28, meteors fell like rain, numerous and unceasing, yet they extinguished before reaching the ground. On February 30, a solar eclipse occurred.

    On March 12, the Marquis of Chengdu, Wang Shang, was appointed Grand Marshal and General of the Guards. The Marquis of Hongyang, Wang Li, was promoted as a special appointee and placed in charge of the city gate troops.

    The Intendant of Jingzhao, Zhai Fangjin, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Gu Yong served as Inspector of Liangzhou. When he reported to the capital and, having completed his business, was about to depart for his post, the Emperor sent a minister of the State Secretariat to ask whether he had any message to convey. Gu Yong wrote:

    “I have heard that for those who rule the realm and govern the state, the great concern is that urgent and disquieting speech may fail to reach the Emperor’s ears. If such words were always heard, then the dynasties of Shang and Zhou would not have changed their surnames in succession, nor would the calendars of the Three Dynasties have been altered in turn. When the Xia and Shang were about to fall, even the common people knew it, yet their rulers complacently believed themselves as secure as the sun in the sky and could not perceive the danger. Thus they were blind to the spreading evils, and their great mandate was overturned without their awareness.

    “The Book of Changes says, ‘Those who are mindful of danger will find safety; those who are mindful of peril will preserve themselves.’ If Your Majesty will listen with an open and unclouded mind, without censorship or punishment, allowing even the humblest laborers to speak what they know, it would be the greatest wish of your ministers and the lasting blessing of the state.

    “In the first year of the Yongshi era, in September, a black dragon appeared in the sky; at the end of that month, there was a solar eclipse. This year, on the night of February 7, a star fell; on the February 14, there was a solar eclipse. Within six months, there have been four great anomalies, occurring in pairs within the same months. Even at the end of the Three Dynasties and amid the turmoil of the Spring and Autumn period, such things did not occur. I have heard that the reason the Three Dynasties lost their altars and ancestral temples was the indulgence of women and in wine by a gang of evildoers inside palaces; the reason the Qin dynasty perished within sixteen years or mere two generations was the extravagance of life and the lavishness of funerals. Your Majesty has done both, and I beg your pardon to explain their consequences.

    “During the Jianshi and Heping eras, the households of Empress Xu and Consort Ban dominated the court and cast their influence in all directions. Favor toward women then reached its height and could not be surpassed; now, those who follow in their footsteps have risen ten times higher still. Your Majesty has abolished the laws and regulations of the late Emperor, taken these women’s words as truth, and bestowed offices and ranks without measure. You have released criminals from royal punishments, emboldened their relatives, granted them power and authority, and disrupted governance at will, so that officials fear to act in accordance with the law. Moreover, the inner court’s prison has become a private snare, where tortures more brutal than flogging, branding, and roasting are employed, and many perish. Your Majesty has repaid favors and pursued vendettas for the families of Zhao(Feiyan) and Li(Ping), overturning rightful judgments and punishing upright officials who seek reform. Many innocent officers are imprisoned, beaten, and coerced into confessions. The inner court issues loans for profit, shares in their gains, and accepts bribes. Countless enter and never return. This is why the two solar eclipses have appeared, to reveal these offenses.

    “Heaven withdraws its aid only after a ruler places himself in helplessness first. Now Your Majesty sets aside the supreme dignity of the imperial carriage, delights in the petty affairs of commoners, disdains the lofty and august title of the Son of Heaven, and prefers the lowly names of ordinary men. You elevate and gather frivolous and unworthy persons as private companions, often leaving the secure depths of the palace, traveling day and night with such men, flocking and mingling like crows, drinking in the houses of officials and commoners, sitting together in disordered attire, indulging in excessive revelry, mixing without distinction. You pursue pleasure eagerly, spending days and nights upon the road. Those who guard the gates and serve in the imperial guard hold their weapons and keep watch over an empty palace. For several years, ministers and officials have been wondering Your Majesty’s whereabouts.

    “The ruler takes the people as the foundation, and the people rely upon their private resources. When private resources are exhausted, the people rebel; when the people rebel, the ruler falls. Therefore, a wise ruler cherishes and nurtures the foundation, daring not to exploit it, and treats the people as if he were conducting a great sacrifice. Now Your Majesty casually seizes the people’s resources, does not cherish their toil, and listens to the schemes of deceitful ministers. You abandoned the original great mausoleum and rebuilt Changling, employing hundreds of thousands more laborers than were used in constructing the Ganxi tomb of King Ling of Chu, and incurring expenses comparable to Mount Li of the First Emperor of Qin, thereby exhausting the realm. After five years it remained unfinished, and you reverted to the original plan. The people’s sorrow and resentment have moved Heaven. Famine has followed; the people have scattered, and millions have starved, dying along the roads. The state has no yearly reserves, and the people have not even ten days’ provisions. Both high and low are impoverished, with no means to aid one another. The Book of Songs says, ‘The mirror of Yin(a.k.a. Shang) is not far; it lies in the late age of Xia.’ I urge Your Majesty to look back upon the failures of Xia, Shang, Zhou, and Qin as a mirror by which to reflect upon your own conduct. If anything I have said is improper, I am willing to accept punishment for reckless speech!

    “Since the founding of the Han dynasty, through nine generations and more than one hundred and ninety years, seven emperors have succeeded to the throne. All followed Heaven’s mandate and upheld the ways of their ancestors, either restoring the dynasty or preserving peace and order. Yet Your Majesty alone has departed from the proper path, indulged your cravings, and acted with reckless abandon; though still in the prime of life, you lack the blessing of an heir and face the peril of ruin. The accumulated failures in governance have become too numerous and do not accord with Heaven’s will. As heir to the legacy and achievements of your forebears, to guard them in this manner—is this not betrayal?

    “At present, the fate of the state, the ancestral temples, and the balance between safety and danger all rest in Your Majesty’s hands. If Your Majesty will truly awaken to this reality, devote himself to returning to the right path, correcting past errors, and establishing new virtue, then these great anomalies may well be dispelled, Heaven’s mandate restored, and the state and ancestral temples preserved. I implore Your Majesty to reflect deeply and weigh these words with care.”

    The Emperor was by nature lenient and fond of literature, yet he was addicted to pleasure and entertainment, a constant source of anxiety for the Empress Dowager and his many uncles. Because those closest to him found it difficult to speak frankly, they urged Gu Yong and others to invoke heavenly anomalies as a pretext for stern remonstrance, encouraging the Emperor to heed and adopt their counsel. Gu Yong, knowing that he had the support of powerful affinal kin, spoke his mind without restraint, and on each occasion he was received with deference. However, when he submitted this particular response, the Emperor was greatly angered.

    General Wang Shang secretly advised Gu Yong to flee. The Emperor dispatched an imperial censor to arrest him, with orders not to pursue him beyond the Jiaodao stables. The censor failed to overtake Gu Yong and returned. The Emperor’s anger then subsided, and he repented of his actions.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 245): The Bereaved

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 23 Scroll 31 (continued)

    The Site of Changling, Lintong District, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (16 B.C. continued)

    The Empress Dowager had eight brothers; only her brother Wang Man died young and was not enfeoffed, and she pitied him for this. Wang Man’s widow, Qu, was supported by the Eastern Palace, and their son, Wang Mang, grew up an orphan, unable to rival his cousins, all of whom were sons of generals and marquises and indulged in extravagance, competing in displays of wealth and pleasure. Wang Mang, by contrast, humbled himself, practiced frugality, and devoted himself to study, dressing like a scholar. He served his mother and widowed sister-in-law, raised his orphaned nephews, and conducted himself with great care. He befriended eminent men outside the court and, within the imperial clan, attended to his uncles with meticulous respect.

    When the Grand General Wang Feng fell ill, Wang Mang waited upon him, personally tasting his medicine, remaining unkempt and unwashed, and not removing his clothes even to sleep or bathe for months. As Wang Feng lay dying, he commended Wang Mang to the Empress Dowager and the Emperor, and Wang Mang was appointed Yellow Gates Attendant and later promoted to Colonel of Shooting the Sound.

    After some time, Wang Mang’s uncle, Wang Shang, Marquis of Chengdu, submitted a memorial requesting that his fief households be divided so that Wang Mang might be enfeoffed. Dai Chong, Privy Treasurer of Changle Palace, Jin She, Privy Counselor, and Chen Tang, Commandant of the Guards—all noted gentlemen of the time—spoke highly of Wang Mang. The Emperor accordingly esteemed him, and the Empress Dowager also frequently praised him. On May 6, Wang Mang was enfeoffed as Marquis of Xindu and promoted to Cavalry Commandant, Grand Master of Merit, and Privy Counselor. He served with diligence and care, and as his rank and title grew more exalted, his conduct became ever more humble. He distributed his carriages, horses, clothing, and furs to his retainers, leaving nothing in excess at home. He sponsored and associated with renowned scholars and cultivated ties with generals, ministers, and high officials. Thus, those in office continually recommended him, and those who visited him spoke highly of him, spreading his reputation far and wide, until it surpassed that of his uncles.

    He also ventured upon bold actions without apparent shame. Once he privately purchased a maidservant. When his brothers learned of it, Wang Mang said, “General of the Rear Zhu Ziyuan has no sons. I have heard that this maid is fit for bearing children, and so I bought her.” He then immediately presented the maid to General Zhu Bo. Such was his manner of concealing his pursuit of reputation.

    On June 6, Empress Zhao was formally established, and a great amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm. Once she had been installed, however, her favor declined. Her younger sister, by contrast, was deeply beloved and was made Zhaoyi (Consort of Bright Deportment), residing in the Zhaoyang Palace. Its central courtyard was painted vermilion, and the halls above were lacquered black; all the thresholds were plated and gilded with copper; the stairways were fashioned of white jade; the walls were inlaid at intervals with golden belt, Lantian jade, and luminous pearls, and adorned with peacock feathers. Such splendor had never before been seen within the harem.

    Empress Zhao dwelt in a separate hall, often associating with attendants and palace servants who had borne many children. Consort(Zhaoyi) Zhao once said to the Emperor, “My sister is headstrong and fiery. If anyone were to slander her, the Zhao family would have no descendants.” She wept bitterly, and the Emperor was moved. Believing her, he ordered the execution of anyone who reported evidence of the Empress’s misconduct. As a result, the Empress indulged in debauchery without fear of accusation, yet in the end she remained childless.

    The Grand Master of Merit, Liu Xiang, held that royal instruction should proceed from within outward, beginning with those closest to the Emperor. He therefore compiled accounts of virtuous consorts and chaste women who aided in the flourishing of their states, as well as tales of indulgence and favoritism that led to ruin, drawing from the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents, and produced a work entitled Biographies of Exemplary Women in eight volumes. He also gathered various records and deeds, composing New Prefaces and Stories of the Garden in fifty volumes, which he presented to the Emperor. He frequently submitted memorials discussing gains and losses and offering admonitions. These writings, numbering in the dozens, were meant to assist the Emperor’s understanding and to supply what was lacking in his knowledge. Although the Emperor could not fully carry out all of Liu Xiang’s proposals, he privately esteemed his words and often sighed in admiration.

    The construction of the Changling Mausoleum was extravagant and sumptuous, yet even after a long time it remained unfinished.

    Liu Xiang submitted a memorial, saying: “I have heard that kings must submit to the Three Norms—Heaven, Earth, and the People—and understand that the Mandate of Heaven bestowed upon them is broad and not confined to a single family. From antiquity to the present, there has never been a state that did not eventually perish. Emperor Wen once admired the solidity of stone sarcophagi, to which Zhang Shizhi replied, ‘If there is something desirable within, then even if it were cast in copper and buried in Mount Zhongnan, cracks would still appear.’ The dead have no ultimate end, while states rise and fall; Zhang Shizhi’s words thus look to the unending future. Emperor Wen understood this and resolved upon a simple burial.

    “The making of coffins and sarcophagi began with the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor, Emperor Yao, Shun, Yu the Great, Tang(the Perfect) of Shang, King Wen of Zhou, King Wu of Zhou, and the Duke of Zhou all had small tombs and very modest burial places. Their wise ministers and filial sons likewise followed their example and buried them simply. This truly embodies the highest loyalty and filial piety in honoring and comforting one’s lord and father. Confucius buried his mother at Fang city, with a tomb four feet high. Ji Zha of Yanling buried his son, sealing the pit so that the mound, less than half a man’s height, was scarcely visible. Yet Confucius was a filial son, Ji Zha of Yanling a compassionate father, Shun and Yu loyal ministers, and the Duke of Zhou a dutiful brother; in burying their lords, parents, and kin, all practiced simplicity. This was not merely frugality for its own sake, but a principle truly worthy of adoption.

    “The First Emperor of Qin was buried at the foot of Mount Li. His tomb was sealed down through three layers of aquifer, with a towering mound above. Mercury was made to flow as rivers and seas; golden geese and ducks were set in place; treasures were stored; mechanical devices were installed; the coffins were splendid, and the palace structures magnificent—beyond all imagining. The people of the world were driven to exhaustion by forced labor and rose in revolt. The works at Mount Li were not yet finished when a great army of a million, led by Zhou Zhang, reached its base. Xiang Yu burned the palaces and encampments, and later a shepherd boy, searching for a lost sheep with a torch, accidentally set fire to the hidden coffin and bier. From antiquity to the present, there has never been a burial as grand as that of the First Emperor, yet within a few years it suffered calamity from Xiang Yu without and from the shepherd boy within. Is it not tragic?

    “Therefore, the greater the virtue, the simpler the burial; the deeper the wisdom, the less the expense in sepulture. Those lacking virtue and understanding make their tombs ever more elaborate. The higher the mound and the more splendid the temple, the sooner they are dug up. From this one can see the contrast between enlightenment and folly, and the auspiciousness or ominousness of burial is made plain.

    “Since Your Majesty ascended the throne, you have practiced frugality. When the mausoleum was first planned, its scale was modest, and all praised Your Majesty’s wisdom. But after it was moved to Changling, humility was turned into ostentation: soil was heaped into a mountain, people’s graves were opened, and countless laborers were conscripted. Thousands of dwellings were built, the work rushed to meet deadlines, at the cost of tens of thousands. The dead are resentful below, and the living sorrowful above. I am deeply distressed. If the dead are conscious, to disturb their graves is a great injury; if they are not, what purpose does such grandeur serve? To consult the wise brings them no joy, and to display this to the common people brings only suffering. If it is merely to please the foolish and the extravagant, what value does it have?

    “I beg that Your Majesty look to the wise precedents of antiquity as a model, take the calamity of fallen Qin as a warning, and return to the original plan for the mausoleum, in accordance with the deliberations of the nobles and ministers, so as to relieve the burden on the people.”

    The Emperor was moved by these words.

    At the outset, the Grand Architect Xie Wannian falsely claimed that the Changling Mausoleum could be completed in three years, yet in the end he failed to fulfill this promise. Many officials spoke of the project’s impracticality. The matter was referred to the relevant authorities for deliberation, and they all stated:

    “The Changling Mausoleum depends on raising low ground to make it high, while the burial chamber must still be constructed on level earth. Set upon alien soil, it does not safeguard the spirit of the deceased in the afterlife, and its shallow outer layers are insecure. The labor of the workers has reached the tens of thousands; fires are lit at night, and earth is hauled from the eastern mountains, to the point that soil itself now rivals grain in price. The construction has continued for several years, and the entire realm has been burdened by its toil. Therefore, the mausoleum should follow the natural terrain, rest upon true soil, be situated in a high and prominent place, and lie close to the resting places of the other ancestors. Moreover, ten years of work have already been expended on the former mausoleums. It would be best to return to them and not relocate the people, for the sake of convenience.”

    In July of autumn, an edict was issued, saying: “We have not firmly upheld our own virtue, nor fully consulted my advisors. We mistakenly heeded the words of the Grand Architect Xie Wannian, who claimed that ‘Changling could be completed in three years.’ After five years of labor, the central mausoleum and the Forbidden Gates have not even been begun. The resources of the state are exhausted, and the people are worn down. The foreign soil is loose and unsuitable, making completion impossible. We are deeply troubled and pained by this. As the saying goes, ‘To err and not to correct is itself an error.’ Therefore, let the construction of Changling cease, and let the officials and people not be relocated from the former mausoleums, so that the hearts of the people are not disturbed.”

    The descendants of Xiao He, the Marquis of Zan, who inherited his title, either died without heirs or committed crimes, so that their line was extinguished five times. Empress Gaozu, Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing, Emperor Wu, and Emperor Xuan all remembered Xiao He’s great service and repeatedly restored collateral branches of his family to the marquisate. In this year, Xiao He’s seventh-generation descendant, Xiao Huo, Marquis of Zan, was charged with having his slave kill a man. His death sentence was commuted, and he was assigned to hard labor on the city walls. Earlier, the Emperor had issued an edict directing the authorities to seek out the descendants of the founding heroes of the Han dynasty, but for a long time the records remained incomplete.

    Du Ye advised the Emperor, saying: “The ancient rulers Yao and Shun, and the kings of the Three Dynasties(Xia, Shang, Zhou), all enfeoffed the lords in order to secure the harmony of the realm. Thus the ancestral sacrifices of Yan and Qi were maintained alongside those of Zhou, with sons succeeding fathers and brothers following brothers, without interruption through the years. How could this have been achieved without the punishments and exertions of the ancestors, by which their descendants were enabled to enjoy the fruits? When we trace back the meritorious officials of the Han, all were granted hereditary titles and swore oaths by mountains and rivers. Yet in little more than a hundred years, those who inherited these titles have all passed away, their bones lying alone in the graves, their descendants scattered, living as destitute servants and dying as wandering corpses. When one reflects on the past, it is all the more grievous in the present.

    “The benevolent court, moved by compassion, issued an edict to seek out their descendants, and people from all quarters returned joyfully with loyal hearts. Yet years have passed without proper inquiry, and I fear that those who speak of it do not grasp its great significance, offering only empty words. This obscures Your Majesty’s great virtue and spreads a reputation for ungenerosity on the part of the court, which does not serve to instruct or to encourage future generations. Though it may be difficult to carry it out in full, we should at least continue to honor those of outstanding merit.” The Emperor accepted this counsel.

    On July 15, Xiao He’s sixth-generation descendant, Xiao Xi, Chief of Nanluan County, was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Zan.

    The younger brother of Prince Ai of Chengyang, Liu Li, was also established as Prince of Chengyang.

    On August 19, the Great Grand Empress Dowager Wang, consort of Emperor Xuan, passed away.

    In September, a black dragon(dark cloud of odd shape?) appeared in Donglai.

    On September 30, a solar eclipse occurred.

    In this year, the Prefect of Nanyang, Chen Xian, was appointed Privy Treasurer, and the Privy Counselor Chunyu Chang was appointed Commandant of Waterways And Parks.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 244): Sculpting Rotten Wood

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 23 Scroll 31 (continued)

    Zhao Feiyan, by Ma Dai

    The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Hongjia Era (17 B.C.)

    In autumn, the Yellow River overflowed in Bohai, Qinghe, and Xindu, flooding thirty-one counties and towns and destroying more than forty thousand government posts and civilian dwellings. Li Xun of Pingling and others advised: “There has long been a wish to locate the old courses of the Nine Rivers and dredge them. Now that the Yellow River has breached by itself, we should not block the openings, but observe the pattern of the water’s flow. The river will seek its own course and naturally scour away the sand. Then, by following these natural tendencies, we may make our plans, achieving success with minimal expenditure of resources.”

    Accordingly, it was decided not to block the breaches. Court officials repeatedly expressed concern for the suffering of the people in the flooded regions, and the Emperor dispatched his representatives to provide relief and resettlement for the victims.

    In Guanghan, the cabal of Zheng Gong and his confidantes grew ever more widespread, spreading across four counties and mustering nearly ten thousand followers; the local authorities were unable to contain them. In winter, Zhao Hu, Commandant of Hedong, was appointed Prefect of Guanghan. He mobilized thirty thousand men from his own commandery and from Shu Commandery to attack the rebels. Some were captured and executed, and within a month order was restored. Zhao Hu was then promoted to Bearer of the Mace (Chief of Capital Police) and awarded one hundred catties of gold.

    That year, Wang Tan, Marquis of Ping’e, died. The Emperor regretted that he had deposed Wang Tan and prevented him from assisting in governance before his death. Accordingly, he reinstated Wang Shang, Marquis of Chengdu, as a Special Appointee to command the city gate guards, established a command post for him, and allowed him to appoint officials as a general would.

    At that time, Du Ye of Weijun, a Palace Gentleman who had long been on good terms with the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Wang Yin, noticed that Wang Yin had previously fallen out with the Marquis of Ping’e, Wang Tan. Du Ye advised Wang Yin:

    “Among relatives, who does not harbor some resentment? In the past, Duke Jing of Qin ruled a state of a thousand chariots, yet could not get along with his own brother by the same mother, and the Spring and Autumn Annals censured him for it. The Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao were otherwise: they assisted one another with loyalty, corrected one another with righteousness, treated their kin as equals, and shared both the glory and the burdens of the realm without seeking to monopolize them. They divided the state at Shanzhou, each governing his own half, and together served the Son of Heaven as left and right hands. Thus they bore no resentments within and no reproach without, enjoying Heaven’s favor and enduring renown.

    “I have observed that the Marquis of Chengdu(Wang Shang) has been appointed Special Appointee to command the city gate guards, and that an edict permits him to appoint officials as do the Five Offices—the Chancellor, the Grand Master of the Censorate, and the Three Generals(General of the Left, Right, Chariots and Cavalry). This clearly shows the Emperor’s wish to favor him. You, General, should comply with His Majesty’s intent: treat him with exceptional courtesy, include him in every deliberation and decision, and extend to him sincere goodwill. With such sincerity, who would not be pleased?”

    Wang Yin greatly valued this counsel and thereafter became close with Wang Shang, the Marquis of Chengdu. Both men held Du Ye in high esteem.

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (16 B.C.)

    In the spring, on January 22, a fire broke out in the icehouse of the Imperial Kitchen. On January 27, another fire occurred at the south gate of the tomb of Empress Li(Lady Shi, Liu Ju’s concubine).

    The Emperor wished to appoint Zhao Feiyan as Empress, but the Empress Dowager opposed it on account of her humble origins. The Empress Dowager’s nephew, Chunyu Chang, who held the post of Privy Counselor, frequently went to the Eastern Palace to convey messages from the Emperor. After more than a year, the Empress Dowager finally gave her consent.

    In summer, on April 15, the Emperor first enfeoffed Zhao Feiyan’s father, Zhao Lin, as Marquis of Chengyang. The Grand Master of Remonstration, Liu Fu of Hejian, submitted a memorial:

    “In former times, King Wu of Zhou and the Duke of Zhou accorded with Heaven’s will and thus received auspicious signs—the white fish entering the royal boat and the flames transforming into crows. Yet despite these portents, rulers and ministers alike remained humble and apprehensive, urging one another to act with caution. How much more should we do in these later days, when we lack even the fortune of a Crown Prince and yet repeatedly suffer Heaven’s displeasure through extraordinary phenomena! Though we reflect and reform day and night, revere Heaven’s mandate, and remember the great achievements of our ancestors—carefully selecting virtuous families from which to choose worthy women to serve the ancestral temples and satisfy both the spirits and the people’s expectations—we still fear it may be too late to secure the blessing of progeny. Yet now Your Majesty indulges in passion, favoring a woman of humble birth and intending to make her the mother of the nation, without fear of Heaven or shame before the people. Never has Your Majesty’s delusion been greater.

    “An old saying goes: ‘Rotten wood cannot be sculpted, nor can a servant girl become a master.’ Matters that Heaven and the people do not approve will inevitably bring disaster, not fortune. This is a principle even commoners understand, yet none at court dares to speak. I am deeply distressed and dare not refrain from offering this counsel, even at the risk of my life.”

    After submitting the memorial, the Emperor ordered the imperial inspector to arrest Liu Fu and detain him in the secret prison of the rear palace. The ministers did not know the reason for his arrest.

    Accordingly, Left General Xin Qingji, Right General Lian Bao, Grand Chamberlain Shi Dan of Langya, and the Grand Master of the Palace, Gu Yong, submitted a memorial, saying:

    “We observe that Liu Fu formerly served as a county magistrate and sought an audience with Your Majesty, who then promoted him to Grand Master of Remonstration. This shows that his words must have been of exceptional insight, fully in accord with Your Majesty’s intentions, and thus merited such rapid advancement. Yet in less than a month he was suddenly arrested and confined in the secret prison. We, in our simplicity, believe that Liu Fu, being newly come from the counties and unfamiliar with court protocol, may inadvertently have offended some imperial taboo. Such a fault should not be judged too severely. If his offense is minor, Your Majesty should show forbearance; if it is grave, it ought to be openly declared and handled by the judicial authorities, so that all may know his crime.

    “Now, with Heaven showing displeasure and calamities occurring frequently, this is a time for benevolence and tolerance, for seeking wide counsel, rewarding forthright speech, and encouraging ministers to speak their minds. To impose harsh and secret punishments upon those who remonstrate will shock the court and stifle loyalty and candor. If Liu Fu was not punished for speaking frankly, yet his crime is not made known, the public will not understand. Liu Fu, as both kinsman and minister, was advanced for his frankness; for the proper ordering of the imperial kindred and the encouragement of loyal counsel, he should not be detained in the prison of the rear palace.

    “Officials high and low, seeing Your Majesty swiftly promote and then as swiftly punish Liu Fu, will grow fearful, lose their resolve, and be discouraged from loyalty and frankness. This will neither display Your Majesty’s virtue in heeding honest advice, like Emperor Shun, nor uphold a noble standard of conduct. We are deeply distressed and respectfully beg Your Majesty to reconsider.”

    The Emperor then transferred Liu Fu to the Gonggong Prison and commuted his death sentence to three years of penal servitude, assigning him to gather firewood for the ancestral temple.