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Tag: Emperor Ai of Han

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 258): Covering up Imperial Infanticide

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

Infanticide

The 1st year of Emperor Ai’s Jianping Era (6 B.C.)

In January of spring, sixteen meteors fell in the northern sky, and a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

Xie Guang, Inspector Colonel of the Capital Region, submitted a memorial, saying: “I have heard that Lady Xu, who held the rank of Lady of Beauty, and Cao Gong, formerly the Empress’s scholarly tutor, had both conceived children through their relations with Emperor Cheng. Those children then disappeared. I dispatched officials to investigate, and they reported the following:

“In the first year of the Yuanyan era(12 B.C.), Cao Gong became pregnant, and in October she gave birth in the chamber of a cowherd in the women’s quarters. The eunuch attendant of the Yellow Gate, Tian Ke, came bearing an imperial edict and delivered it to Ji Wu, the superintendent of the palace infirmary, ordering him to confine Cao Gong in the palace prison. He further commanded, ‘Do not ask whether the child is male or female; do not speak of whose child it is.’

“Cao Gong said, ‘Please preserve my child’s placenta carefully! Do you, sir, know whose son this is?’

“Three days later, Tian Ke returned with another edict and asked Ji Wu, ‘Has the boy died?’

“Ji Wu replied, ‘Not yet.’

“Tian Ke said, ‘The Emperor and the Consort Zhao are exceedingly enraged. Why have you not yet killed the child?’

“Ji Wu knelt and wept, saying, ‘If I do not kill the child, I know I shall die; but if I do kill him, I shall die as well!’

“Ji Wu then begged Tian Ke to submit a sealed memorial, saying: ‘Your Majesty has no heir, and the child is innocent, no matter to whom he was born. I beg that you reconsider with the utmost care.’

“That memorial was accepted. Tian Ke then again brought a special edict to take away the child and handed him over to Wang Shun, another eunuch attendant of the Yellow Gate. Wang Shun received the edict, took the child into the inner palace, and selected a wet nurse, instructing her: ‘Nurse the child well, and you shall be rewarded; do not divulge any information about him.’ The wet nurse that Wang Shun chose was a maidservant named Zhang Qi.

“Three days later, Tian Ke once again brought an edict together with a potion for Cao Gong to drink.

“Cao Gong said: ‘Is it really the Zhao sisters’ desire to seize the world for themselves? My child is a boy, with hair growing upon his forehead, resembling his grandfather, Emperor Yuan. Where is the child now? He must surely be in danger of being killed! How can we let the Changxin Palace(Empress Dowager’s Palace) know of this?’ She then drank the poison and died.

“Zhang Qi had nursed the child. Eleven days later, the baby boy was taken away by Li Nan, the chief maidservant of the palace, acting under an edict, and from that time onward his whereabouts were unknown.

“In the second year of the Yuanyan era, Lady of Beauty Xu became pregnant and gave birth in November. Consort Zhao, who held the rank of Zhaoyi[Lady of Bright Deportment ], reproached Emperor Cheng, saying, ‘You constantly deceive me, saying that you come from the inner palace of the Empress Dowager. If you had truly come from the Empress Dowager’s palace, how could Lady of Beauty Xu’s child have been conceived within? Is Lady of Beauty Xu going to be the Empress after all?’

“In her anger, she struck herself, beat her head against the wall and pillars, threw herself from the bed to the floor, and, weeping, refused to eat, saying, ‘You must now come to terms with me—I want to go home!’

“The Emperor said, ‘I am now telling you the truth, yet you are still enraged. I truly do not understand!’

“The Emperor also refused to eat.

“Consort Zhao then said, ‘If Your Majesty knew yourself to be without fault, why then do you refuse food? Your Majesty once promised, “I will never betray you.” Now that the lady has borne a child, you have indeed betrayed that promise. What do you have to say now?’

“The Emperor replied, ‘That promise was made to the Zhao family. Therefore I shall not establish Lady of Beauty Xu, so that no one will stand above the Zhao sisters. There is nothing for you to fear.’

“Later, an edict was issued ordering the eunuch attendant of the Yellow Gate, Jin Yan, to take the child from Lady of Beauty Xu, place it in a reed basket, and carry it to the south side of the curtain in Consort Zhao’s dressing chamber. The Emperor and Consort Zhao sat there together, and the Emperor ordered the attendant Yu Kezi to untie the basket. After a short while, the Emperor dismissed the attendants and closed the door, remaining alone with Consort Zhao.

“After some time, he opened the door, summoned an attendant to seal the basket again, and gave an edict to the eunuch Wu Gong, instructing him to tell Ji Wu, the superintendent of the inner court: ‘Inform him that there is a dead child in the basket. Bury it in a hidden place, and let no one know.’ Ji Wu thereupon dug a pit beneath the prison tower and buried the child there.

“There were other cases during the same period involving poisonings and injuries, all before the general pardon issued on April 18. I respectfully note that in the third year of the Yongguang era, a man named Zhong and others were caught excavating the tomb of Lady Fu at Changling. Although a great pardon had been proclaimed, Emperor Yuan decreed, ‘This is not something that should be pardoned.’ Those responsible were tried and executed, and all under Heaven considered it fitting.

“Consort Zhao brought chaos upon the sacred dynasty and personally destroyed the Emperor’s heirs. Her clan ought to face the punishment of Heaven. Yet her natal relatives all occupy high office and remain close to the imperial court, causing distress among the officials. I humbly request that Your Majesty conduct a thorough investigation.”

The Chancellor and the other ministers debated the legal consequences, and the Emperor then demoted Zhao Qin(the younger brother of Zhao Feiyan), Marquis of Xincheng, and his brother’s son Zhao Xin, Marquis of Xianyang, to commoner status, and relocated their families to Liaoxi Commandery.

The court consultant Geng Yu submitted a memorial, saying: “I have heard that when the succession is not properly transmitted, and a legitimate heir is replaced by a secondary one, it constitutes a grave violation of the sages’ laws and has served as a warning from ancient times to the present. Taibo, however, was an exception. Seeing that Jili(King Wen of Zhou’s father) was the proper heir, he followed the demands of propriety, willingly yielded his place, and devoted himself to Wu and Yue. Because the arrangement made by the ruling house did not adhere to the ordinary rule, King Jili was established, King Wen of Zhou rose to glory, and King Wu of Zhou ultimately gained All Under Heaven. Their descendants enjoyed the fruits of this for seven or eight hundred years, achieving the greatest eminence among the Three Kings(Xia, Shang, Zhou) and the highest standard of moral virtue. For this reason, the honorific title goes back to King Tai of Zhou. Thus, only when extraordinary circumstances arise do extraordinary decisions emerge.

“Emperor Cheng knew that an heir had not been established in due time. Although sons might still have been born to him in advanced age, they would not have been old enough to govern the state by the time His Majesty passed away. Power would in the end have fallen into the hands of a female sovereign. When a female sovereign becomes proud and overmighty, her indulgent desires know no limit; when a young male sovereign is immature and weak, the high ministers cannot be properly directed. If, in such an age, there is no helper like the Duke of Zhou, who is able to bear the weight of the realm, then one must fear danger to the altars of state and the overthrow and disorder of All Under Heaven.

“The late Emperor knew that Your Majesty possessed the virtue of sagely worth and penetrating wisdom, together with the benevolence of a sage and the filial devotion of a worthy son. With singular clarity of judgment, he was able to decide the matter for himself. In his later years, he restrained himself from visiting the harem, thereby eliminating the possibility of an infant heir, cutting off the root of chaos and misfortune, and thus intending to establish Your Majesty firmly in order to secure the ancestral temples.

“Some of your foolish servants have been unable to draw deeply upon the principles of security and peril and settle a succession plan preserved in the Golden Coffer, nor have they known how to expound Your Majesty’s sacred virtue and set forth the intentions of the late Emperor. Instead, they have gone over and scrutinized matters within the inner palace, exposed private intimacies, falsely defiled the Former Emperor with the fault of being swayed and deluded, and thus completed the condemnation of a favored consort for jealousy and spite. In this they have grievously failed the clarity of wise and sagely foresight, and have perversely betrayed the late Emperor’s intention of concern for the state.

“Now, in discussing great virtue, one must not be bound by common usages; in establishing great merit, one must not conform to the multitude. Such was the profound thought of Emperor Cheng, wherein he surpassed the assembled ministers by ten thousandfold; and such is the flourishing abundance of Your Majesty’s sacred virtue, whereby it accords with August Heaven. How could men of the present age, mediocre and petty ministers of narrow capacity, ever attain to such a height?

“Moreover, to praise and magnify, to carry forward the virtues of one’s lord and father, and to rectify, remedy, and efface faults already past—this is the common principle of antiquity and the present. When the matter was current, they did not firmly remonstrate and contend, nor did they guard against disaster before it had taken shape; each merely followed the pointing finger and bent in compliance, seeking only ingratiation and favor. Yet after the imperial carriage had departed, when the honored title was already fixed and all affairs already concluded, they then ferreted out matters no longer reachable, exposing and proclaiming hidden faults in the darkness of the bedchamber. This is what pains your servant most deeply.

“I beg that the matter be submitted to the proper authorities for deliberation. If it accords with what your servant has said, it should be proclaimed throughout the realm, so that all may fully understand the sacred intention from which the late Emperor acted. Otherwise, empty slander and reproach will rise upward to the mountain tombs and flow downward to later ages, be heard afar among the hundred barbarians and spread nearby throughout the seas within the realm. This would be gravely contrary to the late Emperor’s intention in entrusting those who came after. For the filial son is one who is good at setting forth his father’s intentions and good at completing the undertakings of those before him. May Your Majesty examine this with care.”

The Emperor also believed that Empress Dowager Zhao had been instrumental in his accession and therefore did not pursue the matter further. Empress Dowager Fu was grateful to Empress Dowager Zhao, and Empress Dowager Zhao in turn returned her loyalty. For this reason, the Grand Empress Dowager and the Wang clan all harbored resentment toward Empress Dowager Zhao.

September 9, 2026
Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 257): Rehabilitation of Chen Tang

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

Iron Swords of Han Dynasty. Photo by Gary Todd

The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C. continued)

Kong Guang and He Wu submitted a memorial, saying: “The timing for the demolition of the ancestral temples should be settled without delay. We request that this matter be discussed with the other officials.” Thereupon, Grand Chamberlain Peng Xuan and fifty-three others all agreed that, although Emperor Wu had great achievements and merits, it was appropriate to demolish his temple, since his degree of kinship to the current Emperor had become too remote.

Grand Coachman Wang Shun and Colonel of the Central Fortress Liu Xin argued: “According to the rites, the Son of Heaven has seven ancestral temples—the progenitor in the center, with the descendants of the second, fourth, and sixth generations on the left, and those of the third, fifth, and seventh generations on the right. The number seven represents the regular standard and is the fixed rule. However, for those emperors whose temple names include zong (‘ancestor’), they are not restricted by this fixed number. The number of such honored ancestors is not constant. Wherever there are merit and virtue, the ancestor should be included; this should not be predetermined. We believe that Emperor Wu’s achievements and merits were of such importance, and since Emperor Xuan so deeply revered him, it is not appropriate to demolish his temple.”

The Emperor reviewed their arguments and decreed: “The proposal of Grand Coachman Wang Shun and Colonel of the Central Fortress Liu Xin is acceptable.”

He Wu’s stepmother was in Shu Commandery, and he sent an official to bring her to the capital. When Emperor Cheng died, however, the official feared bandits along the road, and so his mother remained at home. Some of those close to the Emperor criticized He Wu for failing to care for his mother, and the Emperor also wished to replace his ministers. Thus, in October of winter, He Wu was dismissed from office and returned to his fief as a marquis. On October 9, Shi Dan was appointed Grand Excellency of Works.

Shi Dan, seeing that the Emperor had made many alterations to Emperor Cheng’s policies, submitted a memorial stating: “In ancient times, those in mourning remained silent, and state affairs were entrusted to the Chancellor. For three years, there should be no changes to the way of the late father. Yet while the late Emperor’s body still lay in the hall, Your Majesty’s attendants, relatives, and others were honored and promoted. Your uncle was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yang’an; the honorific title of the Empress had not yet been determined, yet her father had already been made Marquis of Kongxiang; among those dismissed were Privy Counselor Wang Yi and Colonel of Archers Wang Han. Multiple edicts were issued in haste, and thus changes in government followed in confused and abrupt succession of actions.

“Though I am unable to expound the great principles with clarity, nor have I firmly declined my own enfeoffment, but have merely followed the crowd and accepted the title of marquis, thereby increasing Your Majesty’s faults. Recently, many regions have suffered earthquakes and floods, with loss of life among the people; the sun and moon have failed to shine clearly, and the five planets have lost their proper courses. These are signs of error in administrative policies and violation of principles in law enforcement, reflecting disorder and confusion between yin and yang.

“I submit that even a common man without sons, though sixty or seventy years of age, still seeks to widen his household by taking additional concubines. Emperor Cheng, however, understood the Mandate of Heaven profoundly and recognized Your Majesty’s great virtue, choosing you in the fullness of his years as his heir. The late Emperor suddenly departed from the world, yet when Your Majesty succeeded him, peace prevailed within the Four Seas and the people felt no fear. This was due to the late Emperor’s divine virtue, which accorded with the harmony between Heaven and mankind. It is said, ‘Do not act contrary to Heaven’s will, for its might is but an inch away.’ Therefore, I urge Your Majesty to reflect deeply upon the late Emperor’s intention in establishing you as heir, to practice self-restraint in accordance with the tradition of silence during mourning, and to observe the custom of entrusting government to the ministers. All under Heaven already belongs to Your Majesty; there is no cause to fear that your kinsmen and favorites will not in time attain wealth and honor. To act with such haste is unwise, for what is gained so quickly cannot long endure.”

Shi Dan submitted numerous memorials, many of them containing direct and blunt remonstrance.

The son of Dowager Empress Fu’s younger cousin, Fu Qian, served as an attendant around the Emperor. Because of his vicious character, he was disliked by the Emperor, removed from his post, and sent back to his former commandery. The Dowager Empress Fu was enraged, and the Emperor, unable to resist her, had Fu Qian reinstated. Chancellor Kong Guang and Grand Excellency of Works Shi Dan then submitted a memorial, saying: “The edicts are contradictory, causing confusion and undermining public trust. We request that Fu Qian be returned to his former commandery, in order to dispel the dishonest cliques surrounding the Emperor.” Their request, however, was not granted, and Fu Qian was restored as Privy Counselor. This clearly showed the overriding influence of Dowager Empress Fu over the Emperor.

The court consultant Geng Yu submitted a memorial to redress the injustice to Chen Tang: “Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang magnified the awe-inspiring might of the Sacred Han and extended it to the deepest and farthest reaches. They washed away the state’s accumulated shame of many years. They campaigned against a rebellious ruler in distant lands and bound a captive difficult to subdue from ten thousand li away—what deed could compare with this?

“The Former Emperor commended them and thereupon issued a clear edict, proclaiming and manifesting their merit. He changed the era name and caused the event to be recorded in the calendar, so that it might be transmitted without end. In response, Nanjun Commandery contributed a white tiger as a present, and along the frontiers there were no alarms.

“When the Former Emperor fell gravely ill, he still did not forget this matter, but repeatedly sent the minister of the State Secretariat to question and press the Chancellor, urging that their merit be formally established without delay. Yet Chancellor Kuang Heng alone obstructed the matter and refused to approve it, enfeoffing Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang with only a few hundred households. For this reason, the meritorious officers and fighting men were left disappointed.

“Emperor Cheng inherited the foundations of an accomplished reign and rode upon the awe inspired by former campaigns. Weapons and armor were not put in motion, and the state was free of major troubles; yet the great ministers, perverse and devious, sought to monopolize the ruler’s authority, excluding and envying men of merit. Thus Chen Tang, solitary and forsaken, suffered false accusation, arrest, and imprisonment, and could not make his case clear. In the end, though guiltless, he grew old and was cast aside.

“Dunhuang stands directly upon the route to the Western Regions; yet a minister whose prestige and renown had overawed and vanquished the lands, before he could even turn his heel, was himself reduced to such a state, and again made an object of mockery to the surviving caitiffs of Zhizhi. This is truly lamentable!

“To this day, those who bear missions to the outer tribes have never failed to recount the execution of Zhizhi, thereby proclaiming the grandeur of the Han empire. To rely on this man’s merit in order to intimidate the enemy, yet cast aside his person in order to gratify slanderers—how could this not be grievous?

“Moreover, in times of peace one must not forget danger; in times of prosperity one must surely consider decline. Now the state possesses neither the accumulated abundance built up through Emperor Wen’s many years of thrift, nor generals like those repeatedly employed under Emperor Wu to strike down bold chieftains and capture the enemy. There is only one Chen Tang. Even had he lived in another age and failed to encounter Your Majesty, one might still have hoped that the state would have posthumously recorded his merit, enfeoffed his descendants, and marked his tomb, thereby encouraging those who would come after.

“Chen Tang was fortunate to have lived in a sacred age. His merit was not yet long past, the court instead listened to wicked ministers, who scourged him, drove him away, and cast him far off, so that he fled in exile and in the end died without a settled resting place. Those gentlemen who look far and judge broadly all reckon that Chen Tang’s merit is such that it cannot be matched for generations, while his faults were no more than what ordinary human feeling may contain. If even Chen Tang was treated in this manner, then though other soldiers should once more break sinews and bones and expose their bodies in the field, they would still in the end fall victim to men’s lips and tongues and be ruined by jealous ministers. This is why your servant is all the more deeply distressed for the sake of the state.”

The Emperor responded to the petition by allowing Chen Tang to return to Chang’an, where he ultimately passed away.

September 5, 2026
Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 256): Three Strategies of Water Management

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

Five Elements interacting around a central Yin Yang

The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C. continued)

On September 25, an earthquake struck more than thirty locations, from the capital to the northern regions, destroying city walls and killing over four hundred people when buildings collapsed on them. The Emperor, seeking an explanation for this calamity, consulted the attendant-in-waiting Li Xun, who replied:

“The sun is the lord of all things belonging to yang and the emblem of the male sovereign. When the sovereign fails to cultivate virtue, the sun loses its proper force, becoming dim and deprived of its radiance. Recently, the sun has been especially unsettled: its halo has been invaded and diminished, and its corona has repeatedly been encroached upon. This humble servant does not know the inner affairs of the court, yet from observing the sun, I privately infer that Your Majesty’s character and conduct have declined from what they were at the beginning of your reign. Your Majesty should uphold the virtues of firmness and perseverance, maintain the proper standard with steadfast resolve, and not be swayed by the flattery of women in the inner court, by deceitful ministers, or by the false lamentations of favored maids and wet nurses. Such entreaties must be firmly rejected. Uphold the great principles of righteousness with strength and constancy, and do not trouble yourself over petty matters. If there are indeed some whom you cannot bear to do without, you may bestow goods and wealth upon them; but you must not, out of personal favor, grant them office or rank. This is truly the prohibition laid down by August Heaven.

“I have heard that the moon is the ruler of all things belonging to yin, representing the empress and consorts, the ministers, and the feudal lords. Recently, the moon too has undergone disturbing changes. This suggests disorder within the imperial court, arising from the Empress Dowager’s interference in government and the havoc thereby wrought at court, so that both yin and yang are thrown out of balance, and neither is properly regulated. I am but an outsider to court affairs and do not understand them fully; I know only a little of astrology. Yet the observation of celestial phenomena indicates that even those ministers closest to Your Majesty are not to be relied upon. Your Majesty should personally seek out virtuous scholars, prevent evil men from gaining influence, and thereby exalt the glory of the state and strengthen the dynasty.

“I have heard that the Five Elements take water as their basis, for water is the measure of balance and fairness. When the kingly way is upright, public order is maintained; when the rivers generally follow their proper courses, the circulation of the realm remains unhindered. But when the court departs from principle and strays from the normal course, the rivers overflow, and disaster follows. Now the floods of the Rushui River and the Ying River, joined with the rains, have inundated the people. This is what the Book of Songs describes as ‘all the rivers in tumult,’ a fault attributed to the Huangfu clan, the affinal relatives of the Zhou house. Your Majesty should therefore place some restraint upon affinal relatives who hold the highest offices.

“I have heard that the earth is by nature gentle and tranquil, and thus represents the constant condition of yin. Recently, the eastern regions have suffered repeated earthquakes. It would be advisable to exalt yang and restrain yin in order to correct these faults, to strengthen authority, close off hidden avenues of influence, promote the capable, and dismiss the unfit, thereby consolidating the present dynasty. When the foundation is strong, the vital spirit is fortified and able to overcome evil; when the foundation is weak, it invites calamity and danger, and wicked schemes prevail. In the past, when the Prince of Huainan, Liu An, plotted rebellion, the man he feared most was Ji An, while men such as Gongsun Hong were not even worth mentioning. Gongsun Hong was a famous statesman of the Han dynasty, yet even he would still stand unrivaled in the present court. If even Gongsun Hong was held of so little account, what then of those who fall far below him? Thus, when the court lacks capable men, it naturally becomes vulnerable to rebellion and disorder.”

The Cavalry Commandant Ping Dang, who was in charge of the river embankments, advised: “The Nine Rivers are now all silted up and no longer flow. If one examines the meaning of the Classics, the methods for controlling the waters speak of opening the rivers and deepening the channels, but contain no injunction about building embankments and blocking breaches. From Weijun Commandery northeastward, the Yellow River has often overflowed and broken through its banks; the watercourses are difficult to distinguish clearly, and one cannot deceive the multitudes within the Four Seas. It would be fitting to seek widely for experts able to dredge the channels and open the course of the River.”

The Emperor approved this suggestion.

The attendant-in-waiting Jia Rang presented his views: “There are three strategies for managing the river: the superior, the middle, and the inferior. In ancient times, when founding settlements and establishing the people, it was essential to keep away from places where rivers and marshes converged and to choose land beyond the reach of floodwaters. Along great rivers, men did not build dikes, but allowed the smaller streams to flow into them; dams and low embankments were constructed to form marshes where the autumn waters might accumulate, allowing the surrounding currents to move slowly and not become too violent. The need of the land for a river is like the need of a man for a mouth. To heap up earth to restrain a river is like stopping a child’s crying by plugging its mouth: the measure takes effect at once, but the child’s death comes all the sooner. Hence there is a saying: ‘A good manager of rivers opens channels to let the waters flow; a good ruler allows the people to voice their feelings and grants freedom of speech.’”

“The building of embankments began in the Warring States period, when the various states constructed dikes for their own advantage. Qi, Zhao, and Wei each used the Yellow River as a boundary. Zhao and Wei, being closer to the mountains, and Qi, whose land was lower, each built embankments twenty-five li from the Yellow River. When the waters of the Yellow River reached the embankments of Qi, they overflowed westward into Zhao and Wei. Zhao and Wei in turn also built embankments twenty-five li from the River. Though these were not perfectly aligned, the waters still wandered. Over time, these lands filled with silt and became fertile for cultivation. When the waters receded, people settled there, and the settlements gradually became villages. Then, when the waters rose again and submerged the villages, newer and higher embankments were built for protection. Thus towns and villages gradually shifted their locations, while marshes were drained away, and inundation and drowning continued to occur from time to time.

“Today the embankments stand much closer to the river, some in the narrowest places reaching to within only a few hundred paces of the water, while others extend for several li. Within the old embankments there are multiple layers, and people live between them, following practices handed down from earlier generations. From Liyang in Henei Commandery to Zhaoyang in Weijun Commandery, stone embankments have been built on both the eastern and western sides. These redirect the floodwaters, forcing the river, over the course of a hundred li, twice westward and then three times eastward, so that it remains continually constricted and unstable.”

“The superior option is to relocate the people of Jizhou who live within the flood zone, then breach the barriers at Zhehai Pavilion in Liyang, allowing the Yellow River to flow northward into the sea. To the west of the Yellow River lies a great mountain, and to the east lies the Golden Embankment, so that extensive flooding can be prevented. Within a month, the overflow should be brought under control. Critics may argue that such a measure would destroy thousands of cities, fields, and tombs, thereby arousing widespread resentment among the people. Yet when Yu the Great controlled the floods, he cut through mountains that stood in his way, opened the Dragon Gate, cleared Mount Yique, cut through Mount Dizhu, and split rocks all the way to Mount Jieshi. Such labors reshaped Heaven and Earth themselves. Compared with that, a few man-made structures are of no account, and such objections are not worth heeding.

“At present, the annual cost of maintaining embankments in the ten commanderies along the river amounts to millions, and when great breaches occur, the damage cannot be calculated. If several years’ worth of river-management expenses were instead devoted to relocating the affected people, following the methods of the ancient sages, restoring the mountains and rivers to their proper courses, and ensuring that human habitation and the natural world each remain in their rightful places without encroaching upon one another, then the matter would be resolved. The Han dynasty possesses a realm stretching ten thousand li; why should it haggle with the Yellow River over mere feet and inches? If this strategy were successfully carried out, it would pacify the river and protect the people for a thousand years. This is why it is called the superior option.

“The middle option is to construct additional canals in Jizhou for irrigation, regulate the distribution of the waters, and thereby ease the fury of the Yellow River. Though this is not the method of the sages, it is a practical means of limiting the damage. Beginning from the mouth of Qi River eastward, stone embankments and numerous sluice gates should be established to control the Yellow River. Some may doubt that such a great river can be managed by channels and gates, yet the transport canal at Xingyang has already proved that water can be harnessed for conveyance. The irrigation canals of Jizhou must likewise rely upon sluice gates to distribute water into their branch channels. When the water is high, the eastern gates should be opened to irrigate Jizhou; when the water is low, the western gates should be opened to divert the river’s flow, thus ensuring proper irrigation of the fields while also preserving the embankments. This method is practical, and could enrich the state and secure the people’s welfare for several centuries. That is why it is called the middle strategy.

“The inferior option is to repair and extend the old embankments. This is laborious and costly, invites recurring disasters, and remains the least effective of all.”

September 2, 2026
Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 255): A New Broom Sweeps Cleaner

Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

By Sima Guang

Translated By Yiming Yang

Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

Liu Xin’s Handwriting

The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C. continued)

During the reign of Emperor Cheng, the folk music of Zheng was especially popular at the court. Renowned palace entertainers such as Bing Qiang and Jing Wu, had risen to prominence, and noble families even competed with the imperial house in employing female musicians and performers. The Emperor, who had disliked this music since his days as Prince of Dingtao and was personally averse to music in general, issued an edict in June: “Did not Confucius say, ‘The music of Zheng shall be banned, the music of Zheng is decadent’? Therefore, the officials of the Music Bureau shall be dismissed. Music for sacrifices and the ancient military music recorded in the classics, excluding that of Zheng and Wey, shall be administered by other offices.”

More than half of the musical officials were dismissed. However, as time passed, the people had become accustomed to this music, and since no more elegant alternative had been composed to replace it, the musical indulgence of the wealthy and the officials remained unchanged.

Wang Mang recommended Liu Xin, Colonel of the Central Citadel, on account of his talent and conduct. Liu Xin was appointed Privy Counselor, then promoted to Grand Master of Merit, and enjoyed the Emperor’s favor. He was given the name Liu Xiu, since the Emperor’s own name was also Liu Xin. The Emperor ordered Liu Xiu to oversee the annotation of the Five Classics and to continue the work of his father, Liu Xiang. Liu Xiu compiled and submitted a general catalogue of the various texts, producing seven summaries: Ji lüe (Summary of the Classics), Liuyi lüe (Summary of the Six Arts), Zhuzi lüe (Summary of the Masters and Philosophers), Shifu lüe (Summary of Poetry and Essays), Bingshu lüe (Summary of Military Texts), Shushu lüe (Summary of Techniques and Astronomy), and Fangji lüe (Summary of Magic and Occult). These summaries encompassed six broad categories, thirty-eight subdivisions, five hundred ninety-six works, and thirteen thousand two hundred sixty-nine scrolls.

The summaries classified the various schools of thought into nine streams: Confucianism, Daoism, Yin-Yang Theory, Legalism, the School of Names(Logicians), Mohism, the School of Diplomacy, Eclecticism, and Agriculturalism. Liu Xiu argued that “These nine schools of thought arose when the kingly way had declined and the feudal lords exercised power. At that time, rulers held different preferences, and thus these diverse schools of thought arose and reached their height, each advancing its own strengths and contending for influence. Although their teachings differ, they are like water and fire, opposing one another yet also complementing one another. Benevolence and righteousness, reverence and harmony, though opposed, are all intermingled. The Book of Changes says: ‘All under Heaven pursue the same end by different paths; they reach the same destination, though a hundred deliberations.’ Now those of the various schools press forward what each does best, exhausting knowledge and probing thought in order to make their purport clear. Though each has obscurities and deficiencies, if one gathers their essential return, they are also branches and later offshoots of the Six Classics. If such men should encounter an enlightened king and sagely ruler, and get what is properly balanced and harmonized from these schools of thought, they would all be material for the ruler’s limbs and wings, serving as indispensable aids.

“Confucius once said: ‘When rites are lost, seek them among the wilderness.’ Now, being long departed from the age of sages, the Way and its arts are broken and cast aside, and there is nowhere further to seek them. Are those Nine Schools not still better than the wilderness and countryside? If one can cultivate the arts of the Six Disciplines and, by them, examine the words of these Nine Schools—discarding the shortcomings and taking the outstanding—then one may thereby penetrate strategies suited to the myriad regions.”

Prince Hui of Hejian, Liu Liang, was able to live in accordance with the example set by Prince Xian of Hejian, Liu De. When his mother, the Queen Dowager, passed away, he observed the mourning rites in full accordance with ritual prescription. He was therefore granted an additional fief of ten thousand households, to serve as a model for the imperial clan.

Dong Zhongshu had advised Emperor Wu: “Qin adopted the laws of Shang Yang, abolished the well-field system, and allowed the people to buy and sell land. The wealthy accumulated vast estates, while the poor were left with only tiny plots. In small towns there were men as honored and powerful as princes; in the villages there were riches equal to those of dukes and marquises. How could the common people not be oppressed? Although the ancient well-field system cannot easily be restored in full, it would still be beneficial to move toward it gradually. Limit the amount of land the people may own, so that those without land may be provided for, and curb excessive annexation. Remove from masters the power they hold over enslaved laborers, who live in fear of cruel punishments. Reduce taxes and labor service to lighten the people’s burdens, and better governance will then become possible!”

When the Emperor ascended the throne, Shi Dan again submitted a proposal: “Now, after many generations of peace, the wealthy and the officials have greatly expanded their holdings, while the poor suffer ever more deeply. It would be appropriate to impose some limit on landownership.” The Emperor referred the proposal for deliberation.

Chancellor Kong Guang and Grand Excellency of Works He Wu proposed: “Let limits be set on the land owned by feudal princes, marquises, and princesses. Let the land owned by marquises within the Pass, officials, and commoners be limited to no more than thirty qing(Chinese hectare), and let the number of slaves be limited to no more than thirty. This should be enforced within three years, and the property of violators should be confiscated by the court.”

Then the market prices of land, houses, and household slaves fell sharply, and the nobles and ministers close to the Emperor did not regard the measure as beneficial to them. Another edict was therefore issued: “Let the matter be suspended for the present.”

In addition, an edict was issued to the officials overseeing the garment workshops in Qi, stating: “The officers of the Office of the Three Seasons shall halt the production of patterned silks and embroideries that are difficult to complete and harmful to women’s spinning and weaving. Those already produced shall not be transported to the capital.”

The edict further stated: “The law of ‘Affirming Patricians,’ which grants preferential advancement to the sons of officials of the 2,000-picul rank, and the laws prohibiting slander and defamation are hereby abolished. Women of the harem under thirty years of age shall be given in marriage. Slaves over fifty years of age shall be freed and made commoners. In addition, officials with salaries of three hundred piculs or less shall receive an increase.”

At a banquet in Weiyang Palace, the eunuch conductor arranged a seat for Empress Dowager Fu beside the Empress Dowager Zhao. Grand Marshal Wang Mang, while inspecting the seating, rebuked the conductor: “The Queen Dowager of Dingtao, merely a former concubine of a prince, how can she sit alongside the Supreme Sovereign?” He had her seat removed and another one arranged elsewhere. When Empress Dowager Fu heard of this, she was enraged, refused to attend the banquet, and conceived a deep resentment toward Wang Mang. Wang Mang thereupon petitioned for retirement. In autumn, on July 1, the Emperor granted him five hundred cattie of gold and a carriage drawn by four horses, and dismissed him to his residence.

Many among the Three Excellencies, the ministers, and the nobles praised Wang Mang, and the Emperor consequently showed him even greater favor. He sent palace eunuchs to attend Wang Mang’s household and had meals provided to him every ten days. In addition, a decree was issued increasing the fiefs of Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang; Wang Shun, Marquis of Anyang; and Wang Mang, Marquis of Xindu. The fiefs of Chancellor Kong Guang, Grand Excellency of Works He Wu, and various other officials were likewise adjusted. Wang Mang was appointed Special Appointee and Palace Steward, granted court audience on the new moon and full moon of each month, and accorded ceremonial honors equivalent to those of the Three Excellencies. Furthermore, Wang Li, Marquis of Hongyang, was reinstated to the capital.

Queen Dowager Fu(Consort of Emperor Yuan)’s cousin, General of the Right Fu Xi, was a learned man of noble character. After Wang Mang was dismissed and retired, public hopes turned to Fu Xi. Earlier, when the Emperor’s affinal relatives were being advanced, Fu Xi alone remained modest and declined high office on the grounds of ill health. When Queen Dowager of Dingtao(Fu) began to take part in state affairs, he often offered advice in opposition to her wishes. As a result, she did not want Fu Xi to assist in the government. On July 4, General of the Left Shi Dan was appointed Grand Marshal and granted the title of Marquis of Gaoxiangting. Fu Xi was given one hundred catties of gold, relieved of his duty as General of the Right, his seal and ribbon taken away, and assigned the post of Grand Master of Merit so that he might recuperate from illness. The office of General of the Right was then given to Peng Xuan of Huaiyang, who was serving as Grand Chamberlain.

Grand Excellency of Works He Wu and Director of the State Secretariat Tang Lin both submitted memorials to the Emperor, saying: “Fu Xi is a man of righteousness, integrity, and loyalty, wholly devoted to the state. Now, because of illness, he is being sent away, to the disappointment of the people. All say, ‘The worthy son of the Fu family, because he disagreed with the Queen Dowager of Dingtao, has been dismissed,’ and the myriad officials grieve for the state. Loyal ministers are the protectors of a state. The state of Lu had Ji You to bring order out of disorder; the prestige of the kingdom of Chu depended on Cheng Ziyu(Cheng Dechen’s courtesy name); the state of Wei relied on Wei Wuji(Lord Xinling) to rally the feudal lords; and the preservation or destruction of Xiang Yu turned upon Fan Zeng. A single worthy man is worth more than a million soldiers. Thus Qin spent a thousand pieces of gold to sow dissension against Lian Po, and Han scattered gold to estrange Uncle Fan Zeng from Xiang Yu. So long as Fu Xi stands at court, he represents the Emperor’s glory and the rise or fall of the Fu family.”

The Emperor also valued Fu Xi, and he was therefore soon reinstated.

The Marquis of Jianping, Du Ye, submitted a memorial criticizing the Marquis of Quyang, Wang Gen, the Marquis of Gaoyang, Xue Xuan, and the Marquis of Anchang, Zhang Yu, and by contrast recommending Zhu Bo. The Emperor, having heard of the Wang family’s arrogance from a young age, could not endure it; yet, because his reign had only recently begun, he chose for the time being to tolerate them.

A little more than a month later, the Inspector Colonel of the Capital, Xie Guang, reported: “The Marquis of Quyang(Wang Gen) before the mourning for the late Emperor had been completed, openly summoned the former female musicians and entertainers of the imperial court, including Yin Yan and Wang Feijun. He also gave former imperial concubines in marriage as wives to Wang Kuang, the Marquis of Chengdu and son of his brother. In all this, they showed none of the propriety due from subjects, but instead displayed grave disrespect and a complete disregard for moral standards.”

Thereupon the Emperor said: “The late Emperor treated Wang Gen and Wang Kuang, father and son, with the utmost generosity, yet they have repaid that kindness with betrayal and ingratitude.” Since Wang Gen had once proposed that Emperor Ai be made crown prince, he was merely sent back to his marquisate. Wang Kuang was reduced to commoner status and returned to his native town. All officials who had been recommended or appointed by Wang Gen and Wang Shang(Wang Kuang’s father), were dismissed.

August 29, 2026