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Tag: Dayuan

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 181): An Assassin Diplomat to Loulan

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 15 Scroll 23 (continued)

    A Park near Loulan Kingdom Ruin Site, Xinjiang

    The 4th year of Emperor Zhao’s Yuanfeng Era (77 B.C.)

    On January 2, the Emperor performed the ceremony of coming of age.

    On February 9, the Marquis of Fumin, Tian Qianqiu, passed away. At this time, the Grand General Huo Guang alone presided over state affairs. Tian Qianqiu, though serving as Chancellor, was ever cautious in self-protection, rarely involving himself in matters of governance.

    In May of summer, fire consumed the main hall of Emperor Wen’s temple. The Emperor and his ministers donned plain attire. The Court Architect, a minister of two-thousand piculs, was ordered to command the soldiers under the Five Colonels(Colonel of garrison cavalry, leaping cavalry, infantry, changshui, archery) of the North Army in its restoration, which was completed within six days. The Minister of Rites and temple officials were indicted for great disrespect and impeached; later, upon a general pardon, the Minister of Ceremonies, Marquis of Liaoyang, Jiang De, was reduced to the rank of commoner.

    In June, a general amnesty was proclaimed across the realm.

    Formerly, the kingdom of Wumi had sent Crown Prince Lai Dan as a hostage to Qiuci(Kucha). When Ershi General returned from the conquest of Da’yuan, he brought Lai Dan back to the capital. Acting upon the earlier proposal of Sang Hongyang, Huo Guang appointed Lai Dan as Colonel, commanding the military colonies at Luntai.

    Guyi, a noble of Qiuci, said to his king: “Lai Dan was once our subject. Now he bears the seal and ribbon of the Han, tilling the soil at our borders. This will surely bring harm in the long run.” The king then put Lai Dan to death, and memorialized the Han court in apology.

    When the King of Loulan died, the Xiongnu, having first received the news, sent back their hostage prince Angui and set him up as king. The Han dispatched envoys, commanding the new king to present himself at court; but he refused. Loulan lay at the eastern extremity of the Western Regions, near the Han, close by Bailongdui(a Yardang), barren of water and grass. The king was charged with guiding envoys, supplying transport, fetching water and carrying provisions, and escorting those on mission. Yet the burdens laid upon them by greedy officials and rapacious soldiers brought resentment and dread of punishment; their service to the Han became a vexation.

    Thereafter Loulan once more turned to the Xiongnu, plotting treachery, even waylaying and slaying Han envoys. Then Angui’s younger brother, Wei Tuqi, fled to the Han and disclosed their inner dissensions. The Supervisor of the Swift-Horse Stable, Fu Jiezi of Beidi, was sent as envoy to Dayuan, with orders to hold Loulan and Qiuci to account.

    Fu Jiezi, reaching Loulan and Qiuci(Kucha), rebuked their kings. They confessed fault and expressed regret. Returning from Dayuan, Fu Jiezi came again to Qiuci, where he encountered Xiongnu envoys returning from Wusun. Fu Jiezi led his retinue in assault and executed them. Upon his return he reported the deed, and an imperial decree appointed him Gentleman of the Household and promoted him to Supervisor of the Pingle Palace.

    Fu Jiezi said to the Grand General Huo Guang: “Loulan and Qiuci have time and again defied the court, yet no punishment has fallen upon them, and thus there is no awe. When I passed through Qiuci, I saw its king unguarded. I am willing to slay him, that the might of Han may be made manifest to the nations.”

    The Grand General replied: “Qiuci lies far away. Try Loulan first.” Thereupon he gave permission.

    Fu Jiezi, with his men, bore gold and coins, proclaiming that they carried gifts for the outer states. When they came to Loulan, the king refused to grant an audience. Fu Jiezi feigned departure toward the western frontier, and said to the interpreter: “The envoy of the Han bears gold and brocade to reward the kingdoms afar. If the king will not come forth, we shall pass onward to the western lands.” Then he displayed the gold and coin before him. The interpreter reported it, and the king, greedy for Han treasure, came forth to meet the envoy.

    Fu Jiezi and the Loulan king sat in feast, displaying riches before him. When the drinking grew deep and both were drunk, Fu Jiezi said: “The Son of Heaven has a secret charge for Your Grace.” The king rose and followed him into the tent. Two strong men, lurking behind, thrust their blades into his chest, and King Angui fell dead where he stood.

    The consort and attendants scattered in terror. Fu Jiezi proclaimed: “The king has offended the Han. By command of the Son of Heaven I have executed him. Now we shall set up his brother Wei Tuqi, who is in the court of Han. The armies of the Han draw near—resist not, lest your state be destroyed!”

    He then cut off the King Angui’s head, bore it swiftly to court, and suspended it beneath the northern gate of Weiyang Palace.

    The court then set up Wei Tuqi as king, changed the name of Loulan to Shanshan, and engraved seals for his investiture. The Emperor bestowed upon him a palace lady as queen, and supplied him with chariots, cavalry, and stores. The Chancellor Wang Xin led a hundred officials to escort him to the western gate of Chang’an, offering felicitations and sending him forth.

    The king himself petitioned the Emperor, saying: “Long have I dwelt within the Han. Now I return alone and feeble. The sons of the former king may seek my life. In our land is the town of Yixun, rich in fields. I beg that the Han dispatch a general to dwell there, till the soil, and let me lean upon their power.”

    The court then sent a Marshal with forty men to Yixun, to farm and safeguard the new king.

    In the autumn, on July 23, the Emperor ennobled Fan Mingyou as Marquis of Pingling, and Fu Jiezi as Marquis of Yiyang.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: In dealing with the tribes, when they rebel, punish them; when they submit, leave them be. Now the king of Loulanhad already confessed guilt and yielded; yet he was slain, leaving no path for future conciliation. If his crimes were to be punished, then it should have been done openly, with troops deployed and the penalty made plain. But to send an envoy with gold to lure him, and then to kill a king—how shall the nations henceforth trust our envoys? Moreover, to wield the vast strength of the Hanto plot against the barbarians is disgrace indeed. Some may praise Fu Jiezi for a wondrous feat, but such praise is over the top!

    The 5th year of Emperor Zhao’s Yuanfeng Era (76 B.C.)

    In summer, there was a great drought.

    In autumn, the commandery of Xiangjun was abolished; its lands were divided between Yulin and Zangke.

    In November of winter, thunder was heard.

    On December 6, Marquis Jing of Yichun, Wang Xin, passed away.

    The 6th year of Emperor Zhao’s Yuanfeng Era (75 B.C.)

    In January of spring, conscripts from the commanderies and principalities were levied to build fortifications in Liaodong and Xuantu.

    In summer, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    The Wuhuan once more encroached upon the borders, whereupon the General of the Northern Expedition, Fan Mingyou, was dispatched to repel them.

    In winter, on November 27, Yang Chang was appointed Chancellor, and Cai Yi of Henei, the Privy Treasurer, was appointed Grand Master of Censorate.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 166): The Buckling of Dayuan(Ferghana)

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 13 Scroll 21 (continued)

    Osh(Ershi), Kyrgyzstan, Photo by A.Savin

    The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (102 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Prefect of Jiaodong, Yan’guang, was appointed as the Grand Master of Censorate.

    The Emperor went on an eastern tour by the sea but found no signs of immortals or deities. He ordered the officials to conduct rituals at Mount Tai. During April of summer, upon returning, the Emperor carried out ceremonies at Mount Tai and presented sacrificial offerings at Mount Shi’lǘ[drelling of immortals].

    Xiongnu Er Chanyu passed away, leaving a young son behind.  The Xiongnu then enthroned his paternal uncle, the Right Tuqi King, Goulihu, as the new Chanyu.

    The Emperor dispatched Chamberlain, Xu Ziwei, to venture out from Wuyuan Pass several hundred li, extending even further to over a thousand li, to build forts, barriers, and pavilions. This extension covered the northwest area to Luxu. He stationed the General of Guerrilla Warfare, Han Yue, and the Marquis of Changping, Wei Kang, nearby. Additionally, the Crossbow Commander, Lu Bode, was tasked with constructing facilities near the Juyan Lake.

    In autumn, the Xiongnu conducted a major incursion into Dingxiang and Yunzhong, resulting in the killing and abduction of several thousand people. They defeated several officials of the 2000-picul rank and departed, damaging the forts, pavilions, and barriers constructed by Xu Ziwei. Moreover, the Right Tuqi King raided Jiuquan and Zhangye, taking away several thousand individuals. The military Supervisor Ren Wen came to intervene, the Xiongnu lost what they gained and then withdrew.

    In this year, the Marquis of Suiyang, Zhang Chang, was found guilty of negligence in performing sacrificial rites as the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, leading to the abolition of his title and fiefdom.

    Emperor Gaozu ennobled 143 meritorious individuals as marquis in the aftermath of a great turmoil.  At the time numerous people fled from major cities and renowned metropolises, resulting in a population count reduced to twenty or thirty percent of what was before the war. The largest marquisate(march) had no more than ten thousand households, while the smallest had five to six hundred households. The Emperor Gaozu made an oath: “Even if the Yellow River became a girdle, and Mount Tai reduced to a cairn, this polity will perpetuate and extend to the descendants.” The pledge was recorded as a cinnabar-inked letter and was sworn by a sacrifice of a white horse.

    During the era of Empress Gao(Empress Lü) , the ranking of marquis titles was clearly documented, and the documents were kept in the ancestral temples, with backup copies stored in the government offices. 

    By the time of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, four or five generations later, the refugees had returned, and the population had increased, leading to major marquisate households amounting to three to four hundred thousand households. Small territories had doubled in size, accumulating wealth and prosperity. However, the descendants became presumptuous and extravagant, frequently disregarding laws and regulations, leading to their downfall and annulment of their enfeoffment.  Only four marquis titles among the original merit-based ennoblements remained.  Yet the laws were more meticulously enforced.  

    After the defeat of the Han forces in the incident with the Marquis of Zhuoye, ministers wished to withdraw their troops from Dayuan and focus entirely on combating the Xiongnu. The Emperor thought he had already sent an army to attack Dayuan, and if Dayuan, a small state, could not be defeated, then the more powerful polities such as Daxia would gradually diminish Han‘s prestige. Moreover, if the excellent horses of Dayuan were not brought to the Han, and the Wusun and Luntai tribes would have grown increasingly hostile to the Han envoys, the diplomats of the Han would become a subject of ridicule for foreign nations. The Emperor punished the officials, including Deng Guang and others, who raised concerns about the impracticality of launching a campaign against Dayuan.

    The Emperor granted amnesty to prisoners, conscripted delinquent youths and border riders, and within a year, around sixty thousand individuals were mustered to march from Dunhuang. There were extra private servants or porters who had gone with the army. Additionally, there were a hundred thousand heads of cattle, thirty thousand horses, and ten thousand donkeys and camels. A substantial supply of provisions, arms, and crossbows was prepared. The instability was evident throughout the empire, with over fifty colonels mobilized to attack Dayuan.

    The city of Dayuan had no wells within its walls, drawing water from outside streams. To take advantage of this, the Han sent engineers to redirect these external water sources, intending to use the waterway as conduit to dig underneath the city wall. Furthermore, there were an additional one hundred eighty thousand troops stationed at Jiuquan and Zhangye in the north, establishing garrisons in Juyan and Xiutu to protect Jiuquan. The Han government also conscripted seven different categories of individuals: criminals, fugitives, matrilocal son-in-laws, merchants, former merchants, and individuals with parents or grandparents who had been merchants. These men were all compelled to serve in the army. They provided supplies for the Ershi General’s troops, transporting goods and forming long lines of carts. Two men skilled in horse-riding were appointed as Horse Training Colonel and Horse Driving Colonel, tasked with selecting and training the best horses after the Dayuan campaign.

    Then Ershi General’s troops resumed their march, and as it was formidable, every small kingdom it reached welcomed it and provided provisions for the soldiers. When they arrived at Luntai, the city refused to surrender. After a few days of siege, it was captured and sacked. Continuing westward, they reached Dayuan‘s city with a force of thirty thousand soldiers. The forces of Dayuan met the Han troops in battle, but the Han forces routed them, causing the Dayuan troops to retreat into their city for protection.

    Ershi General planned to attack the city of Yucheng, but as he was concerned that delaying the march would allow Dayuan to devise more deceptive tactics. Therefore, they first arrived at Dayuan, diverted its water source, causing the city to be in a dire situation. They then besieged the city and attacked it for over forty days. Within Dayuan, the nobles deliberated: “King Mauakes hoarded the excellent horses secretly and killed the Han emissaries. Now, if we kill our king and present his head, the Han troops might retreat. If they don’t, we’ll fight valiantly and die—there’s still time for that.” The nobles unanimously agreed on this plan and killed their king Mauakes. The outer walls were breached, and a noble general of Dayuan Jianmi was captured.

    Filled with terror, the remaining people of Dayuan retreated inside the city, holding the head of their former king Mauakes. They sent envoys to Ershi General, negotiating: “If the Han forces refrain from attacking us, we will give you all the excellent horses and provide food for your soldiers. If you refuse, we’ll slaughter all the great horses, and when Kangju reinforcements arrive, we’ll fight the Han forces together. Which option will you choose?” 

    At that moment, the Kangju scouts observed that the Han forces were still numerous and did not dare to advance. Ershi General learned that the people inside Dayuan had the Han captives taught them how to dig wells, and still possessed a significant amount of food. Assessing the situation, he concluded, “We came to punish the criminal Mauakes, now Mauakes’ head has already been in our hands.  If we do not grant their request, they will steadfastly defend their city. The Kangju waited for the Han troops to be fatigued, then helping Dayuan, will certainly beat the Han army.” Therefore, Ershi General approved the request of Dayuan.  

    Dayuan released its horses, allowing the Han forces to select the ones they liked, and provided ample food for them. The Han troops took several dozen of the best horses and more than three thousand mares and stallions. Ershi General appointed a local man named Mocai, who was known to have been friendly to the Han previously, as the new ruler of Dayuan, made a peace agreement, and then withdrew his troops.

    At first, Ershi General set out from Dunhuang heading west, dividing into several units taking both the northern and southern routes. Colonel Wang Shen’sheng led a group of over a thousand soldiers, separately arriving at Yucheng. However, the King of Yucheng attacked and annihilated Wang Shen’sheng’s forces, causing a few individuals to escape and flee to Ershi General’s camp.

    Upon hearing this, Ershi General ordered the Commandant of Grain Supply, Shangguan Jie, to attack Yucheng. The King of Yucheng fled and sought refuge in Kangju. Shangguan Jie pursued and reached Kangju. Upon learning that the Han had already defeated Dayuan, Kangju released the King of Yucheng to Shangguan Jie. Shangguan Jie ordered four of his riders to bind and deliver the king to Ershi General. A knight from Shanggui named Zhao Di feared the King of Yucheng might escape, drew his sword, and struck, beheading the king of Yucheng, then catched up with the main troops of Ershi General.

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (101 B.C.)

    In spring, Ershi General arrived at the capital. As he passed through smaller kingdoms and tribes, upon hearing about the destruction of Dayuan, they sent their children to offer tribute and see the Emperor, some even stayed as hostages. When the army returned, they brought back more than a thousand horses. Although the army did not lack food and casualties in battles were not excessive, the generals and officials were greedy, showing no regard for the soldiers, taking advantage and abusing them. Due to these incidents resulting in deaths, many fell victim. 

    The Emperor thought leading a campaign of thousands of miles was a great achievement, he did not investigate these wrongdoings. Instead, he issued a decree to confer Li Guangli as the Marquis of Haixi, Zhao Di as the Marquis of Xinshi, promoting Shangguan Jie to the position of Privy Treasurer, three military officers were promoted to among Nine Ministers. Additionally, there were more than a hundred officers who were promoted to ministers of feudal lords, prefects of commanderies, and high officials with 2000-picul rank. More than one thousand officers were promoted to mid-level officials of over a thousand picul of grain. Those who volunteered to join the expedition had been rewarded exceeding their expectation;  those convicts were forced to join as a punishment for their misconduct, all their previous sentencing were dismissed, and the soldiers were given a reward equivalent of forty thousand coins each.

    The Xiongnu heard of Ershi General‘s expedition against Dayuan and intended to intercept it. However, seeing the strength of Ershi General‘s forces, they did not dare to confront them directly. Instead, they dispatched riders to intercept the Han envoys passing through Loulan, aiming to cut off communication. At that time, Military Judge Ren Wen, leading the troops stationed at the Yumen Pass, captured some living captives and reported the situation. The Emperor decreed that Ren Wen led his troops to capture the King of Loulan and brought him to the court for questioning. 

    The King of Loulan responded, saying, “Being a small state amidst larger ones, without dual allegiance, there is no way to ensure our safety. I am willing to relocate my kingdom to live within the territories of the Han.” The Emperor accepted his argument, allowed him to return to his country, and also asked him to observe the Xiongnu. From then on, the Xiongnu were not very trusting or friendly toward Loulan.

    After the fall of Dayuan, the Western Regions were filled with fear, and the status of Han envoys entering the Western Regions elevated. Consequently, from Dunhuang westward to the Salt Marsh, numerous stations were set up, and there were several hundred soldiers stationed in places like Luntai and Quli. Officials and Colonels were appointed to oversee and protect these regions, providing assistance to diplomats.

    A year or so later, influential figures from Dayuan accused Mocai of being excessively subservient to Han and resulting in harm to their country, slaughter to their people. They conspired to kill Mocai and established the younger brother of King Mauakes, Chanfeng, as the King of Dayuan. They also sent Mauakes‘ son to serve in attendance at the Han court. The Han government used gifts and bribes to pacify and maintain stability in the region. Chanfeng made an agreement with the Han to annually offer two heavenly horses as tribute.

    In autumn, the Mingguang Palace was constructed.

    During winter, the Emperor undertook a tour to Huizhong.

    The Chanyu of Xiongnu, Xulihu, passed away. Xiongnu then appointed his younger brother, Left Grand Commandant Qiedihou, as the new Chanyu. The Emperor desired to take advantage of the momentum from the campaign against Dayuan to further pressurize the Xiongnu. Therefore, he issued a decree stating, “The Emperor Gaozu passed down the thorny grief of the Pingcheng; then during the reign of Empress Dowager Gao(Express Lü), the Chanyu wrote the blasphemous letter, cutting off communication. As in the past when Duke Xiang of Qi avenged a nine-generation vendetta, the Spring and Autumn Annals thought his act was righteous.” 

    The newly installed Chanyu, fearing an attack from the Han, declared, “How could I as a son-in-law dare to compare to the Han Emperor? The Han Emperor is my father-in-law’s lineage.” He sent back the Han envoys who had been detained yet not submitted to Xiongnu, such as Lu Chongguo, and also sent diplomats to the Han court with gifts.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 165): A War over Horses?

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 13 Scroll 21 (continued)

    A Majestic Akhal-Teke Stallion, the breed fought over by the Han and Dayuan, photo by Artur Baboev

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (104 B.C.)

    In October of winter, the Emperor journeyed to Mount Tai. On the 1st of November, during the morning of the winter solstice, the Emperor performed the worship of the Supreme Deity at the Temple of Heaven. The Emperor then proceeded to the eastern shores of the Gulf of Bohai, consulting occultists and those who had traveled overseas. However, no supernatural signs were found. Despite this, further attempts were made in the hope of encountering such signs.

    On November 22, a fire broke out at the Bo’liang Terrace.

    On December 1, the Emperor personally conducted the ritual of offering sacrifices to the Earth at Mount Gaoli, overlooking the Bohai Sea, with the intent of seeking divine signs related to Mount Penglai, hoping for extraordinary revelations.

    In the spring, upon his return, and in light of the fire at Bo’liang Terrace, the Emperor held court with the feudal lords and received statistical reports at Ganquan Palace. The residences of the feudal lords were constructed at Ganquan.

    A man named Yongzhi from Yue remarked, “In our Yue customs, when a fire disaster occurs and buildings are reconstructed, they must be grander to overcome the adversity.” 

    Heeding this counsel, the Emperor ordered the construction of the Jianzhang Palace, which was said to have a thousand doors and ten thousand windows. To the east stood the Fengque Tower, rising more than twenty zhang (about 10 ft per zhang) in height; to the west lay the Tangzhong Park, covering several dozen li and housing tiger enclosures. To the north, there was a vast pool, within which a terrace gradually ascended to over twenty zhang, named the Taiye Pool. Inside the pool were replicas of Mount Penglai, Mount Fangzhang, Mount Yingzhou, and Mount Huliang, resembling divine mountains, islands and creatures of the sea, such as turtles and fish. To the south were the Jade Hall, Bimen (a jade wall), and statues of ostriches from Tiaozhi (Syria), among other grand structures. The Shenming Terrace and Jinggan Tower were also erected, each standing fifty zhang tall, interconnected by promenades for royal carriages.

    The Grandee of the Palace, Gongsun Qing, Hu Sui, and the Grand Astronomer, Sima Qian, expressed concerns that the calendar and chronology were in disarray and suggested the rectification of the lunar calendar. In response, the Emperor issued a decree, summoning Ni Kuan and scholars, including Erudite Ci, to deliberate. They collectively proposed the adoption of the Xia calendar, in place of the Qin calendar (Zhuxu Calendar), where the new year began in October.

    In May of the summer, a decree was issued for Gongsun Qing, Hu Sui, Sima Qian, and others to create the Taichu calendar of the Han. It fixed the beginning of the year to January, honored yellow color, and designated the number five as the radix. The calendar also formalized government official title names, coordinated musical scales, and standardized rituals for ancestral temples, all codified with the intent to be chartered for future generations.

    Meanwhile, the Xiongnu Er Chanyu, inclined towards violence, caused unrest among his people. Additionally, there were natural disasters that led to the widespread death of animals. The Grand Commandant of the Left (Xiongnu) sent a message to the Han, expressing their desire to kill the Chanyu and surrender to the Han. However, because the Han were far away, they expressed their intent to rebel once Han forces arrived to offer assistance. In response, the Emperor dispatched Yinyu[a place in Xiongnu] General Gongsun Ao to construct a city named “Defector Home” outside the border, to serve as a place for receiving defectors.

    In August of autumn, the Emperor embarked on a tour to visit Anding.

    The Han envoys who entered the Western Regions reported, “Dayuan possesses excellent horses in the city of Ershi[Osh, now in Kyrgyzstan]. However, they refuse to show these horses to the Han ambassadors.” In response, the Emperor sent officers, including Strongman Che Ling, bearing a thousand gold coins and a golden horse statue as an entreaty.

    The King of Dayuan, in consultation with his advisors, remarked, “The Han is distant from us, and there are frequent setbacks in the Salt Marshes. To the north, we face attacks from barbarians, and to the south, there is a scarcity of water and grass. Furthermore, the land is barren, lacking in food, and when Han envoys, sometimes numbering in the hundreds, arrive, they often starve, with more than half perishing. How, then, can they mobilize a large army? What threat can they pose to us? The horses in Ershi are precious to Dayuan.” As a result, they refused to grant Che Ling’s request.

    The Han diplomat, Che Ling, enraged and swearing in foul language, smashed the golden horse statue and departed. This act of disrespect angered the nobles of Dayuan, who proclaimed, “The Han envoys have insulted us!” They saw the Han envoys fleeing and ordered their eastern border, the King of Yucheng, to intercept and attack them, killing the envoys and seizing their possessions.

    This greatly enraged the Emperor. Yao Dinghan, who had previously been to Dayuan, remarked, “Dayuan‘s military is weak. With only about three thousand Han troops armed with strong crossbows, they can be completely subdued.” In the past, the Emperor had dispatched the Marquis of Zhuoye Zhao Ponu with seven hundred riders, and they captured the King of Loulan. Therefore, the Emperor trusted Yao Dinghan’s assessment. Additionally, desiring to honor his favored concubine, Madame Li, he appointed her older brother, Li Guangli, as Ershi General, commanding six thousand riders from principalities and tens of thousands of delinquent youths from commanderies and principalities to attack Dayuan. His task was to capture the excellent horses in Ershi(Osh) city, thus he was given the title of Ershi General. Zhao Shicheng was appointed as the military judge, and former Marquis of Hao, Wang Hui, was appointed as the guide leading the troops. Li Duo was made the colonel to oversee military affairs.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Emperor Wu sought to ennoble the family member of his favored concubine, Madame Li, and dispatched her brother, Li Guangli, to lead troops against Dayuan. His intent seemed to be that ennoblement should be earned through military merit, not by preferential treatment. This was in keeping with the covenant established by Emperor Gaozu. Military campaigns are of great importance, as they are directly tied to the safety of the nation and the lives of its people. If leadership is assigned recklessly, based on superficial accomplishments to gain personal favor, it would be better to forgo the covenant and ennoble someone without merit. Thus, while Emperor Wu was skilled in handling rebellious kingdoms, he faltered in selecting the right leader. If he is praised for upholding the covenant of the former Emperor, I would say such praise is unmerited.

    Commandant of the Capital Guard, Wang Wenshu was found guilty of treasonous activities and was sentenced to be exterminated. He chose to take his own life. At the same time, his two brothers, along with their wives’ families, were implicated in various crimes and were also exterminated. Chamberlain Xu Ziwei, remarked, “How tragic! In ancient times, there was the punishment of exterminating three clans, yet Wang Wenshu‘s crimes have led to the extermination of five clans at the same time!”

    There was a massive locust infestation in the eastern part of the empire, and the locusts flew as far west as Dunhuang.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (103 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Marquis Tian of Muqiu, Shi Qing, passed away.

    In the intercalary month, Gongsun He, the Grand Coachman, was appointed as the Chancellor and bestowed the title Marquis of Geyi. During this period, the court was filled with numerous issues, and there was strict scrutiny over ministers. The Chancellors succeeded Gongsun Hong were held accountable and died consecutively because of the accusation. Although Shi Qing, the deceased, managed to conclude his service with caution, he was frequently reprimanded. When Gongsun He was nominated as the Chancellor, he declined to accept the seal and ribbon of the office, kneeling with tears and refusing to rise. The Emperor stood up and left the court, Gongsun He, feeling compelled, accepted the appointment, saying, “I am a dead man!” when he left the court.

    In March, the Emperor traveled to Hedong to pay a sacrifice to Mother Earth.

    During May of summer, there was a census conducted to register the horses owned by officials and plebeians to replenish the cavalry’s horses.

    In autumn, there was a locust infestation.

    As the Ershi General Li Guangli moved westward, passing through the Salt Marshes, the small kingdoms along the way refused to provide provisions, defending their cities. Despite attempts to besiege them, they couldn’t be conquered. Some surrendering cities replenished food supply, but those that resisted were abandoned after several days’ siege. By the time they reached Yucheng, the troops numbered no more than several thousand, all exhausted and hungry. The attack on Yucheng ended in a major defeat, causing heavy casualties among the troops. Ershi General, along with Li Duo, Zhao Shicheng, and others, discussed, “If we couldn’t capture Yucheng, how could we take their capital?” They then retreated. 

    Upon reaching Dunhuang, the troop numbers had dwindled to just around a tenth of the initial force. They sent a message pleading, “The road was long, and there was a great shortage of food. Moreover, the soldiers were more concerned about hunger than about fighting. The troops were few in number, insufficient to capture Dayuan. We request that the campaign be temporarily halted, additional forces be raised, and then we continue the march.”

    When the Emperor heard this, he was greatly angered and sent an envoy to block Yumen Pass with an order, “Any troops attempting to enter the Yumen Pass are to be immediately executed!” Fearing the Emperor’s wrath, Ershi General chose to remain stationed at Dunhuang.

    The Emperor, still worrying about the long distance between the City of Defector Home from the Xiongnu, dispatched Junji General Zhao Ponu, commanding over 20,000 cavalry, to travel more than 2,000 li northwest from Shuofang with the aim to reach the Junji Mountains and return. When the Marquis of Zhuoye, Zhao Ponu, arrived at the appointed time, the Left Grand Commandant of Xiongnu intended to collaborate with the Han but his intent was uncovered. The Chanyu executed him, deployed the Left Wing troops, and attacked the Marquis of Zhuoye. As the Marquis of Zhuoye led a counter-offensive, capturing several thousand POWs, he was en route back and was around 400 li away from the City of Defector Home when an enemy force of 80,000 Xiongnu cavalry besieged them.

    The Marquis of Zhuoye ventured out at night to seek water and was captured by the Xiongnu while trying to escape. Seizing the opportunity, Xiongnu launched a sudden assault on his troops. Dreading the consequences of the loss of their commander, the officers in the army feared execution upon return, and with no one to encourage fighting back, the army surrendered to the Xiongnu.

    The Chanyu was greatly pleased with this victory and then sent a special force to attack the City of Defector Home. However, they couldn’t conquer the cities, so they pillaged the borderlands before departing.

    In December of the winter, Ni Kuan, Grand Master of Censorate, passed away.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 164): Mistrust And Levirate Marriage

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 13 Scroll 21 (continued)

    Yurt of Kazakhs in the Tianshan, Photo by Matti & Keti

    The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanfeng Era (107 B.C.)

    In October of winter, the Emperor embarked on a journey to Yong, where he performed rituals at the Five Deity Altars. He traveled along the newly opened Huizhong road, proceeding north and exiting through Xiao Pass. He passed through Mount Dulu and Mingze Marsh, journeying back from Dai and reaching Hedong.

    In January of spring, the Emperor worshiped at the Earth Deity Shrine and granted amnesty to those sentenced to lesser punishments from Fenyin, Xiayang, and Zhongdu.

    During the summer, a severe drought occurred.

    Since Wei Qing and Huo Qubing had roamed across the Gobi Desert, the Xiongnu had rarely engaged in hostilities. They had moved far north, allowing their soldiers and horses to rest while training them in archery and hunting. They frequently sent emissaries to the Han court, using eloquent language and sweet words to seek reconciliation and a marriage alliance.

    The Emperor sent Wang Wu of Beidi and others to reconnoiter the Xiongnu. Wang Wu assimilated into their customs, putting down his ambassador scepter and entering their yurts. The Chanyu liked him, promising with sweet words to send his crown prince to the Han as a hostage.

    The court then dispatched Yang Xin to the Xiongnu. However, Yang Xin refused to comply with their customs. The Chanyu remarked, “We had an agreement with the Han when they sent the Princesses to us, providing silk, fabric, and quality food to establish a marriage connection and peace, ensuring the Xiongnu would not disturb the borders. But now, you seek to revert to old ways, demanding our crown prince as a hostage. What does that leave for us?”

    After Yang Xin returned, the court sent Wang Wu again. The Chanyu once more deceived with sweet promises, aiming to acquire more wealth from the Han. He said to Wang Wu, “I desire to pay visits to the Han and meet the Emperor face-to-face, swearing to be brothers.” Wang Wu returned to report to the Han, and the Emperor subsequently constructed a palace in Chang’an for the Chanyu.

    Xiongnu officials claimed, “We won’t hold sincere talks without a distinguished Han envoy.” They sent a nobleman to the Han, who fell ill. The Han court provided medicine in hopes of his recovery, but unfortunately, he passed away. The Han then sent Lu Chongguo, with the insignia and ribbons of 2,000-piculs official and silk as gifts, and escorting the deceased nobleman back to the Xiongnu, offering lavish burial fees of several thousand catties of gold, claiming, “This was a distinguished Han envoy.” However, the Chanyu believed that the Han had killed their esteemed envoy, and thus detained Lu Chongguo, preventing his return. All the prior discussions the Chanyu had with Wang Wu were merely empty deceptions, with no intention to enter the Han court or send their crown prince as hostage. Subsequently, the Xiongnu frequently sent raiding parties to invade the Han borders.

    Therefore, Guo Chang was appointed as General Bahu[Defeating the Xiongnu], stationed east of Shuofang with the Marquis of Zhuoye, Zhao Ponu, to guard against the Xiongnu.

    The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanfeng Era (106 B.C.)

    In the winter, the Emperor embarked on a southern inspection and hunting tour. He arrived at Shengtang and paid homage to Emperor Shun at Mount Jiuyi. He ascended Mount Tianzhu in Qian County and sailed the Yangtze River from Xunyang. There, he personally shot and captured a jiao (a mythical creature resembling a crocodile) in the river. His fleet stretched a thousand li, landing at Zongyang before proceeding north to Langya, traveling along the coastline. Along the way, he honored and offered sacrifices at renowned mountains and great rivers.

    In March of spring, the Emperor returned to Mount Tai and expanded the altar for the Heavenly Deity. On March 21, he commenced the worship of the Supreme Deity in the Bright Hall, alongside the worship of Emperor Gaozu, the founder of the Han Dynasty. He also held court for the princes, marquises, and received tax and finance reports from the commanderies and kingdoms.

    In April of summer, a general amnesty was granted to the entire nation. The regions previously visited were exempted from that year’s taxes and levies. Upon his return, the Emperor visited Ganquan and held the suburban sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.

    The Marquis of Chángpíng, Wèi Qīng, passed away. His tomb was erected, shaped like Mount Lushan, a mountain in Xiongnu‘s territory.

    Having repelled the barbarians and expanded the empire’s territories, the Emperor established the provinces of Jiaozhi and Shuofang, as well as the provinces of Jizhou, Youzhou, Bingzhou, Yanzhou, Xuzhou, Qingzhou, Yangzhou, Jingzhou, Yuzhou, Yizhou, and Liangzhou, totaling thirteen provinces, each overseen by an inspector.

    As outstanding ministers and military figures were passing away, the Emperor issued an edict: “Extraordinary achievements are often accomplished by exceptional individuals. Sometimes unruly horses traverse thousands of miles swiftly, and individuals, despite being non-conformist and unconventional, achieve greatness. The capabilities of these exceptional horses and extraordinary individuals are realized through their utilization under proper guidance. Therefore, all provinces and commanderies are instructed to seek out officials and people of outstanding talent, exceptional abilities, and unique qualities, suitable for positions as generals, ministers, or diplomats for missions to faraway countries.”

    The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanfeng Era (105 B.C.)

    In winter, the Emperor embarked upon a tour of the Huizhong road.

    In the spring, Shoushan Palace was constructed.

    In March, the Emperor journeyed to Hedong, where he offered sacrifices to the Earth Deity and pardoned those condemned to death in Fenyin.

    After the Han established contact with the southwestern tribes, five commanderies were formed to link the newly acquired lands with the previous routes leading to Daxia. For years, more than ten missions were dispatched from these initial commanderies, all of which were intercepted at Kunming, resulting in the slaughter of the envoys and the plunder of their possessions.

    The Emperor, in his mercy, granted amnesty to the fugitives within the capital, ordering them to enlist in the military. He dispatched General of Bahu[eradicating Xiongnu] Guo Chang to lead them in an assault on the kingdom of Dian, resulting in the decapitation of tens of thousands. Despite the victory, communication through subsequent emissaries still could not be re-established.

    In autumn, a severe drought plagued the land, followed by a locust infestation.

    The envoy from the Wusun tribe, upon witnessing the vastness of the Han Empire, returned and reported its grandeur to his country, raising the esteem in which they held the Han. Upon learning of the Wusun‘s communication with the Han, the Xiongnu were filled with anger and resolved to attack the Wusun. Additionally, the nearby Dayuan and Yuezhi, who also had relations with the Han, further unsettled the Wusun. In response, they sent envoys, seeking to establish kinship through a marriage with a Han princess. After deliberation, the Emperor and his council agreed.

    The Wusun presented a thousand horses as a betrothal gift for the Han princess. In return, the Han court bestowed upon Liu Xijun, daughter of Liu Jian, Prince of Jiangdu, the title of princess and sent her to marry Kunmo, King of the Wusun. She was provided with lavish dowry upon her departure. The Xiongnu, not to be outdone, also sent a woman to Kunmo as his secondary wife. Princess Liu Xijun resided in a palace of her own within the Wusun kingdom, meeting Kunmo periodically for feasts and gatherings. As Kunmo grew old and his health failed, he could no longer communicate well with the princess, who, in her isolation, began to long for her homeland. Upon hearing of her sorrow, the Emperor sympathized and dispatched envoys every other year, bearing embroidered silk curtains as gifts to console her.

    In time, Kunmo, feeling the weight of his age, wished for his grandson, Cenzou(a title name), to marry the princess. However, the princess, distressed, petitioned the Emperor. The Emperor replied, “Live according to their customs; we sought this union to strengthen our ties with the Wusun and to weaken the Xiongnu.” After Kunmo‘s death, Cenzou married the princess and succeeded him as King Kunmi.

    At that time, the envoys of the Han crossed beyond the Onion Ranges (the Pamir Mountains) and arrived in the land of Anxi (Parthia Empire). The Anxi sent emissaries, bearing ostrich eggs and various skilled magic performers from Lixuan (Egypt or Roman Empire) as gifts to the Han. Additionally, smaller kingdoms such as Huanqian(Khorazm), Dayi (Dahae), Jushi (Gushi), Hanmi, and Suxie (Sagdia), among others, followed suit, sending their envoys to present themselves before the Emperor. The Emperor, greatly delighted, welcomed these visitors.

    Envoys from the western regions continued to come and go. When the Emperor embarked on hunting expeditions by the sea, he ensured the inclusion of foreign guests, personally guiding them through the great and bustling cities. He scattered wealth and silk as rewards, generously providing abundant supplies to showcase the vast riches and prosperity of the Han.

    Particular highlights of these events included wrestling matches, exhibitions of marvels and magic, and displays of strange creatures, all watched by vast crowds of spectators. Generous rewards were bestowed, and the fields were filled with pools of wine and forests of meat. Foreign guests were granted the privilege of touring and observing the famous warehouses and treasuries of the Han, where they beheld the Empire’s immense wealth, leaving them in awe and astonishment.

    The Dayuan kingdom, abundant in grapes suitable for wine production, and rich in alfalfa, favored by the Heavenly Horses, became a notable source of tribute. The Han envoys gathered samples of these resources and brought them back to the Empire. The Emperor, in turn, planted them in gardens near his detached palace, in vast fields stretching far beyond the horizon.

    However, the western regions, being in proximity to the Xiongnu, harbored a deep fear of the Xiongnu envoys and thus treated them with greater deference than those from the Han.

    In that year, Xiongnu Chanyu Wuwei passed away, and his young son, Wushilu, succeeded him, taking the title of “Er Chanyu” (Son of Heavenly Son). Subsequently, the new Chanyu moved further northwest, stationing the left-wing troops near Yunzhong and the right-wing troops near the commanderies of Jiuquan and Dunhuang.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 157): Thirty-six Nations along The Silk Road

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 12 Scroll 20 (continued)

    Nations in the West Frontier, c. 100 BCE

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’ding Era (115 B.C. continued)

    After the surrender of the Hunye King to the Han Dynasty, the Han forces pursued and expelled the Xiongnu beyond the Gobi Desert. The territory east of the Salt Marsh was cleared of Xiongnu presence, and the route to the Western Regions became accessible.

    At this juncture, Zhang Qian proposed a plan: “The Wusun King, or Kunmo(Khan), was originally a vassal of the Xiongnu. Later, as his military strength grew, he refused to pay homage to the Xiongnu and, when attacked, was able to repel them. Now, with the Chanyu weakened by the Han, the former territory of Hunye King lies vacant. The barbarians are attached to their ancestral lands but are drawn by the wealth of the Han. If we offer generous bribes to the Wusun at this opportune moment and persuade them to move eastward, occupy the former territory of Hunye King, and form a fraternal alliance with the Han, the situation will be advantageous. If they answer the Han‘s call, it will be like severing the right arm of the Xiongnu. Once allied with the Wusun, the neighboring states in the Western Regions, such as Daxia(Bactria), can be brought under our influence and become our external subjects.”

    The Emperor approved this proposal, appointing Zhang Qian as a General of the Household with three hundred men, each with two horses, and tens of thousands of cattle and sheep. He was supplied with substantial amounts of gold, coins, and silk, accompanied by numerous assistant ambassadors bearing royal insignia, and sent as a representative to neighboring kingdoms along the way.

    Upon Zhang Qian‘s arrival at Wusun, the Kunmo(Khan), Wusun King, received him with insolence. Zhang Qian conveyed the message from the Emperor: “If the Wusun people relocate eastward to their former territory, the Han will send a princess to be your wife, establish a fraternal bond, and together resist the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu will no longer pose a threat.”

    The Wusun, distant from the Han and unaware of its greatness, had long been subservient to the Xiongnu. Furthermore, they lived in close proximity to the Xiongnu, and their ministers, fearful of the Xiongnu, were reluctant to make any move. Despite Zhang Qian‘s prolonged stay, he was unable to make inroads with them.

    Therefore, he dispatched his assistant envoys to neighboring kingdoms such as Dayuan(Ferghana), Kangju(Sogdia), Greater Yuezhi(Sakas), Daxia(Bactria), Anxi(Parthian), Shendu(India), Khotan, and others. The Wusun provided interpreters and guides to accompany Zhang Qian on his return journey, sending dozens of people and several dozen horses as a token of gratitude, as well as to gather information about the Han‘s strength and resources.

    In that year, upon Zhang Qian‘s return, he was appointed as the Grand Usher. Over the following years, assistant ambassadors sent by Zhang Qian to communicate with the states of Daxia and others gradually returned, some accompanied by diplomats from those kingdoms. Thus, communication between the Western Regions and the Han began to open up.

    The Western Regions consist of a total of thirty-six nations, divided by great mountains running from north to south, with a river flowing through the center. The region spans over six thousand li from east to west and more than a thousand li from north to south. To the east, it connects to Han territory via Yumen Pass and Yangguan Pass, and to the west, it is bordered by the Onion Range (Pamir Mountains). The river in this region, the Tarim River, originates from two sources: one from the Onion Range and the other from the Southern Mountains(Kunlun Mountains) of Khotan. The two sources merge and flow eastward into the Salt Marsh (Lop Nur), located about three hundred li from Yumen Pass and Yangguan Pass.

    From Yumen Pass and Yangguan Pass, there are two routes in the Western Regions. The first follows the north side of the Southern Mountains near Shanshan(f.k.a. Loulan), running west along the river to Shache (Yarkant), forming the southern route. Beyond the southern route, it crosses the Onion Range (Pamir Mountains), leading to the Greater Yuezhi and Anxi. The second route originates from the royal court of the Front Cheshi (Jushi) King, proceeding north along the Northern Mountains (Tianshan Mountains) and the river (Tarim River) to Shule, constituting the northern route. Beyond the northern route, it crosses the Onion Range, leading to Dayuan, Kangju, and Yancai (Sogdiana).

    All these regions were under the control of the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu Rizhu King of the Western Regions established a Commandant of Minions who oversaw the Western Regions. They resided in Yanqi (Karasahr), Weixu, and Yuli (Lop Nur county), levying taxes from the various kingdoms and gaining wealth from this area.

    As the Wusun King declined to return east, the Han established Jiuquan Commandery in the former territory of the Hunye King, gradually relocating people to settle there. Later, they also established Wuwei Commandery to sever communication routes between the Xiongnu and the Qiang tribes.

    The Emperor acquired a blood-sweat horse (Akhal-Teke) from the Dayuan kingdom, which he greatly adored and named “Heavenly Horse.” Envoys were sent along various routes to acquire more horses of the same breed. When these envoys were dispatched to foreign countries, their entourages were large, often numbering several hundred or more people. At that time, people carried grand gifts in the style of Marquis Bowang (Zhang Qian), displaying magnanimity and respect. However, over time, these practices became more routine, and as a result, both the envoy’s entourage and the amount of gifts dwindled.

    The Han regularly dispatched multiple envoys annually, with over ten missions in some years and five or six in others. Distant missions took about eight or nine years to complete, while those to nearer regions took several years to return.

    The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’ding Era (114 B.C.)

    In winter, the Hangu Pass was relocated from Hongnong to Xin’an.

    In the spring, on January 27, a fire broke out in the Yangling Garden (the Mausoleum of Emperor Jing).

    In April, during the summer, there was rain and hail. More than ten commanderies and regions to the east of Hangu Pass suffered from famine, causing people to resort to cannibalism.

    Prince Xian of Changshan, Liu Shun, passed away. His son, Liu Bo, succeeded him. Liu Bo was accused of neglecting Prince Xian during his illness and showing disrespect during the mourning period, which led to his demotion to Fangling. A month later, the Emperor bestowed the title of Prince of Zhen’ding upon Liu Ping, another son of Prince Xian, and made Changshan into a commandery. As a result, all Five Sacred Mountains came under the Emperor’s direct administration.

    Liu Yi, the Prince of Dai, was relocated and made the Prince of Qinghe.

    During this year, Xiongnu Chanyu Yizhixie passed away, and his son, Wuwei Chanyu, succeeded him.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 150): Out to The Unknown

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 11 Scroll 19 (continued)

    A Goddess stone figure, Bronze Age Bactria (Daxia), photo by Jumbokedama

    The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Yuan’shou Era (122 B.C. continued)

    In April of summer, a general amnesty was declared throughout the realm.

    On April 9, the imperial son, Liu Ju, was declared Crown Prince at the tender age of seven.

    On May 30, a solar eclipse occurred.

    In that same period, a large group of ten thousand Xiongnu entered Shanggu and slaughtered several hundred Han people.

    Earlier, Zhang Qian had returned from his western expedition to Yuezhi and presented a detailed report to the Emperor, recounting the customs and cultures of various polities in the western territories. He stated:

    “Dayuan lies directly to the west of the Han, approximately ten thousand li away. The people of Dayuan live in settled communities and engage in agriculture. They breed a brand of horses known as the Ferghana horse, whose sweat is red, and they are highly prized. Their cities and houses resemble those of the Middle Kingdom.

    “To their northeast lies the Wusun, and to the east are the Kingdom of Khotan. West of Khotan, all rivers flow westward into the Western Sea, while to the east, the rivers flow toward a salt marsh. This salt marsh runs underground, and to the south lies the source of the Yellow River, approximately five thousand li from Chang’an.

    “East of the salt marsh lies the western boundary of the Xiongnu, extending to the Great Wall at Longxi. To the south, they border the Qiang, who have cut off the road from Han to the west.

    “The Wusun, Kangju, Yancai (Alans), and the Greater Yuezhi are nomadic peoples who move with their herds and have customs similar to those of the Xiongnu. Daxia lies southwest of Dayuan and shares many similar customs. During my time in Daxia, I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth from Shu. Upon inquiry, the people of Daxia told me, ‘Our merchants travel to Shendu (India) to trade with them.’

    “Shendu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia, and its customs resemble those of Daxia. In my estimation, Daxia is twelve thousand li from the Han, located to the southwest. Now, Shendu (India) lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia and possesses goods from Shu. Therefore, its distance from Shu cannot be too great. Should we send emissaries to Daxia, traveling through Qiang territories would be dangerous, as the Qiang people despise outsiders. Going northward would bring us into the hands of the Xiongnu. The safest and shortest route is through Shu, which is free from raiders.”

    Upon learning of the existence of Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi (the Parthian Empire), and other such powerful and prosperous kingdoms, the Emperor recognized their abundance of exotic goods, their settled communities, and their shared commercial activities with the Middle Kingdom. He observed their military weakness and noted their apparent inclination to value the wealth and goods of the Han. To the north of these territories lay Daxia, Kangju, and similar regions known for their military strength, presenting a potential opportunity for suzerainty through gifts and offerings.

    The Emperor firmly believed that it would expand the empire’s territory by thousands of li if these territories were brought under righteous allegiance, rather than military conquest. It would allow distant peoples to trade and pay homage, utilizing interpreters who spoke nine different languages. This would also introduce diverse cultures and spread the prestige and virtue of the Han Empire throughout the four seas. The Emperor approved of Zhang Qian’s report and ordered that he send emissaries to explore routes via Shu and Qianwei. Envoys, including Wang Ranyu and others, were dispatched in four directions: through Mang tribe, Ran tribe, and Xiyu tribe, and through Qiong tribe and Bo tribe, with each team traveling one to two thousand li towards Shendu.

    To the north, the envoys were blocked at Jiandi and Zuodu, while to the south they were halted at Yuexi and Kunming. In the region around Kunming, there were no recognized rulers and the area was rife with banditry, with frequent attacks on Han envoys, making communication impossible.

    Despite these challenges, Han’s efforts to reach Shendu (India) eventually led to communication with the Dian kingdom. The King of Dian, whose name was Dangqiang, asked the Han envoys, “Who is greater, Han or us?” Similarly, the Marquis of Yelang posed the same question. With no established communication channels between these territories and the Han Empire, each considered itself a sovereign state and was unaware of the vastness of the Han Empire. When the envoys returned and highly praised the magnificence of the Dian kingdom, suggesting it should be ruled as a vassal state, the Emperor renewed his attention to the southwestern uncivilized regions.

    The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanshou Era (121 B.C.)

    In October of the winter, the Emperor made a pilgrimage to Yong and performed ceremonies at the Five Altars.

    On March 3, the Marquis of Pingjin, Gongsun Hong, passed away. On March 22, Li Cai, the Marquis of Le’an and the Grand Master of Censorate, was appointed as the Chancellor, and Zhang Tang, the Minister of Justice, was appointed as Grand Master of Censorate.

    Huò Qùbīng was appointed as the General of Agile Cavalry and led ten thousand cavalry troops from Longxi to attack the Xiongnu. He traversed through five kingdoms, engaging in battles for six days and covering over a thousand li across the Yanzhi Mountains. They killed the King of Shelan, beheaded the King of Luhou, captured the son of King Hunye along with the Prime Minister and Commandant, and seized over 8,900 enemy soldiers. They also obtained the golden statue that the King of Xiutu dedicated for sacrificial rituals. The Emperor decreed to increase Huo Qùbīng‘s land holdings by two thousand households.

    During the summer, Huo Qubing, along with the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, led tens of thousands of riders separately into Beidi along different routes. The Commandant of Capital Guard Zhang Qian and the Chamberlain Li Guang also traveled towards Youbeiping on separate paths. Li Guang led four thousand riders in advance for several hundred li, while Zhang Qian followed behind with ten thousand riders.

    The Xiongnu’s Left Tuqi King besieged Li Guang with forty thousand riders, causing fear among Li Guang‘s troops. Li Guang sent his son Li Gan alone with several dozen riders to penetrate the enemy’s ranks, riding through their formation and returning to report to his father, saying, “The enemy is easily dealt with!” This reassured the soldiers. Li Guang then formed his troops into a circular formation, facing outwards. The enemy attacked fiercely, and arrows fell like raindrops. More than half of the Han soldiers were killed, and the Han‘s arrows were nearly exhausted.

    Li Guang ordered his soldiers to hold arrows without shooting while he personally used a large yellow bow to shoot at the enemy’s subordinate generals, killing several of their leaders, which deterred the Xiongnu further. As the day drew to a close, the soldiers were frightened, losing their countenance, but Li Guang remained composed and continued to rally his troops, earning the respect of all within the army. The next day, they fought again with even greater force, resulting in casualties exceeding half of the troops, but killed many more enemies. At this time, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian‘s army also arrived, causing the Xiongnu to retreat. The Han troops were too tired to pursue and returned.

    According to Han’s military law, the Marquis of Bowang, Zhang Qian was late and deserving of execution, but he was allowed to redeem himself as a commoner. Although Li Guang demonstrated significant military achievements, he received no reward because of substantial loss of troops. 

    Huo Qubing, the General of Agile Cavalry, ventured more than two thousand li deep into enemy territory, but he and the Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, missed communication with each other. Huo Qubing ventured beyond Juyan Lake, passing through the Lesser Yuezhi, and arrived at the Qilian Mountains, where he captured Shanhuan and Qiutu, two Xiongnu kings, along with the Prime Minister, Commandant, and their 2500 followers. They beheaded thirty-two thousand enemy soldiers and captured more than seventy lesser chieftains. 

    The Emperor further increased Huo Qubing‘s land holdings by five thousand households. Additionally, his lieutenants who performed meritorious deeds were rewarded: the Falcon Striker Marshal Zhao Ponu was appointed as an Marquis of Congpiao, Colonel Gao Bushi became Marquis of Yiguan, and Colonel Pu Duo was titled as the Marquis of Huiqu. Marquis of Heqi, Gongsun Ao, was found guilty of dereliction of duty for not meeting Huo Qubing at rendezvous and was sentenced to death, later redeeming himself as a commoner.

    At that time, all the commanders of various camps had soldiers, horses, and weapons which were inferior compared to the General of Agile Cavalry. The General of Agile Cavalry always selected his troops meticulously, yet dared to venture deep into the enemy lines, often taking the lead with valiant cavalry ahead of the larger army. This forerunner force was also blessed with good fortune and was never in a desperate situation. Meanwhile, the other camp commanders often remained stagnant and were not equally matched. Consequently, the General of Agile Cavalry gained increasing favor and affection by the Sovereign, approaching the status of the Grand General Wei Qing.

    The Xiongnu invaded Dai and Yanmen, killing and plundering several hundred people.