In October of that winter, the Duke of Pei arrived at a place called Bashang. The King of Qin, Ziying, dressed in a white gown and riding a white wagon drawn by white horses, with a rope around his neck, surrendered to the Duke of Pei at a post called Zhidao. Alongside him were all the seals, tallies, and scepters of his kingdom. Some generals proposed to kill the King of Qin, but the Duke of Pei refused, saying, “King Huai II of Chu sent me west because I was known for my leniency. It would also be dishonorable to kill someone who has already surrendered.” He then handed Ziying over to his judiciary officers.
Jia Yi’s comment: Qin, which began as a small, narrow state, grew into a superpower with tens of thousands of chariots. It dominated the other eight provinces, commanded its peers’ (six kingdoms) homage for over a hundred years. It then unified the six dimensions (Heaven, Earth, East, West, South and North) into one home, turning Xiao Mountain and Hangu Pass into its palaces. Yet, when a mere peasant rose against it, the seven ancestral temples crumbled, and the last descendant of Qin was destroyed. Why did it become the laughingstock of the realm? It was because they lacked benevolence in their governance, and their capabilities in offense and defense were vastly imbalanced.
The Duke of Pei entered the city of Xianyang, where his generals began looting gold and treasures from the wealthy households. Only Xiao He focused on gathering all the government records and maps stored in the chancellor’s office and sealing them. Using these documents, the Duke of Pei gained critical knowledge of strategic routes, population distribution, and defense positions throughout the country.
The Duke of Pei then toured the emperor’s palaces, marveling at the thousands of elaborate buildings, luxurious decorations, fine horses, dogs, and beautiful women. He expressed a desire to stay in the palace. His bodyguard, Fan Kuai, strongly objected, saying, “Does the Duke of Pei aim to rule the empire, or does he just want to be a rich old man? The luxury and grandeur are precisely why the Qin empire fell. What use are these for the Duke of Pei? I urge you to return to Bashang immediately and not linger here!” Despite this, the Duke of Pei was reluctant to leave.
Zhang Liang then joined the argument, saying, “The Duke of Pei has come this far due to the immoral rule of the Qin. If we are to eliminate the remaining evils in the realm, we should be dressed in plain white cloth as a sign of mourning. Indulging in the luxuries of the Qin palaces would be like aiding tyrants such as Xia Jie in their abuse of people. Honest words may be harsh, but they guide you toward better conduct, just as bitter medicine cures illness. I hope the Duke of Pei listens to Fan Kuai’s advice.” Following this counsel, the Duke of Pei returned to his camp at Bashang.
In November, the Duke of Pei invited the elders and prominent figures from several nearby counties to a meeting. He addressed them: “You have suffered under the harsh laws of the Qin for far too long. I made an agreement with other leaders that whoever first entered the Hangu Pass would become the King of Qin. I believe I should be your king. Now, I make a covenant with you: We will adopt a simple law with only three articles—murderers will receive the death penalty, while those who commit injury or theft will be punished accordingly. All other laws of Qin are hereby repealed. All government structures and social institutions will remain intact. We are here to relieve you from hardships and will not plunder your homes or livelihoods. There is no need to fear us. I have stationed my troops at Bashang to wait for the leaders of our allies so that we can make rules together.”
He then sent messengers, along with the officers of the Kingdom of Qin, to promulgate the new law at the county, town, and village levels. The people of Qin were delighted and competed to offer beef, mutton, and wine to the soldiers. The Duke of Pei declined these tributes, saying, “Our storerooms are well-stocked with grain; there is no shortage. We do not want to burden the people.” The people of Qin were overjoyed, their only fear being that the Duke of Pei might not become the King of Qin.
Xiang Yu had successfully quelled the resistance of the Qin army to the north of the Yellow River and was preparing to lead the allied forces westward into the Hangu Pass. The soldiers, officers, and supporters of the allied troops, many of whom had been laborers or conscripts under Qin‘s harsh rule, were eager for revenge. Now, as victors, they retaliated against Zhang Han’s surrendered troops, treating them like slaves and casually demeaning them. The former Qin soldiers were disgruntled and resentful, whispering among themselves, “General Zhang and the others tricked us into surrendering to the allied forces. It would be better if we could enter the Hangu Pass and defeat the Qin army. If we fail, we’ll be dragged eastward with the allied forces, and our parents, wives, and children will be killed by the Qin. What will we do then?”
The generals heard these murmurs and reported them to Xiang Yu. Concerned, Xiang Yu summoned Qing Bu and General Pu, saying, “There are still so many soldiers from the Qin army, and they are sulky and discontented. It would be a great danger if they refuse to follow orders when we reach the Hangu Pass. I would rather eliminate them all and only take Zhang Han, Chief-Staff Sima Xin, and Commandant Dong Yi into the land of Qin.”
That night, the army of Chu carried out Xiang Yu‘s orders, massacring the surrendered Qin soldiers and burying two hundred thousand of them alive to the south of Xin’an county.
Someone advised the Duke of Pei: “The Kingdom of Qin is wealthy and has ten times the resources of the rest of the country. It holds a superior strategic position. I’ve heard that Xiang Yu has given the title of King of Yong to Zhang Han, meaning Zhang Han will effectively control Qin. When they arrive, the land of Qin won’t be yours anymore. You should immediately send troops to defend the Hangu Pass, preventing the allied forces from entering. Let’s draft more soldiers within the Pass to strengthen our defenses and halt their advance.” The Duke of Pei accepted this advice, and when Xiang Yu arrived at the Hangu Pass, he found its gates shut. Enraged to learn that the Duke of Pei had already secured the area inside the Pass, he ordered Qing Bu to open it with force.
The 3rd year of the Second Emperor(207 B.C. continued)
The Duke of Pei launched a siege of the city of Kaifeng in March but did not succeed in taking it. He moved westward and skirmished with a Qin general named Yang Xiong in the town of Baima, then engaged in combat east of village Quyu and achieved a decisive victory. Yang Xiong fled to the city of Xingyang, where the Second Emperor sent an envoy who beheaded him to set an example.
In April, the Duke of Pei captured Yingchuan commandery in the south and ordered a mass execution in the city. He then led battles to take the land of the Kingdom of Han in aid of Zhang Liang. A general of the Kingdom of Zhao, named Sima Ang, was about to cross the Yellow River and enter Hangu Pass. The Duke of Pei conquered the county of Pingyin and seized the southern crossing of the Yellow River. He then engaged in another battle east of Luoyang but suffered a setback. Turning south, he passed through the Huanyuan Pass and united with Zhang Liang’s troops. The Duke of Pei ordered the King of Han, Han Cheng, to stay behind in Yangzhai county while he and Zhang Liang led their troops southward.
The Duke of Pei defeated Lü Yi, the governor of Nanyang Commandery, in a battle east of Chou County, seizing control of Nanyang. Lü Yi retreated to the city of Wan, where he fortified its defenses. The Duke of Pei led his army westward, bypassing the city. Zhang Liang then advised him: “Although you are eager to enter Wu Pass, a large Qin force is defending the natural stronghold. If we leave Wan intact and they attack from behind, we will be in a dangerous position, facing a strong army in front.”
The Duke of Pei heeded this counsel, turning his troops around and quietly marching back to Wan by an alternate route at night. By morning, they had encircled the city with three rings of troops. The governor, Lü Yi, was about to commit suicide when his attendant, Chen Hui, stopped him, saying: “Wait! There is still time to die.”
Chen Hui scaled the city wall to meet the Duke of Pei and said: “I understand you have a pact that whoever reaches Xianyang first will become king. Currently, you cannot take Wan. The city connects to numerous counties and commanderies, and the people here fear a massacre if you break through, so they defend it with all their might. Prolonging the siege will cost the lives of your soldiers and officers. If you bypass Wan, its army will pursue you from behind, and you will miss the chance to reach Xianyang first while worrying about attacks from the rear. If I were you, I would negotiate the governor’s surrender, reward him handsomely, and reinstate him as the governor of Nanyang. His troops would join your westward expedition, and other cities, hearing of this, would open their gates to you. Your march to Xianyang would then be unopposed.”
The Duke of Pei approved, “Good idea!” In July, Governor Lü Yi capitulated and was granted the title Marquis Yin, while Chen Hui was awarded a fiefdom of 1,000 families. From that point, the westward expedition faced no resistance. As they advanced to Danshui county, high-ranking Qin officers, including Marquis Gaowu, whose name was Sai and Marquis Xiang, Wang Ling, surrendered. When the Duke of Pei approached Huyang county, he encountered General Mei Juan, commander of a detachment under Lord Fan. They joined forces and proceeded to capture Xi County and Li County, both of which capitulated. Throughout the campaign, the Duke of Pei forbade pillaging, which won over the people of Qin.
After General Wang Li’s demise, General Zhang Han camped at Jiyuan, while General Xiang Yu stationed his forces at the south of Zhang River. The two armies reached a stalemate. Having suffered multiple defeats, the Second Emperor sent a messenger to reprimand Zhang Han. Fearing the consequences, Zhang Han dispatched his chief-of-staff, Sima Xin, to Xianyang to seek guidance. However, upon arrival, Sima Xin was held at the palace gate for three days, during which Chancellor Zhao Gao refused to see him. Growing suspicious, Sima Xin hurriedly took an alternate route back to camp, narrowly escaping assassins sent by Zhao Gao, as he had expected.
Upon his return, Sima Xin reported to Zhang Han: “Zhao Gao is in total control of the court, and no one can act without his approval. If we win, Zhao Gao will be jealous of our success; if we lose, death is certain. I implore you, General, to make the right decision.”
Chen Yu also wrote a letter to Zhang Han, saying: “When General Bai Qi commanded the army of Qin, he conquered the cities Yan and Ying of Chu in the south. He triumphed at Mafu and buried the entire Zhao army alive in the north. He captured countless cities and vast territories for Qin. His reward? A death sentence. When General Meng Tian led the Qin army, he drove the nomads back to the north and developed thousands of miles of land in the Yuzhong region. Yet he was beheaded at Yangzhou. What was their mistake? They achieved too much. Qin could not properly reward them, so the corrupt court sentenced them to death.”
“General Zhang, you have commanded the Qin army for three years, losing hundreds of thousands of soldiers, while more and more rebels arise from the other kingdoms. Zhao Gao rose to power by lying and slandering others. Now, with the kingdom in crisis, Zhao Gao fears the emperor will kill him. He plans to accuse you of crimes and kill you as a scapegoat, only to replace you with another puppet of his. You have been on the battlefield for so long that you have accumulated many enemies at court. You will be killed, regardless of your military success.”
“These days, everyone—whether wise or foolish—knows that the collapse of Qin is Heaven’s mandate. You cannot give honest counsel to your lord at court, nor can you survive as a commander of a dying kingdom. What a tragedy! Why not turn and join the alliance of other kingdoms to bring down Qin? We can divide the kingdom and become kings ourselves. Would that not be better than lying on the chopping block and watching your family slaughtered before your eyes?”
Zhang Han remained indecisive and secretly sent an officer named Shi Cheng to negotiate a surrender with Xiang Yu, but no agreement was reached. In response, Xiang Yu ordered General Pu to march his troops day and night to seize the Sanhu Crossing. General Pu camped on the south bank of the Zhang River and engaged the Qin army, achieving another victory. Xiang Yu then coordinated an all-out attack on the Qin forces along the Yushui River, delivering a crushing blow.
Zhang Han sent another envoy to Xiang Yu to seek terms. Xiang Yu gathered his officers and said, “We are running short on supplies. Let’s make a deal.” His officers all agreed. Xiang Yu then arranged for an armistice ceremony to be held near the Huan River at the site of Yinxu, the ancient ruins of the Shang dynasty.
Once the armistice was signed, Zhang Han went to meet Xiang Yu, where he tearfully denounced Zhao Gao. Xiang Yu rewarded Zhang Han by granting him the title of King of Yong and kept him at his headquarters. He appointed Zhang Han’s chief-of-staff, Sima Xin, as the commander of the Qin army, leading the westward expedition.
Meanwhile, Shen Yang, another rebel leader from Xiaqiu County, crossed to the south of the Yellow River and placed his troops under Xiang Yu’s command.
The 3rd year of the Second Emperor(207 B.C. continued)
The King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, and Zhang Er emerged from the city of Julu to thank all the forces that had come to their aid. Zhang Er met Chen Yu face-to-face and reprimanded him for his reluctance to relieve the siege of Julu. He also inquired about the whereabouts of his deputies, Zhang Yan and Chen Ze, suspecting that Chen Yu had caused their deaths. Despite Chen Yu’s explanation, Zhang Er continued to question him repeatedly. Infuriated, Chen Yu exclaimed, “I didn’t realize your mistrust of me ran so deep! Do you think I will tolerate this distrust forever just because I value this commander’s seal?” He then took off his commander-in-chief’s seal and threw it in front of Zhang Er. Startled, Zhang Er hesitated and did not pick it up.
When Chen Yu went to the restroom, one of Zhang Er’s retainers intervened, saying, “I have heard it said: you have no one but yourself to blame if God gives you an opportunity and you pass it on. General Chen has given up his seal, and you do not take it. You are defying God’s will. Please take the seal immediately!” Heeding this advice, Zhang Er placed the seal on himself and began to command Chen Yu‘s troops. When Chen Yu returned from the restroom and saw that Zhang Er had neither returned the seal nor urged him to stay, he left the meeting. He departed with a few hundred of his followers to fish and hunt in the rivers and swamps. Meanwhile, the King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, returned to the capital, Xindu.
In February that spring, the Duke of Pei launched an offensive against Changyi county in the north, where he met General Peng Yue. Peng Yue, originally from Changyi, placed his troops under the Duke of Pei’s command. Peng Yue had been a fisherman in the lakes of the Juye region before becoming a leader of outlaws. When Chen Sheng and Xiang Liang began their uprising, about a hundred local youngsters approached Peng Yue and said, “Would you please be our leader?” Peng Yue initially declined, saying, “I don’t want to.” However, the youngsters persisted, and Peng Yue finally agreed.
He instructed them to muster at sunrise the next morning, warning that anyone who was late would be beheaded. The following day at sunrise, dozens were late, with the last one not arriving until noon. Peng Yue expressed his regret, saying, “I am older than you, and you wanted me to be your leader. Now, so many are late for muster. I cannot kill all of you, but I will kill the last one to arrive.” He ordered his officers to behead the last offender. The youngsters laughed and said, “How could you be so serious? We won’t be late anymore, OK?” Peng Yue led the offender to be executed. Then, he ordered a memorial altar to be built and required all his followers to offer sacrifices. Terrified by this act, his followers no longer dared to look him in the eyes.
Under Peng Yue’s strict discipline, they began taking over towns and villages, growing their ranks with stragglers from other armed forces. They formed a force of more than a thousand soldiers and joined the Duke of Pei‘s campaign against Changyi.
The Duke of Pei’s siege of Changyi was unsuccessful, so he led his troops westward, passing by the town of Gaoyang. In Gaoyang lived a man named Li Yiji, who came from a poor family and worked as the gatekeeper of his neighborhood community. A cavalryman under the Duke of Pei was from the same neighborhood as Li Yiji. Li Yiji approached him and said, “I have met dozens of generals from other kingdoms passing through Gaoyang. To me, they are all unpleasant—fixated on rituals, egotistical, and deaf to discussions of grand strategies. I’ve heard that the Duke of Pei is haughty and disrespectful but has great vision. That’s the kind of leader I would like to follow. No one has introduced me to him. If you have the chance, please tell him, ‘There is a scholar in my neighborhood named Li. He is over sixty years old and six feet tall. Everyone thinks he is a crazy scholar except himself.’”
The cavalryman warned him, “The Duke of Pei does not like scholars. Once, a scholar wearing a Confucian cap came to meet him, and the Duke of Pei took off the cap and urinated on it. He often insults scholars when speaking to them. You’d better not call yourself a scholar.” Li Yiji insisted, “Just pass on what I said.” The cavalryman did as requested.
When the Duke of Pei arrived at a lodge in Gaoyang, he summoned Li Yiji to his room. Li Yiji called on him while he was in bed with two women washing his feet. When Li Yiji entered, he saluted him but did not kneel. Li Yiji began with a question: “Do you want to help the Kingdom of Qin attack the other kingdoms, or do you want to lead the other kingdoms to bring down the Kingdom of Qin?”
The Duke of Pei shouted, “What a stupid scholar! The rest of the world has suffered under Qin’s tyranny for so long. People have spontaneously rebelled against Qin. Why would I help Qin attack the other kingdoms?”
Li Yiji responded, “If you intend to lead an army in a righteous cause against the evil Qin, you should not be so impolite to an old man.” The Duke of Pei got up, dressed formally, invited Li Yiji to sit, and apologized for his rudeness. Li Yiji then spoke of forming a vertical alliance among the six kingdoms, which greatly interested the Duke of Pei. He offered Li Yiji food and asked, “What is your plan for me?”
Li Yiji replied, “The forces under your command are a crowd of stragglers and drifters. To face the powerful Qin army with fewer than ten thousand men is like putting meat in a tiger’s mouth. Chenliu is a critical transport hub and currently holds significant grain stores. I am friends with the mayor of the city. Send me there as your representative to persuade him to surrender. If he refuses, you can launch a siege, and I will act as your agent from within.”
Li Yiji received the order and led the way, with the Duke of Pei following with his troops. In this way, Chenliu county was conquered. In gratitude, Li Yiji was granted the title of Lord Guangye. He introduced his younger brother, Li Shang, who commanded four thousand young rebels, to join the Duke of Pei. The Duke of Pei appointed Li Shang as the commander of the forces from Chenliu. Meanwhile, Li Yiji became a lobbyist and diplomat, meeting the leaders of other kingdoms on behalf of the Duke of Pei.
In October that winter, General Tian Du of Qi joined the Kingdom of Chu‘s effort to aid the Kingdom of Zhao, breaking ranks with his superior, Tian Rong.
The Duke of Pei‘s troops overpowered the forces at Chengwu, led by the commander of Dong Commandery.
Song Yi led his army to the city of Anyang, where he halted the march and stayed for forty-six days. Xiang Yu approached him and said, “The Kingdom of Zhao is in a critical situation under the siege of the Qin army. We should cross the Yellow River immediately and strike the Qin troops from outside. If the Zhao forces coordinate from inside, we can end the siege.”
Song Yi rejected this plan, saying, “No, you are mistaken. Swatting a gadfly won’t get rid of the ticks and lice. The Qin army will be exhausted even if they defeat Zhao. Then we can exploit their fatigue. If the Qin army is defeated, we will beat our drums and chase them westward, taking over the Kingdom of Qin. It is better to let Qin and Zhao weaken each other. When it comes to putting on armor and fighting with blades, Song Yi is no match for General Xiang. On the other hand, you are not as good as Song Yi at strategizing attacks from behind the scenes.”
Song Yi then issued a directive to the army: “Behead all those who are as fierce as tigers, as unrelenting as goats, as greedy as wolves, and who disobey orders!” Song Yi sent his son, Song Xiang, to the Kingdom of Qi to become the prime minister. He accompanied his son to Wuyan county, where he held lavish drinking parties to bid him farewell. It was raining heavily and bitterly cold; the soldiers were freezing and hungry. Xiang Yu voiced his grievance: “We should be attacking the Qin army, not sitting here doing nothing! This is a year of poor harvest, and people are starving. Half of our soldiers’ food is just beans and lentils; there is no food reserve for our troops. Meanwhile, he is content drinking and partying. He refuses to cross the river and join the Zhao forces in their fight against Qin, which would also secure food supplies from Zhao. He makes excuses about exploiting the Qin army’s fatigue, but the powerful Qin army attacking the newly formed Kingdom of Zhao is a guaranteed victory. When Zhao falls, the Qin will only grow stronger—there will be no fatigue to exploit. Our troops recently suffered a defeat, and our king is anxious. Our king scraped together all the forces in our kingdom to be under his command. The fate of our kingdom depends on this battle. Yet Song Yi is ignoring the suffering of the soldiers and putting his self-interest first. He is not worthy of being an officer the kingdom can rely on!”
One morning in November, Xiang Yu paid a visit to General Song Yi and beheaded him inside the general’s tent. He emerged and announced, “Song Yi colluded with the Kingdom of Qi in a treasonous act. The king has given me a secret order to kill him.” The other generals were terrified and did not dare to voice any disapproval. They all submitted to Xiang Yu, saying, “The King of Chu was enthroned by General Xiang’s family. Now it is General Xiang who has eliminated the traitor.” They supported Xiang Yu as the acting commander-in-chief. Xiang Yu then sent assassins after Song Yi’s son. The assassins pursued him into the Kingdom of Qi and killed him. Xiang Yu sent General Huan Chu to report the incident to King Huai II of Chu, who appointed Xiang Yu as the new commander-in-chief.
In December, the Duke of Pei led his troops to Li county, where he encountered Marquis Gangwu. The Duke of Pei captured Marquis Gangwu and incorporated his four thousand soldiers into his own army. He then joined forces with Generals Huang Xin and Wu Man of the Kingdom of Wei. Together, they launched assaults on a corps of Qin soldiers and defeated them.
Tian An, the grandson of the late King of Qi (Tian Jian), conquered the Jibei commandery and joined forces with Xiang Yu in his effort to save the Kingdom of Zhao.
Zhang Han built an express highway from the riverbank to the county of Julu to deliver supplies to General Wang Li at the front lines. With an ample supply of food, Wang Li’s soldiers launched even more ferocious assaults on the city of Julu. Inside the besieged city, food supplies were dwindling, and the number of defending soldiers was steadily decreasing. Zhang Er sent messengers several times urging Chen Yu to advance. However, Chen Yu believed his army was too small and no match for the Qin forces, so he hesitated to move forward for several months. Enraged by this inaction, Zhang Er sent his officers, Zhang Yan and Chen Ze, to confront Chen Yu, saying, “We were sworn friends of life and death. The King of Zhao and I are on the brink of death. You have tens of thousands of troops under your command and yet do nothing. Is this what it means to live and die together? If you still honor your vow, why not fight the Qin army with us? There is still a ten to twenty percent chance of surviving together.”
Chen Yu replied, “I do not want my soldiers to die in vain without relieving the Kingdom of Zhao. I seek revenge for the King of Zhao and Mr. Zhang in the future; therefore, I choose not to die together now. What benefit is there if we all throw ourselves to the hungry tigers?”
Zhang Yan and Chen Ze insisted on fighting to the death, so Chen Yu allocated them five thousand troops. They charged against the Qin army, but none returned. At that time, troops from the Kingdoms of Qi and Yan also came to aid Zhao. Zhang Ao recruited ten thousand soldiers from Dai Commandery in the north. They all gathered at Julu and built their walled barracks next to Chen Yu, but none dared to attack the Qin army.
Xiang Yu became a fearsome figure in the Kingdom of Chu after he beheaded Grand Marshal Song Yi. He ordered his lieutenants, Lord Dangyang and General Pu, to lead twenty thousand soldiers across the Yellow River to relieve the siege of Julu. They successfully cut off the express highway built by Zhang Han, severing the supply line of food to General Wang Li and his troops. Chen Yu also pleaded for assistance from Xiang Yu, who then led his entire army across the Zhang River. Upon crossing, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink all the boats, break all the earthenware pots and steamers, and burn their temporary shelters. He provided only a three-day supply of food for his soldiers, making it clear that they were to fight to the death with no way to retreat.
Xiang Yu‘s forces encircled Wang Li’s army and routed the Qin troops in nine battles. Zhang Han led his forces in retreat. Encouraged by Xiang Yu‘s success, all the other rescuing forces finally dared to attack the Qin army. They killed General Su Jiao and captured General Wang Li, while another Qin general, She Jian, set himself on fire rather than surrender. The army of Chu outperformed those of the other kingdoms. Dozens of rescuing forces had previously built fortified barracks around Julu, but none had dared to attack the Qin army.
When the Chu army struck the Qin forces, the generals of the other kingdoms watched from their ramparts. Each Chu soldier fought against ten Qin soldiers. Their battle cries shook heaven and earth, stunning the soldiers of the other kingdoms. After the Qin army was decisively defeated, Xiang Yu summoned the generals of the other kingdoms to his camp. As they entered the camp gate, the generals began walking on their knees, too frightened to make eye contact with Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu thus became the undisputed commander-in-chief of all the allied forces.
Baiyun Temple in Minquan (Waihuang) county, Henan Province
The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C. continued)
Xiang Liang defeated Zhang Han in Dong’e county. His troops advanced westward and crushed the Qin army at Dingtao. Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei then engaged the Qin forces at Yongqiu county, delivered another severe beating, and beheaded Li You, Li Si’s eldest son. Buoyed by these victories, Xiang Liang grew arrogant and began to underestimate the Qin army. Song Yi, the former Prime Minister of Chu, warned him, “Commanders become cocky and soldiers become sloppy after many victories, which often lead to defeat. Our soldiers are slackening while the Qin army is gaining strength. I worry for you.” Xiang Liang dismissed his advice and sent Song Yi to the Kingdom of Qi as his envoy.
On the road, Song Yi encountered the ambassador of Qi, Lord Gaoling, whose name was Xian. He asked Lord Gaoling, “Are you going to meet Lord Wuxin?” Lord Gaoling affirmed. Song Yi replied, “In my opinion, Lord Wuxin‘s troops will soon suffer a major loss. You would avoid death if you proceed slowly, by rushing in you’ll plunge into a disaster.”
There were continuous rainfalls from July to September.
Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei laid siege to Waihuang county but failed to break in. They withdrew and attacked Chenliu county instead. Then came the news that Lord Wuxin was dead, which shook the rank and file. They led their troops eastward and joined forces with General Lü Chen. Together, they moved King Huai II of Chu from the capital Xuyi to the new capital, Pengcheng. Lü Chen‘s troops camped to the east of Pengcheng, while Xiang Yu‘s forces camped to the west. The Duke of Pei and his followers took a rest at Dang county.
Wei Bao had taken control of over twenty cities of Wei, and King Huai II of Chu awarded him the title of King of Wei.
In late September, King Huai II of Chu reorganized the troops under Lü Chen and Xiang Yu, bringing them directly under his command. He appointed the Duke of Pei as the prefect of Dang Commandery, granting him the title of Marquis Wu’an and command of the forces there. He also granted Xiang Yu the title of Marquis Chang’an with the moniker Duke of Lu. Lü Chen was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs, and his father, Lü Qing, became the Prime Minister.
Zhang Han, believing that the armed forces of Chu were no longer a serious threat after the death of Xiang Liang, crossed the Yellow River and launched a raid on the Kingdom of Zhao. He crushed the Zhao army, conquered the city of Handan, relocated its residents to the south of the Yellow River, and dismantled the city’s fortifications. Zhang Er and the King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, fled to Julu county. General Wang Li of Qin then laid siege to Julu. Chen Yu regrouped tens of thousands of soldiers around Changshan commandery and camped to the north of Julu, while Zhang Han stationed his army in a town Jiyuan, to the south of Julu. The King of Zhao repeatedly appealed to the Kingdom of Chu for reinforcements.
Lord Gaoling, whose name is Xian, met with King Huai II of Chu and shared his conversation with Song Yi: “Song Yi predicted Lord Wuxin‘s demise. I stayed put for a few days, and indeed, the news came that the army of Chu had collapsed. He must be well-versed in warfare if he could foresee the outcome of a battle before it even began.” Impressed, King Huai II summoned Song Yi to discuss upcoming battles and was greatly impressed with his strategic plans. As a result, he appointed Song Yi as Commander-in-Chief, Xiang Yu as his lieutenant, and Fan Zeng as a General. He ordered them to come to the aid of Zhao, placing all other generals under Song Yi‘s command and granting him the title of Generalissimo.
King Huai II of Chu had made a pact among his commanders: “Whoever breaks into the Passes of Qin first will be made the King of Qin.” At this time, the army of Qin remained strong and often chased the allies troops northward through the momentum of victories. All commanders, except Xiang Yu, believed it was disadvantageous to assault the interior of the Kingdom of Qin. Xiang Yu, however, held a deep grudge against the army of Qin for killing Xiang Liang and volunteered to go west, entering Qin territory with the Duke of Pei. A few senior generals who had served alongside him advised King Huai II of Chu, “Xiang Yu has a brutal and devious personality. He obliterated the city and buried all its people alive when he conquered Xiangcheng. He leaves total devastation in his path. Previous expeditions against Qin by the Kingdom of Chu, such as those led by Chen Sheng and Xiang Liang, ended in failure. Our next Western Campaign should be led by a mature leader, with a righteous cause and calling for the support of the people of Qin. The people of Qin have suffered under their rulers for a long time. If a more experienced leader comes along who does not ransack their properties, he may be able to take down Qin‘s defenses. Please do not send Xiang Yu westward. Only the Duke of Pei, who is magnanimous and mature, should lead the Western Campaign.”
The Duke of Pei‘s army marched out of Dang county and attacked the Qin camps at Yangcheng county and Gangli county, successfully trampling down both camps.
Zhang Liang advised Xiang Liang, “Now that you have installed the King of Chu, Lord Hengyang—whose name is Cheng—was the most capable among the princes of the Kingdom of Han. You should install him as the King of Han to strengthen our ranks.” Following this suggestion, Xiang Liang sent Zhang Liang to find Han Cheng and installed him as the King of Han. He appointed Zhang Liang as the defense minister. Zhang Liang, along with the new King of Han, led a force of around a thousand soldiers to reclaim territories of the former Kingdom of Han to the west. They managed to capture a few cities, but these were soon retaken by the Qin army. Zhang Liang and his king then resorted to guerrilla warfare tactics in the Yingchuan Commandery.
General Zhang Han of Qin had crushed Chen Sheng’s regime and led his army to attack the King of Wei in Linji county. The King of Wei sent Zhou Fu as his envoy to seek aid from the kingdoms of Qi and Chu. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, and General Xiang Ta of Chu led their troops with Zhou Fu to assist the Kingdom of Wei. Zhang Han launched a surprise night attack, keeping his soldiers silent by ordering them to hold sticks in their mouths. The Qin army defeated the joint forces of Qi and Chu in Linji county. The King of Qi and Zhou Fu were killed in the battle. The King of Wei, Wei Jiu, attempted to placate Zhang Han by surrendering on behalf of his people. After the settlement was signed, the King of Wei committed suicide by self-immolation. His brother, Wei Bao, escaped to the Kingdom of Chu. King Huai II of Chu assigned several thousand soldiers to Wei Bao and ordered him to retake the lost territory of Wei.
Tian Rong, a younger brother of Tian Dan, gathered the remaining troops of Tian Dan and fled eastward to the city of Dong’e. General Zhang Han relentlessly pursued them and laid siege to Dong’e. When the people of Qi learned that their king had died, they installed Tian Jia, a younger brother of the late King of Qi, Tian Jian4, as their new king. Tian Jiao became the prime minister, and his younger brother, Tian Jian1, was made commander-in-chief. They formed a new government to defend against the aggression of other kingdoms.
In July, there was non-stop rainfall. Lord Wuxin led a campaign to seize Kangfu county. Upon hearing of Tian Rong‘s crisis, he shifted his attack to Zhang Han at Dong’e county and overran the Qin troops. General Zhang Han retreated westward, while Tian Rong and his forces moved back eastward to the Kingdom of Qi. Lord Wuxin pursued the Qin army to the north and ordered Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei to capture Chengyang county. They breached the city and slaughtered its inhabitants. The army of Chu then moved east of the city of Puyang, where they engaged Zhang Han’s troops in another battle and secured another victory. Zhang Han received reinforcements from the Kingdom of Qin and strengthened the defense of Puyang by surrounding the city with water drawn from a nearby river. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu withdrew their forces and attacked the town of Dingtao.
In August, Tian Rong’s troops attacked the King of Qi, Tian Jia, who fled to the Kingdom of Chu. The Prime Minister of Qi, Tian Jiao, escaped to the Kingdom of Zhao. Commander Tian Jian, who had led an army to aid the Kingdom of Zhao, dared not return upon hearing the news. Tian Rong installed Tian Shi, the son of Tian Dan, as the King of Qi and assumed the position of prime minister himself. Tian Heng took command of the military. Together, they laid claim to the Kingdom of Qi. Meanwhile, Zhang Han‘s forces became emboldened. Xiang Liang sent several envoys to the Kingdoms of Qi and Zhao, pleading with them to join forces to counter Zhang Han‘s offensive. Tian Rong’s response was: “The Kingdom of Chu should kill Tian Jia. The Kingdom of Zhao must kill Tian Jue and Tian Jian. We will join forces with you once you have done that.” The Kingdoms of Chu and Zhao did not comply. Offended, Tian Rong refused to send his troops.
Zhao Gao, the Grand Chamberlain of Qin, had free rein over the court of Qin, relying on the trust of the Second Emperor, whose favorite eunuch he was. He murdered many people out of personal spite and feared that court officials might report him. He spoke to the Emperor, saying: “The Son of Heaven is far above everyone else if all his subjects can only hear from him but cannot see him face to face. Your Majesty is still young and may not yet be skilled in all matters. The flaws in your judgment on punishments and rewards will be fully exposed to court officials if Your Majesty attends court regularly. This is not a way to demonstrate your divine wisdom to the world. It would be better for Your Majesty to stay in the seraglio and allow me and other attendants who are well-versed in the laws to handle daily governance. Your Majesty would only need to address escalated issues. Thus, the officials would not dare to bring difficult problems before you, and the people of the world would praise Your Majesty as a saint.”
The Second Emperor approved Zhao Gao’s advice. He stopped attending court to face the officials and spent his days idling in the inner court. Zhao Gao and the eunuchs served as intermediaries between the Emperor and the court, with Zhao Gao making all the decisions on governance.
Zhao Gao learned that Chancellor Li Si wanted to speak out, so he visited Li Si and said, “The bandits outside the Hangu Pass are becoming uncontrollable, yet the Emperor demands more corvée labor to build the E’fang Palace and collects rare breeds of dogs and horses that are useless. I would like to raise objections, but I am just a lowly servant. These matters are for lords and marquis like you to discuss. Why don’t you offer your advice?” Li Si replied, “That is indeed my duty. The Emperor avoids court and won’t come to hear matters of state these days. The advice I want to give cannot be conveyed indirectly. I need to meet with the Emperor, but he has no time for me.” Zhao Gao promised, “If you truly wish to speak to the Emperor, I will arrange for you to see him when he has time.”
Zhao Gao would then summon Li Si when the Second Emperor had just indulged in female companionship, saying, “Please come in; the Emperor has time to meet.” Chancellor Li Si would request an audience, interrupting the Emperor’s leisure. This happened three times, and the Emperor became enraged: “The Chancellor never comes when I am free, but always seeks to discuss state affairs as soon as I relax and enjoy myself! Does the Chancellor think I am too young? Does he want to discipline me?” Zhao Gao seized the opportunity and said, “The Chancellor played a major role in the Shaqiu scheme. Now that Your Majesty has become Emperor, he remains in his position and might want to divide the land and declare himself king. I would not speak of this if Your Majesty did not ask. The Chancellor’s eldest son, Li You, is the governor of Sanchuan Commandery. The bandits from Chu, like Chen Sheng, hail from counties near the Chancellor’s hometown. When they wreaked havoc in Chu and passed by Sanchuan, the governor did not attack them. I have heard that the governor exchanged letters with the bandits. I have not investigated this fully, so I did not report it to Your Majesty. As you know, the Chancellor wields great power outside the court.”
The Second Emperor believed Zhao Gao. He wanted to prosecute the Chancellor but was concerned about the lack of evidence. He sent investigators to look into the alleged communications between the governor of Sanchuan and the bandits.
Li Si sensed a plot against him and wrote to the Emperor to denounce Zhao Gao: “Zhao Gao arrogates to himself the power to mete out benefits and punishments, behaving as if he were no different from Your Majesty. When Tian Heng was the prime minister under Duke Jian of Qi, he expropriated the grace and authority of his lord. He forged alliances with the officers and gained popularity among the common people. Eventually, he murdered Duke Jian and usurped the Kingdom of Qi. This is a well-known historical fact. Zhao Gao‘s devious motives, treacherous activities, and personal wealth rival Tian Heng‘s influence over the Kingdom of Qi. He is even more aggressive and greedy. Now, his standing is second only to Your Majesty, yet his avarice knows no bounds. He will strip you of your prestige and supremacy. His ambition is to be like Han Qi, the last prime minister of King Han An. If Your Majesty does not take proactive measures, I fear he will overthrow you.”
The Second Emperor rebuked Li Si, saying, “What are you talking about? Zhao Gao is just an old eunuch. He does not indulge himself in times of peace, nor does he waver in times of peril. His exemplary conduct and charity have earned him his position. He has risen through his loyalty and holds his office through his truthfulness. We greatly value him, and yet you accuse him. Why? Moreover, whom would I rely on if I didn’t trust Mr. Zhao? Mr. Zhao is a scrupulous and capable person. He understands the common people and makes We feel good. You should not slander him.”
The Second Emperor liked Zhao Gao personally and trusted him. Fearing that Li Si might try to kill Zhao Gao, he informed Zhao Gao of Li Si’s memorandum. Zhao Gao countered, “I am the only one the Chancellor is worried about. If he manages to get rid of me, he will do what Tian Heng did to your Majesty.”
More “bandits” emerged everywhere, prompting more soldiers to be drafted within the Hangu Pass and sent eastward incessantly to quash them. Vice Chancellor Feng Quji, Chancellor Li Si, and General Feng Jie went to speak to the Emperor, saying, “There are many brigands rising to the east of Hangu Pass. The army of Qin has struck these brigands and killed many, but their spread has not been contained. These brigands are numerous because the people’s lives have been made miserable by the heavy burdens of garrison duties, transportation of goods, logistical services for war, and excessive taxation. We plead for a temporary halt to the construction of the E’fang Palace and a reduction in garrison duties and logistical costs.”
The Second Emperor was outraged and responded, “The majesty of being the lord of the empire is to do whatever he pleases. The lord promulgates laws, and the subjects dare not infringe upon them, ensuring the world is under his complete control. Lords in the legendary Yu dynasty and the Xia dynasty, exalted as the sons of heaven, had to lead poor and arduous lives to set examples for the people. Then what is the purpose of laws? My father, the late Emperor, began as the lord of a single state and unified the realm. He brought peace to the empire and kept the barbarians at bay. Building palaces was to relish his joy and let you witness his series of achievements. During my reign over the last two years, so many bandits have emerged from the woods. You have failed to suppress their lawlessness, yet you dare to propose suspending the project of the late Emperor. First, you are not honoring the late Emperor’s wishes; second, you are not serving me loyally. Why are you still holding your posts?”
The Second Emperor ordered the three ministers to be put on trial for various charges. Feng Quji and Feng Jie committed suicide, but Li Si reported to prison. The Second Emperor appointed Zhao Gao as the judge, charging Li Si and his son Li You with seditious acts. The entire Li Si clan and their attendants were arrested. Zhao Gao had Li Si whipped thousands of strokes. Unable to withstand the pain, Li Si confessed to the false charges of sedition.
Li Si chose to live because he believed in his power of persuasion, his past accomplishments, and his innocence regarding the charge of sedition. He hoped to defend himself in writing, believing that the Second Emperor might come to his senses and pardon him. From his jail cell, he wrote to the Emperor:
“I have been the Chancellor and governed the people of Qin for more than thirty years. In the earlier years, the territory of the Kingdom of Qin was narrow, only about a thousand li across, with armed forces of merely a few hundred thousand soldiers. I made an all-out effort to recruit strategists in secret and financed them with gold and treasures to lobby other monarchs. I also covertly trained armored warriors and educated them in ethics and religion. I selected these elite fighters to be officers and awarded those who provided extraordinary service. Eventually, we terrorized the Kingdom of Han, weakened the Kingdom of Wei, conquered the Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao, and dismantled the Kingdoms of Qi and Chu. Finally, we annexed the six kingdoms and captured their kings. I enthroned the King of Qin as the Son of Heaven.”
“I demonstrated the strength of the Qin Empire by driving out the nomadic tribes like the Hu and the He in the north and subduing the hundreds of tribes in the land of Yue in the south. I established the institutions of the Qin Empire by unifying the writing, measuring, and weighing systems and promulgating them throughout the world. These are my crimes, and I should have died long ago! Thanks to Your Majesty’s wishing me to serve with all my ability, I have managed to last until this day. I hope Your Majesty will look into my case!”
The letter was submitted. However, Zhao Gao instructed the jail warden to suppress it, saying, “A criminal does not get to write to the authorities!”
Zhao Gao instructed his minions to interrogate Li Si in turns, pretending to be inspectors, court heralds, and palace attendants. At first, Li Si rescinded his guilty plea, but he was beaten more severely. After several rounds of interrogation and torture, Li Si gave up on retracting his confession. Later, when the Second Emperor sent his personal inquirer to see him, Li Si, unable to distinguish between them and Zhao Gao’s men, stuck to his false statements. The inquirer reported back to the Emperor, who was gleeful: “I would have been betrayed by the Chancellor were it not for Mr. Zhao!”
By the time the investigator sent by the Second Emperor reached the Commandery of Sanchuan, Li Si‘s eldest son, Li You, who was the governor, had already been killed by soldiers of Chu. The investigator returned to the capital just as the Chancellor was charged with crimes. Although the investigator submitted his findings, Zhao Gao relayed the opposite to the Second Emperor. The verdict against Li Si included the five cruel punishments, culminating in being chopped in half in Xianyang’s public market.
Li Si was taken out of prison, shackled alongside his second son. He spoke to his son: “I wish I could go with you and our yellow dog to hunt rabbits outside the East Gate of Shangcai, as we did in the past. Couldn’t we do it?” Father and son faced each other and wailed. The three clans of Li Si—his father’s, mother’s, and wife’s—were all exterminated. The Second Emperor then appointed Zhao Gao as the Chancellor. Zhao Gao monopolized all decision-making, whether crucial or trivial.
General Jiu of Qin attacked the Kingdom of Wei and captured the city of Wucheng.
The King of Han then made a pilgrimage to the Kingdom of Qin. The entire Kingdom of Wei came under the influence of Qin, following its orders.
The 54th year of King Zhaoxiang(253 B.C.)
The King of Qin traveled to the town of Yong, on the outskirts of Xianyang, to perform a rite of heaven worship.
The Kingdom of Chu relocated its capital to the city of Juyang.
The 55th year of King Zhaoxiang(252 B.C.)
Lord Huai of Wey made a pilgrimage to the Kingdom of Wei. He was imprisoned and killed by the Wei people, who then installed his younger brother, Lord Yuan, as his successor. Lord Yuan is the son-in-law of the King of Wei.
The 56th year of King Zhaoxiang(251 B.C.)
In late September, during the autumn, King Zhaoxiang of Qin passed away. His son Zhu ascended to the throne as King Xiaowen of Qin. He posthumously honored his late mother, Bazi Tang, with the title of Queen Dowager Tang. King Xiaowen designated Prince Zichu as the crown prince and brought his wife and son from the Kingdom of Zhao to Qin. The King of Han paid tribute to the late king, wearing a full mourning dress.
The King of Yan, Xi, sent his prime minister, Li Fu, to the Kingdom of Zhao to form an alliance. Li Fu contributed five hundred catties of gold to the King of Yan and spent the entire day drinking with him. Upon returning home, Li Fu advised the King of Yan: “The adults of Zhao were all killed in the Battle of Changping. Their orphans are still too young. Now is a good time to attack.” The King of Yan then summoned Lord Changguo, Yue Jian, for advice. Yue Jian responded, “Zhao is a kingdom surrounded on four sides by adversaries and survives. Their people are accustomed to and skilled in warfare. We should not attack them.” The King asked, “What if we send in troops five times their number?” Yue Jian’s answer remained, “No.” The King was irked, but his subordinates all agreed to the attack. Consequently, he mobilized two thousand chariots. Li Fu led the attack on the city of Hao, while Qing Qin attacked the city of Dai.
Jiang Qu, an official of Yan, spoke against the war: “We made an alliance with them; we paid five hundred catties of gold to drink with their king; our envoy reported on them, and now we will attack them. I do not feel promising about this and am afraid it won’t be successful.” The King of Yan refused to listen and led the second group of troops behind the first group. Jiang Qu held the king’s ribbon and would not let go. The king kicked him off, but Jiang Qu cried out, “I am not doing this for myself. I am doing it for the king.” The troops of Yan went to Songzi county, were counterattacked by an army led by General Lian Po. Li Fu was defeated at the city of Hao, while Qing Qin was defeated by an army led by Yue Sheng at the city of Dai. The troops of Yan were chased five hundred miles northward, and the capital of Yan was besieged by the army of Zhao. The Kingdom of Yan sued for peace, with Zhao demanding, “You must have Jiang Qu come to talk about peace.” The King of Yan appointed Jiang Qu as prime minister and sent him to negotiate the peace treaty. Subsequently, the troops of Zhao withdrew.
In the winter of October, King Xiaowen was installed, but he died after only three days on the throne. His son Zichu succeeded him as King Zhuangxiang of Qin. He bestowed the title of Queen Dowager Huayang upon Madame Huayang and Queen Dowager Xia upon his birth mother, Lady Xia.
A general from Yan conquered the city of Liaocheng from the Kingdom of Qi. Someone bad-mouthed him before the King of Yan, making the general fear returning home, forcing him to defend the city instead. Tian Dan led troops of Qi to lay siege to Liaocheng, but after more than a year, the city had not fallen. Lu Zhonglian wrote a letter, attached it to an arrow, and shot it over to the general. In the letter, he outlined the pros and cons: “From your point of view, you can either return to Yan or surrender to Qi. Now, you are defending a besieged city with increasing Qi forces and no aid from Yan. What will you do?”
The general read the letter and sobbed for three days, unable to decide. Returning to Yan meant facing discord, while surrendering to Qi meant risking abuse for having killed many prisoners of war. He finally lamented, “I would rather slash my throat myself than be slashed by others!” He committed suicide, and Liaocheng descended into chaos. Tian Dan broke in and took the city. Upon his return to Qi, he credited Lu Zhonglian for the victory. The King of Qi wished to award Lu Zhonglian a knighthood, but Lu Zhonglian fled to the sea, saying, “I would rather live lowly and poorly yet freely, ignoring secular affairs, than live rich and famous but succumb to others.”
King Anxi of Wei sought a recommendation for a noble person from Zishun. Zishun replied, “There is no such person. If you consider the next best, it would be Lu Zhonglian.” The king said, “Lu Zhonglian seems make-believe, not natural to me.” Zishun responded, “All men make-believe to do good. If he continues to do good, then he becomes a nobleman. When good deeds become habitual, then they are natural.”
The Lord of East Zhou conspired with other monarchs to plot attacks on the Kingdom of Qin. The King of Qin ordered the Chancellor to lead a campaign to annex the state. The Lord of East Zhou was forced to settle in the village of Yangrenju. The rituals of praying for the progenitors of the Zhou dynasty were discontinued thereafter. By the time the Zhou dynasty ended, it still had seven cities: Henan, Luoyang, Gucheng, Pingyin, Yanshi, Gong, and Goushi.
The King of Qin awarded one hundred thousand families in the cities of Henan and Luoyang to Chancellor Lv Buwei as a fief and granted him the title Marquis Wenxin.
General Meng Ao of Qin raided the Kingdom of Han, capturing the cities of Chenggao and Xingyang. He established the prefecture of Sanchuan (Three Rivers) to govern these two cities.
The Kingdom of Chu annexed the state of Lu and relocated Duke Qing of Lu to the town of Bian, where he became a domestic helper.
In early October of the winter, Lord Wu’an was stripped of all his titles and reduced to the rank of a private. He was subsequently compelled to relocate to the modest town of Yinmi. Meanwhile, in December, additional troops were mustered and dispatched to the front lines near Fencheng, but Lord Wu’an, afflicted by illness, remained behind. As the military situation worsened with repeated retreats by Wang He under onslaught from rival kingdoms, reports of these setbacks inundated the court of Qin, prompting the king to decree Lord Wuan‘s expulsion from the city of Xianyang. Finding refuge in the nearby town of Duyou, situated roughly ten miles out of Xianyang‘s west gates, Lord Wu’an‘s fate hung in the balance. Seeking counsel from the Marquis Ying and his advisors, the king of Qin complained of Lord Wu’an‘s continued discontent and unwelcome remarks even in his exile. In a gesture both symbolic and final, the king dispatched his envoy to present Lord Wu’an with a sword. Lord Wu’an ended his own life with the blade. Despite his fall from grace, the people of Qin harbored a deep affection and sympathy for him, venerating his memory in towns and countryside alike.
Prince Wuji decisively defeated the Qin army stationed beneath the walls of Handan, compelling Wang He’s forces to abandon their siege and retreat in disarray. Meanwhile, Zheng Anping, commanding a contingent of twenty thousand soldiers, capitulated to the encroaching Zhao troops after finding himself besieged. The blame for this surrender fell squarely on Marquis Ying due to his close association with Zheng Anping, casting a shadow over his reputation and influence.
Prince Wuji saved the kingdom of Zhao by forging the order of the king of Wei. He dared not return to Wei and stayed in Zhao with his dependents. He let his lieutenant general command the troops of Wei and march back home. The king of Zhao discussed the reward for Prince Wuji with Lord Ping’yuan, preparing to grant five cities to the prince as a fief. The king of Zhao personally swept outside his palace in preparation for Prince Wuji’s visit. During the ceremony, the king of Zhao welcomed Prince Wuji at the west stairway of the palace. To show his modesty, Prince Wuji walked sideways, climbing from the east stairway. He remained unassuming and kept expressing his guilt towards the kingdom of Wei while taking no credit from the kingdom of Zhao. The king of Zhao wine and dined with Prince Wuji until dusk. Since the prince passed up the gratitude from the king, the five cities’ awards were withdrawn. Instead, the king of Zhao awarded Prince Wuji the town of Hao as his fief. The kingdom of Wei also reinstated the fief of the town Xinling.
Prince Wuji learned about a wise man, Mr. Mao, who dwelt among gamblers, and another sage, Mr. Xue, who loitered in bars. When he tried to visit them, they rejected him. Undeterred, Prince Wuji followed them around on foot. When Lord Ping’yuan heard about this, he was unimpressed. Prince Wuji reacted strongly, saying, “I heard that Lord Ping’yuan was a nobleman. That’s why I turned my back on the kingdom of Wei to save the kingdom of Zhao. Now I see that Lord Ping’yuan only wants to show off his generosity without truly seeking learned men. Wuji likes to spend time with these two gentlemen and fears rejection from them. Is Lord Ping’yuan ashamed of me?” Prince Wuji packed up and prepared to leave. Lord Ping’yuan took off his hat and apologized for his comment. Prince Wuji ended up staying in Zhao.
Lord Ping’yuan wanted to reward Lu Zhonglian. His envoys went three times to deliver the goods, but Lu rejected the offers each time. On Lu’s birthday, Lord Ping’yuan presented him with a thousand catties of gold. Lu Zhonglian laughed and said, “What is noble for a scholar is that he relieves the suffering and solves the problems for people without taking anything. If he takes compensation, he becomes a businessman. I don’t want to be a businessman.” With that, Lu Zhonglian said farewell to Lord Ping’yuan and left, never to see him again.
The crown prince of Qin had a concubine named Madam Huayang, who bore him no sons. Another concubine, Madam Xia, had a son named Yiren. Yiren was held hostage in the kingdom of Zhao. During his stay, the kingdom of Qin raided Zhao many times, causing the people of Zhao to treat Yiren harshly. As a bastard grandson of a king held as a hostage, he received minimal funding for his living and travel expenses, and his house looked dilapidated.
There was a wealthy merchant named Lv Buwei from the city of Yangzhai. He met Yiren during a trip to Handan and thought to himself, “This is a rare commodity to hold.” Lv Buwei visited Yiren and promised, “I will make your doorway look grand.” Yiren laughed, “Why don’t you make your own doorway look grand first?” Lv Buwei replied, “You don’t understand. My doorway will look grand only after yours does.” Understanding his intent, Yiren invited him inside, and they had a deep conversation.
Lv Buwei explained, “The king of Qin is old. The crown prince loves Madam Huayang, but she has no son. You have more than twenty brothers, and among them, Zixi has the best chance of inheriting the kingdom with Mr. Du Cang’s assistance. You, being in the middle of the pack, are not favored and are held as a hostage far from the capital. When the crown prince is installed, you won’t have a chance to vie for the heirship.”
Prince Yiren asked, “What can I do?” Lv Buwei answered, “The only person who can decide the heir is Madam Huayang. I am not rich, but I am willing to spend a thousand catties of gold to lobby for you to be designated as heir to the crown.” Prince Yiren agreed, “If your lobbying succeeds, I will share the kingdom of Qin with you.”
Lv Buwei gave five hundred catties of gold to Prince Yiren to make friends with scholars and influential people. He used another five hundred ounces to buy exotic artifacts and jewelry, then traveled westward to Qin. He visited Madame Huayang’s elder sister and, through her, presented the gifts to Madam Huayang. He took the opportunity to praise Prince Yiren‘s commendable character and his popularity among scholars worldwide, emphasizing that Yiren often cried thinking of the crown prince and Madam Huayang, even declaring, “Madam Huayang, you are heaven-sent to Yiren.”
Madam Huayang was delighted. Lv Buwei then advised Madam Huayang through her sister, “A woman’s beauty fades, but influence can last. Today, you are favored but have no son. If you don’t bond with a worthy prince now and make him the heir, will your words matter when you are old and less beautiful? Prince Yiren is decent and ranks in the middle among the princes, so he doesn’t expect to be heir. If you make him the crown prince now, he will owe everything to you. You will have a son and retain your influence in Qin.”
Madam Huayang approved. She waited for an opportunity and, during a pillow talk with the crown prince, praised Yiren, saying, “Every guest speaks highly of him. Unfortunately, I have no son. I wish to adopt Yiren as my own and have him designated as the heir so I could depend on him.” The crown prince agreed, and they made the pledge by carving the words onto a jade charm. They then made a large endowment to Prince Yiren, delivered by Lv Buwei. With this financial backing, Prince Yiren gained more accolades and support from other kings.
Lv Buwei married a woman of exceptional beauty from Handan. He invited Prince Yiren over to drink when he knew that she was pregnant. Prince Yiren fell in love at first sight and couldn’t help but ask for her. Lv Buwei pretended to be offended initially but eventually submitted her to Prince Yiren. The woman bore a son named Zheng after a full-term pregnancy with Prince Yiren. Prince Yiren made her the lady of his house.
During the siege of Handan by the army of Qin, the people of Zhao wanted to kill Prince Yiren. In desperation, he gave Lv Buwei three hundred kilograms of gold to bribe the guards and allow him to flee to the camp of Qin. He finally made it home safely. Dressed in the apparel of Chu, he paid a visit to Madam Huayang. Deeply moved, she exclaimed, “I am from the kingdom of Chu. You are my son!” She changed Yiren‘s name to Zichu[Son of Chu].
The 59th year of King Nan(256 B.C.)
General Jiu of Qin led a campaign against the kingdom of Han, conquering the cities of Yangcheng and Fuji and beheading forty thousand soldiers of Han. He then turned his attention to the kingdom of Zhao, where the Qin army occupied more than twenty counties and beheaded ninety thousand soldiers. Horrified by these events, King Nan of West Zhou broke the pact with Qin and joined a vertical alliance with other kingdoms. Their plan was to combine their elite forces and attack Qin from the pass of Yijue, disrupting communication between the city of Yangcheng and the heart of Qin.
In response, the king of Qin ordered General Jiu to attack the kingdom of West Zhou. Facing the overwhelming might of Qin, King Nan surrendered. He was brought to Qin, where he kowtowed to the king, begging for pardon. He submitted thirty-six towns and thirty thousand subjects to Qin. The king of Qin accepted his submission and allowed him to return home. King Nan died in the same year.
Meanwhile, the kingdom of Chu annexed the kingdom of Lu. Duke Qing of Lu was moved to the city of Ju and demoted to the position of a housekeeper. With no descendants, his lineage ended.
In October, Lord Wu’an deployed his army in three prongs: One branch, led by Wang He, occupied the cities of Wuan and Pilao; Another branch, led by Sima Geng, moved north to suppress any resistance in the city of Taiyuan and took control of the entire Shang’dang region. The kingdoms of Han and Wei were alarmed by these movements. They sent Su Dai to persuade Marquis Ying, saying, “Is Lord Wu’an planning to besiege Handan?” Marquis Ying confirmed this, and Su Dai continued, “Qin would indeed become the king of the realm if it annexed Zhao, and Lord Wu’an would hold significant power within Qin, and your highness would be under his thumb. Even if you don’t like to be the underling, you have to accept this reality. In the past, Qin‘s invasion of Han resulted in rebellions, with the inhabitants of Shang’dang fleeing to Zhao to escape Qin‘s rule. It’s evident that many people do not wish to live under Qin‘s authority. If Zhao were to fall to Qin, the population would scatter to neighboring kingdoms, further weakening Qin‘s control over the region. Therefore, it would be wiser to negotiate for these cities as part of a cease-fire agreement rather than allowing them to become mere trophies for Lord Wu’an.”
Marquis Ying conveyed this advice to the king of Qin, “Our troops are weary from the prolonged conflict. It would be prudent to negotiate a cease-fire agreement with the kingdoms of Han and Zhao to allow our soldiers the opportunity to rest and recover. As part of these negotiations, we should demand the transfer of certain towns from both kingdoms to secure our position and ensure a more stable peace.” The king of Qin agreed, and they demanded the city of Yuanyong from Han and six cities from Zhao in exchange for peace. In January, the war ended, and troops returned home. However, this decision led to a rift between Lord Wu’an and Marquis Ying.
The king of Zhao was on the verge of appointing Zhao Hao as the envoy to negotiate the terms of surrendering six counties to the kingdom of Qin. Yu Qing interjected, “Did the Qin troops withdraw due to exhaustion? Or perhaps, despite having sufficient forces to advance, did they cease their attacks out of love towards your majesty?” In response, the king speculated that Qin‘s retreat stemmed from exhaustion, as they were relentless in their quest for conquest. Yu Qing pointed out, “Qin pursued an objective but failed to achieve it due to exhaustion. By offering what they couldn’t secure through force, we inadvertently facilitate their aggression against us. When Qin inevitably attacks us next year, we’ll be left without aid or support from other kingdoms.”
Amidst the indecision, lobbyist Lou Huan returned from Qin, prompting consultation from the king of Zhao on territorial concessions. Lou Huan argued, “Yu Qing perceived one aspect of the situation but overlooked another. The world rejoiced when Qin and Zhao clashed because it presented opportunities for exploitation: ‘We would take advantage of the loser when the strong bullies the weak.’ To counter this, Zhao should promptly cede land to Qin to confound other nations and appease Qin‘s ambitions. Failure to do so would invite further hostility from Qin and eventual division of Zhao among other states. How can we stand against Qin if Zhao itself no longer exists?”
Yu Qing heard the lobbying of Lou Huan and offered his counter proposal to the king of Zhao, “Mr. Lou’s proposal is detrimental as it would only heighten suspicion among other nations and fail to quell Qin‘s greed. Furthermore, it would expose our perceived cowardice. However, I didn’t mean to suggest refusing to cede land altogether when opposing yielding to Qin. Instead, consider this: Qin claims six cities from us. We could offer these cities to the king of Qi. Given the animosity between Qi and Qin, the king of Qi would likely accept our offer swiftly. By giving the cities to Qi at Qin‘s expense, we demonstrate resilience to the world. Taking this initiative may prompt Qin to negotiate a peace treaty before any reinforcements arrive at our borders. Achieving peace with Qin would earn respect from Han and Wei. In one stroke, we would win the affection of three kingdoms while compelling Qin to rethink its strategies.” Impressed by the plan, the king of Zhao endorsed it and dispatched Yu Qing to negotiate with the king of Qi.
Before Yu Qing‘s return from Qi, Qin‘s envoy arrived in Zhao‘s capital. Lou Huan, sensing the shift in dynamics, hastily departed. In recognition of Yu Qing‘s strategic acumen, the king granted him a city as a fief.
The King of Wei consulted with his advisers upon news of Qin‘s assault on the kingdom of Zhao. While they believed Wei stood to gain from the conflict, Kong Bin, also known by the courtesy name Zishun, dissented: “Why do you say that?” Their reasoning was that should Qin triumph over Zhao, Wei might capitulate, and if Qin failed, Wei could exploit their exhaustion. Zishun countered, “That’s not accurate. Qin‘s military prowess has been unbroken since the time of Duke Xiao of Qin. Moreover, they’re now under the command of an exceptional leader. What exhaustion do you speak of?” One adviser argued, “If Qin conquers Zhao, it wouldn’t harm us. It’s advantageous when a neighbor is weakened.” Zishun retorted, “Qin is inherently rapacious. Once they conquer Zhao, they’ll seek further conquests. Eventually, Wei may find itself targeted by Qin‘s aggression. Let me recount a tale passed down by my ancestors: Swallows built their nest beneath a house’s eaves, feeling secure. The mother fed the babies and the babies were chirping merrily. When a fire erupted, consuming the entire dwelling, the swallows remained oblivious until it was too late. Similarly, you fail to foresee the impending peril should Zhao fall. Are we not as blind as those swallows?”
Zishun, the sixth-generation grandson of Confucius, was highly regarded by the King of Wei, who had heard praises of him. Impressed, the king dispatched diplomats bearing gifts of gold and silk to invite Zishun to become his prime minister. Zishun‘s response was unequivocal: “If the king heeds my counsel and adopts my policies, I shall come even if sustained by mere vegetables and water. But if I am adorned with luxury and riches without genuine influence, I am but an ordinary man. Does the king require just another ordinary man?” Due to the diplomat’s persistence, Zishun relented and accompanied him.
Upon Zishun‘s arrival, the King of Wei personally greeted him and appointed him prime minister. Zishun wasted no time in overhauling the administration, replacing officials appointed through favoritism with those chosen based on merit and virtue. He instituted a system where achievements were duly rewarded, contrasting the previous practice of rewarding slackers.
However, as expected, those who lost positions or privileges due to Zishun‘s reforms began to slander him behind his back. Wen Zi, a confidant, informed Zishun of the malicious gossip. Zishun, undeterred, remarked, “Not engaging the public in strategic planning in early stages is a time-honored practice. It’s a well-established fact that many competent administrators throughout history faced criticism at the outset of their careers. For instance, it took three years of Zichan’s governance in the State of Zheng to silence detractors, while my ancestor Confucius, serving as prime minister in Lu, quelled disparagement within three months. I’ve only just begun leading this new administration. I don’t possess the same level of skill as those esteemed predecessors. So, why should I concern myself with the slanderous words aimed at vilifying me?”
“I wasn’t aware of the criticisms directed at Confucius.” Wen Zi was curious.
“When Confucius assumed the role of prime minister, a song circulated among the people. Its lyrics went: ‘The elite in buckskin, not a crime if being put into jail; The elite wearing buckskin, put in prison no one complains.’ However, after just three months of his administration, the cultural sentiment shifted. A new song emerged: ‘Leather coats and black hats, delivered what we want; Black hats and leather coats, served us not himself.’”
“Today, I see that you are a saint, no different than your ancestor!” Wen Zi exclaimed
Zishun had served as prime minister of Wei for nine months without his strategic policies being implemented. Frustrated, he lamented, “My proposals lack persuasiveness, leading to a moral dilemma where I hold a high position and salary without contributing adequately.” Using illness as a pretext, he resigned from his official post. When someone suggested seeking opportunities in other kingdoms, Zishun responded, “Where could I go? The kingdom of Qin is annexing all kingdoms to the east of Xiao Mountains, an unjustifiable action. An honorable person wouldn’t align with Qin.” Retreating home, he maintained a low profile.
Xinyuan Gu urged Zishun to reconsider, “A virtuous individual should indeed strive to educate the populace and assist the government in their own community. You held the esteemed position of prime minister in Wei, yet I observed no significant administrative reforms during your tenure before your resignation. While I understand you may have faced challenges in implementing your desired changes, why did you opt to resign so swiftly?” Zishun explained, “I quit because I couldn’t enact government reforms. Just as a terminally ill patient has no competent clinician to save him, our efforts to save the dying county would be futile. The kingdom of Qin‘s insatiable ambition threatens global peace, rendering our pursuit of humanity and decency futile. Reflecting on history, Yi Zhi and Lv Wang sought better administrations during the Xia and Shang dynasties’ declines, yet they couldn’t avert collapse. Today, kingdoms to the east of Xiao Mountains are weakened: the three descendants from Jin cede land to Qin, the two relics of Zhou become Qin‘s vassals, and Yan, Qi, and Chu submit to Qin. In my view, Qin will own the world within twenty years.”
The King of Qin sought vengeance against Wei Qi for mistreating Marquis Ying. Upon discovering Wei Qi‘s hiding place in Lord Pingyuan’s residence, he lured Lord Ping’yuan into Qin territory with persuasive words and captured him. Subsequently, a messenger was dispatched to inform the King of Zhao， “I will not release your brother from the Pass until I have Wei Qi‘s head.” With no refuge, Wei Qi fled to Yu Qing, who relinquished his prime ministerial seal of Zhao and fled with Wei Qi to the kingdom of Wei. They intended to seek refuge in the kingdom of Chu with the assistance of Lord Xinling, also known as Wuji, a prince of Wei. However, Lord Xinling, caught in a difficult position, delayed meeting them. Angered by the delay, Wei Qi took his own life. Meanwhile, the King of Zhao handed over Wei Qi‘s head to Qin, leading to the release of Lord Ping’yuan.
In September of the autumn, Wang Ling, holding the position of Wu-Daifu, launched a campaign against the kingdom of Zhao. Lord Wu’an fell ill and was unable to join the expedition.
Lord Wu’an, i.e. Bai Qi, led a campaign against the kingdom of Han. They took nine cities and beheaded fifty thousand soldiers of Han.
Tian Dan became the prime minister of the kingdom of Zhao.
The 52nd year of King Nan(263 B.C.)
Lord Wu’an launched another attack on the kingdom of Han, capturing the city of Nanyang and securing control over the entire Road Taihang, effectively dividing the kingdom in two.
Meanwhile, King Qingxiang of Chu fell ill. Huang Xie, who was attending the crown prince of Chu held hostage in the kingdom of Qin, visited Marquis Ying of Qin with a proposition, “The King of Chu may be terminally ill, prompting consideration of strategic moves. It is advisable for the kingdom of Qin to release the crown prince back to Chu. By facilitating the installment of the crown prince as the next king, Chu would likely forge an alliance with Qin. Furthermore, this act would incur a substantial debt of gratitude towards you, the Prime Minister, from the crown prince. Such a move would not only unite the two kingdoms but also secure an alliance with a formidable state boasting ten thousand chariots. Conversely, retaining the crown prince in Xianyang renders him a mere commoner, devoid of his royal stature in Chu. In such a scenario, Chu would inevitably appoint another king, potentially souring relations with Qin. Disrupting a potentially beneficial alliance with a powerful state, without any tangible gain, is an imprudent course of action.”
Marquis Ying relayed his message to the King of Qin, who responded, “Let the crown prince’s teacher go back first; we will address the matter upon his return.”
Huang Xie conspired with the crown prince, cautioning, “The Kingdom of Qin detains you to leverage benefits from Chu. Presently, you lack the capacity to bring advantages to Qin. Contrastingly, Lord Yang’wen, the king’s brother, has two sons entrenched in the capital. In the event of the king’s demise and your absence, one of Lord Yang’wen’s sons would ascend to the throne, nullifying your claim to ancestral heritage. It is prudent for you to clandestinely depart Qin, accompanying the envoy back to Chu. I shall remain here to aid in negotiations with the King of Qin, even at the risk of my life.” Subsequently, the crown prince changed his attire and successfully traversed the checkpoints by assuming the role of a driver for the Chu ambassador, on their journey back to Chu.
Huang Xie resided in the crown prince’s quarters and frequently assumed sick leave on his behalf. He visited the King of Qin only when he was confident that the crown prince had safely departed Qin‘s jurisdiction. Huang Xie boldly declared to the king, “The Crown Prince of Chu has returned to his kingdom and is now beyond your reach. Please, grant me the death sentence for my deceit.” Enraged, the King of Qin was inclined to fulfill his request. However, Marquis Ying interceded, advocating for Huang Xie‘s clemency. He argued, “Huang Xie, as the crown prince’s attendant, displayed unwavering loyalty by offering his life for his lord. Should the crown prince ascend to kingship, Huang Xie would play a significant role. Pardoning him and facilitating his return to Chu would greatly enhance our relations with Chu.” The king heeded this counsel. In the following autumn, King Qingxiang of Chu passed away, three months after Huang Xie‘s return. The crown prince ascended the throne as King Kaolie of Chu and appointed Huang Xie as his prime minister. Additionally, Huang Xie was granted extensive lands north of the Huai River as a fief and bestowed the title of Lord Chun’shen.
The 53rd year of King Nan(262 B.C.)
The Kingdom of Chu ceded the city of Xiazhou to the Kingdom of Qin in pursuit of peace.
Lord Wu’an of Qin spearheaded a campaign against the Kingdom of Han, successfully capturing the city of Yewang. Consequently, the Shang’dang region, a prefecture of Han, found itself severed from the main kingdom as Qin‘s troops blocked the route to the capital, Zheng.
Governor Feng Ting of Shang’dang engaged in discussions with his constituents, recognizing the dire situation: “Our passage to Zheng has been obstructed, leaving us vulnerable to Qin‘s advances without aid from Han‘s army. It’s prudent to transfer control of Shang’dang to the Kingdom of Zhao. If Zhao accepts us, Qin will inevitably target them. In response, Zhao will seek an alliance with Han. With our forces combined, we can withstand Qin‘s aggression.” Unanimously, they decided to dispatch a messenger to the King of Zhao, conveying their plea: “Unable to defend Shang’dang, Han has surrendered it to Qin. The people of Shang’dang prefer to be under Zhao‘s rule rather than Qin‘s. We humbly request your Majesty’s acceptance of our submission, offering the seventeen cities and towns of Shang’dang.”
The King of Zhao sought counsel from Lord Ping’yang, named Bao. Bao responded, “A true leader avoids profiting from unjust gains.” The King of Zhao retorted, “Under my virtuous rule, my people thrive. Why do you suggest there is no merit?” Bao explained further, “Qin methodically annexed Han‘s territory, fragmenting it, waiting for Shang’dang to surrender. By redirecting the harm toward Zhao, Han spared itself. Qin bore the costs and bloodshed, yet Zhao reaps the rewards. Can a weaker state like Zhao snatch what even mighty Qin could not from the feeble? It appears as an undeserved fortune. It’s wiser to decline the offer of Shang’dang.”
The King then consulted Lord Ping’yuan, who advised acceptance. Consequently, the King dispatched Lord Ping’yuan to Shang’dang to formalize the acquisition. He bestowed three cities, each housing over ten thousand residents, to Governor Feng Ting, granting him the title Lord Hua’yang. Additionally, each county magistrate received three towns with more than a thousand residents. Pay scales were raised by three grades for officials and citizens alike.
Overwhelmed with emotion, Feng Ting declined to meet Lord Ping’yuan, stating, “I cannot bear to enrich myself by selling my lord’s land.”
Reflection by Rio Grande 