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  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 84): War of Disinformation

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10

    Sishui Pavilion, Xuzhou(Pengcheng), Jiang Su Province. Photo by Hu Chuansong

    The 3rd year of the Emperor Gaozu (204 B.C. continued)

    The King of Han asked Chen Ping, “The country is in turmoil—when will this chaos end?” Chen Ping replied, “There are only a few of Xiang Yu’s subordinates who speak their minds, such as Uncle Fan Zeng, Zhongli Mo, Long Ju, and Zhou Yin. If Your Majesty spends tens of thousands of kilograms of gold to sow discord between Xiang Yu and his lieutenants, he will lose trust in them. Xiang Yu is naturally distrustful and easily swayed by disinformation. He will likely kill his closest aides due to internal strife, and then the kingdom of Chu will fall when Han’s forces strike.” The King of Han liked the idea: “A good plan!” He gave Chen Ping twenty thousand kilograms of gold with no string attached.

    Chen Ping used the gold to bribe and spread disinformation among the officers of Chu. He circulated rumors, saying, “Generals like Zhongli Mo have achieved great feats for Xiang Yu, yet they have not been rewarded with fiefs or the title of kings. They are conspiring with Han to destroy the Xiang family and divide the land.” When Xiang Yu heard the murmurs, he stopped trusting Zhongli Mo and the other generals.

    In April of that summer, King Xiang Yu encircled the King of Han at Xingyang. The King of Han, panicked, pleaded for a truce, offering to take only the land west of Xingyang. Fan Zeng urged Xiang Yu to seize the city without delay. Meanwhile, the King of Han, wary of Fan Zeng‘s influence, devised a plan with Chen Ping. When Chu’s envoy arrived for negotiations, Chen Ping arranged an elaborate banquet, serving beef, mutton, and pork together—a sign of utmost respect. Upon meeting the envoy, Chen Ping feigned surprise: “I thought you were Uncle Fan’s envoy, but you’re actually sent by King Xiang Yu, aren’t you?” He then had the extravagant meal removed, replacing it with lower-quality food.

    When the envoy reported back, Xiang Yu began to mistrust Fan Zeng. Despite Fan Zeng’s repeated urges to take Xingyang immediately, Xiang Yu ignored him. Sensing the king’s suspicion, Fan Zeng, furious, said, “The fate of the country has been decided. Your Majesty can handle it alone. Please let me retire.” On his journey home, an abscess on his back burst, and he died of infection before reaching Pengcheng.

    In May, General Ji Xin approached the King of Han and said, “The situation is urgent. I beg your permission to pose as Your Majesty so that you can escape the city in disguise.” Chen Ping then sent two thousand women out of the east gate under cover of night. The Chu army attacked them from all sides. Ji Xin, seated in the King of Han’s wagon with a yellow silk canopy and a yak tail banner on the left, drove out of the gate, announcing, “The city has run out of food. The King of Han surrenders to Chu.” The Chu soldiers cheered and rushed to the east gate to witness the event.

    Meanwhile, the real King of Han, accompanied by a small cavalry force, broke out of the west gate, leaving Zhou Ke, Wei Bao, and Cong Gong to defend Xingyang. When Xiang Yu captured Ji Xin, he asked, “Where is the King of Han?” Ji Xin replied, “He has already escaped.” Xiang Yu then immolated Ji Xin.

    Afterward, Zhou Ke and Cong Gong conferred, saying, “Wei Bao, the former king of West Wei, has betrayed us before. It will be difficult to defend the city with him around.” They proceeded to kill Wei Bao.

    The King of Han retreated from Xingyang and moved into Chenggao before entering the Hangu Pass. He reorganized his scattered troops, intending to fight back to the east. One of his advisers, Yuan Sheng, advised against this: “The Han and Chu armies have been locked in a stalemate at Xingyang for years, and the Han forces have often been at a disadvantage. I suggest Your Majesty heads south through Wu Pass. Xiang Yu will likely move south to counter you, but you should hold the fortifications there without engaging in battle. This will give the war-torn regions of Xingyang and Chenggao time to recover, and Han Xin will have time to secure the territory he gained from the Kingdom of Zhao north of the Yellow River. We can then coordinate with the Kingdoms of Yan and Qi. Once the Chu army is forced to defend multiple fronts, their forces will be stretched thin, and the Han army—rested and ready—will defeat them in the next battle.”

    The King of Han accepted Yuan Sheng’s strategy. He led his troops out of Wu Pass and stationed them in the counties of Yuan and She, where he and Ying Bu recruited additional soldiers. When Xiang Yu learned that the King of Han was in Yuan County, he led his army south as predicted. The King of Han, however, held his position in the citadel, refusing to engage Xiang Yu in battle.

    When the King of Han fled west from Pengcheng, General Peng Yue lost control of the cities he had conquered. He repositioned his forces north of the Yellow River and waged guerrilla warfare, disrupting the Chu army’s supply lines. In May, Peng Yue crossed the Sui River and engaged the Chu forces, led by Generals Xiang Sheng and Xue Gong, at the city of Xiapi. Peng Yue defeated the Chu army, killing General Xue Gong. In response, Xiang Yu moved east to confront Peng Yue, leaving his general Zhong Gong to defend Chenggao. Seizing the opportunity, the King of Han led his forces north, defeated Zhong Gong, and broke into the city, eventually camping his troops at Chenggao.

    In June, Xiang Yu drove out Peng Yue and turned back westward to break into the city of Xingyang after learning that the King of Han had returned to Chenggao. He captured Zhou Ke and offered him a position: “You will be a top general and awarded a fief with thirty thousand households if you serve me.” Zhou Ke retorted, “You will be captured soon if you don’t surrender to the Kingdom of Han now. You are no match for the King of Han!” Enraged, Xiang Yu had Zhou Ke boiled to death. He also killed Cong Gong and imprisoned Xin, the King of Hán. He then laid siege to Chenggao.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 83): No Preordained Strategy

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10 (continued)

    Mount Hua, Photograph by Ondřej Žváček

    The 3rd year of the Emperor Gaozu (204 B.C. continued)

    The army of Chu clashed with the army of Han along the expressway, which Han had built as a vital supply route. Han’s army soon faced a food shortage. The King of Han consulted with Li Yiji on how to turn the tide against Chu. Li Yiji proposed, “When King Tang of Shang crusaded against King Jie of Xia, he granted a fief to Jie’s descendants in Qi. When King Wu of Zhou crusaded against King Zhou of Shang, he granted a fief to Zhou’s descendants in Song. The Qin Empire was immoral, annexing monarchs and erasing their temples and shrines, leaving their lineages without legacy. If your majesty reinstates the descendants of the six monarchs, their ministers and people will be so grateful that they will heed your righteous call, willing to serve you. By occupying the moral high ground, your majesty can face south as the overlord of the country. Even the king of Chu will submit and pay homage to you.”

    The King of Han was thrilled. “What a great idea! Go inscribe the seals immediately and carry them with you when you visit the monarchs.”

    Before Li Yiji embarked on his diplomatic mission, Zhang Liang came back to see the king from a trip. The king, eating his meal, called out, “Come here, Zifang(Zhang Liang’s courtesy name)! One of my advisors has proposed a brilliant way to turn the tide against Chu.” The king repeated Li Yiji‘s suggestion and asked, “What do you think?”

    Zhang Liang replied, “Who gave Your Majesty this idea? If you follow through with it, your campaign will be ruined.”

    The King of Han was startled. “Why do you say that?”

    Zhang Liang continued, “Let me borrow your chopsticks to illustrate my point. When King Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou granted fiefs to the descendants of Jie of Xia and Zhou of Shang, they had absolute control over their enemies’ fate. Do you have such control over Xiang Yu? That’s the first reason not to do this.

    “When King Wu of Zhou entered Shang’s capital, he decorated the portal of Shang Rong’s household , freed Ji Zi from prison, and embellished Bi Gan’s tomb. Could Your Majesty do that today? That’s the second reason not to do it.

    “King Wu distributed grain stored at Juqiao and the wealth hoarded at Deer Terrace to aid the poor. Can your majesty do the same? That’s the third reason not to do it.

    “After conquering Shang, King Wu converted chariots into luxurious wagons and proclaimed an end to war. Could Your Majesty do that today? That’s the fourth reason not to do it.

    “King Wu let his army’s horses graze in the pastures on the sunny side of Mount Hua, signaling he had no further ambitions. Can Your Majesty do the same? That’s the fifth reason not to do it.

    “He also let cattle graze under peach trees to indicate an end to the transport of war provisions. Could Your Majesty do that today? That’s the sixth reason not to do it.

    “All the followers who have marched across the country with Your Majesty, leaving behind their homes and families, are hoping for a piece of land. If Your Majesty reinstates the six monarchs, they would return home. Who would then follow you to conquer the realm? That’s the seventh reason not to do it.

    “Finally, while Chu is the strongest currently, the six monarchs would likely side with Chu. Who would listen to Your Majesty then? That’s the eighth reason not to adopt this plan. If you follow your advisor’s idea, your ambitions will be derailed.”

    The King of Han, shocked, stopped eating, spat out his food, and cursed, “That damned scholar almost wrecked my cause!” He immediately ordered the seals to be destroyed.

    Xun Yue’s commentary: The art of winning in decision-making has three key factors. The first is macroscopic strategy. The second is microscopic tactics. The third is human psychology. Strategy involves evaluating overall gains and losses. Tactics refer to seizing or relinquishing opportunities specific to a situation and time. The psychological factor is about willingness and persistence. When results differ in similar situations under the same principle, it is because these three factors render differently.

    Zhang Er and Chen Yu lobbied Chen Sheng to reinstate the six monarchs to increase the number of followers, and Li Yiji similarly lobbied the King of Han. The idea was the same, but the motivations were different. When Chen Sheng started his uprising, the entire country wanted the downfall of the Qin Empire. However, during the struggle between the kingdoms of Chu and Han, the larger picture was unclear, and not everyone wanted to overthrow Xiang Yu. In Chen Sheng’s case, restoring the six monarchs would gain him more allies and create more enemies for Qin. Since Chen Sheng hadn’t conquered the whole country yet, he was essentially offering something he didn’t own. This was giving out virtual benefits to secure real advantages. In the King of Han’s case, reinstating the six monarchs would mean weakening himself and aiding his enemy. He would gain a meaningless title and face real troubles ahead. Though the issue was the same, the strategic factor was different.

    Song Yi employed a waiting strategy during the war between the kingdoms of Qin and Zhao when he came to Zhao’s aid. This is reminiscent of Bian Zhuang’s tiger-hunting story, where he waited for two tigers to fight each other and then easily killed the wounded survivor. In the early Warring States period, neighboring states frequently fought, and the waiting strategy worked in non-critical situations. There were many warring states with long histories, and the survival of a state was not determined by a single war. The objective of war tactics wasn’t to deliver a fatal blow but to gain incremental advantages. The winner advanced, while the loser retreated to regroup. A third party could observe the shifting situation and seize opportunities when an enemy became vulnerable. The circumstances allowed this approach.

    However, the kingdoms of Chu and Zhao were trying to overthrow the Qin Empire, a much more powerful adversary. The survival of their states hung in the balance, shifting with every decision. Victory would mean a great triumph, while defeat would lead to disaster. Though the tactic of waiting was the same, the context and stakes were different.

    In the battle during the campaign against the kingdom of Zhao, Han Xin’s army fought with their backs to the Zhi River, yet Zhao’s forces failed to defeat them. In contrast, during the Pengcheng debacle, the King of Han led his army near the Sui River, where his soldiers were driven into the river, and Chu won a decisive victory. What was the difference? The army of Zhao ventured out of their kingdom to engage Han Xin’s forces. They advanced when successful and retreated home if they faced setbacks. Concerned about their families, they were not mentally prepared to die on the battlefield. On the other hand, Han Xin’s troops were stranded against the river, with no escape. They had no choice but to fight for their lives, and that’s why they won.

    The King of Han had ventured deep into enemy territory. He wined and dined his officers, and his soldiers enjoyed themselves, losing their fighting spirit. Meanwhile, the once-proud army of Chu, having lost their capital, was filled with indignation. They were determined to turn things around and save their state, ready to fight to the death. This resolve led to the king of Han’s crushing defeat. Han Xin had selected elite troops to defend his formation, while Zhao’s forces, filled with thoughts of home, launched their offensive. Xiang Yu deployed his best soldiers to attack, while the King of Han responded with soldiers who had grown complacent and indulgent. Though the battlefields were similar, the psychological factor was different.

    That’s why I say: Strategy should not be predetermined; tactics should not be rigid. The key to decision-making is to seize opportunities as they arise and adapt tactics to respond to unforeseen events.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 82): The Defection of Ying Bu

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10 (continued)

    A Pagoda in Jiu Jiang, Jiangxi Province, photograph by Ding Ding

    The 3rd year of the Emperor Gaozu (204 B.C. continued)

    There was a solar eclipse on October 30, and the sky went dark during the day.

    Another solar eclipse occurred on November 29.

    Sui He, the envoy of the King of Han, arrived in Jiujiang. For three days, the head chef of the king of Jiujiang hosted him, but he had not secured an audience with the king. Sui He approached the head chef and said, “The king does not want to see me, mainly because Chu is strong, and Han is weak. That’s exactly why I’m here. If you let me meet the king, he will be interested in what I have to say. If he dislikes my words, he can behead me and my company of twenty in public to demonstrate his loyalty to Chu and his defiance of Han.”

    The head chef relayed this to the king, who agreed to meet Sui He. In the audience, Sui He addressed King Ying Bu: “The King of Han sent me to deliver a letter to your majesty. I wonder why your majesty is so close to Chu.”

    The King of Jiujiang replied, “I face north as a subject of the King of Chu.”

    Sui He questioned him, “King Xiang Yu and your majesty are both kings. You chose to be his subject because Chu is strong, and you felt secure with Xiang Yu as your suzerain. During the raid on Qi, Xiang Yu carried planks on his back to set an example for his soldiers. Your majesty should have led all the forces of Jiujiang as the vanguard of the raid. Yet, you only sent 4,000 men. Is that how you show loyalty? When Han invaded Pengcheng and Xiang Yu was in Qi, unable to return, your majesty should have led your troops across the Huai River to fight Han under the city of Pengcheng. But instead, with more than 10,000 soldiers, not one crossed the Huai River. You stood by and waited to see who would prevail. Is that how you seek protection? You claim to be a subject of Chu, but in reality, you are safeguarding your own interests. I don’t think this is a wise strategy.”

    “Your majesty has not turned against Chu because Han appeared weak. The military might of Chu may be superior, but Xiang Yu has an immoral reputation, having broken alliances and murdered the honorary emperor. The King of Han, on the other hand, has the support of allies and has held his ground in Chenggao and Xingyang. Han’s food supplies flow down from Shu and Hanzhong. Han has dug deep trenches, built bulwarks, and fortified every strategic pass and stronghold. Chu’s army has penetrated 800 to 900 li into enemy territory, with the weak and old forced to transport food from a thousand li away. If Han defends its fortresses and avoids direct battles, Chu will be trapped, unable to advance or retreat safely. That is why Chu is not invincible. Even if Chu wins a battle, all the other kingdoms will fear for their safety and come to Han‘s aid. By being the strongest, Chu has become the antagonist of all the other forces in the realm. In truth, Chu is in a worse position than Han. This should be obvious.”

    “It confounds me that your majesty has allied with a kingdom on the verge of peril instead of siding with Han, which has everything in its favor. I am not suggesting that Jiujiang’s troops alone overthrow Chu. I am proposing a rebellion against Chu. Xiang Yu will be forced to stay instead of moving west. Han will be poised to overtake Chu if Xiang Yu is bogged down by several months. By that time, I will accompany your majesty, with only my sword, to the kingdom of Han. The King of Han will divide the land of Chu and grant it to your majesty as a fief. Needless to say, Jiujiang will remain yours.”

    The King of Jiujiang replied, “I will follow your order.” He secretly agreed to ally with Han and break with Chu, though he dared not disclose it publicly.

    An envoy from the kingdom of Chu was also staying at a travel inn in Jiujiang. He requested an emergency meeting with Ying Bu, demanding that the king send troops to assist King Xiang Yu. Sui He entered their meeting, sat in a more prominent position than the Chu envoy, and declared, “The King of Jiujiang has already allied with the kingdom of Han. How can Chu demand troops from Jiujiang?”

    Ying Bu was dumbfounded, while the Chu envoy stood up and left the room. Sui He then advised Ying Bu, “What’s done is done. We should eliminate the envoy and prevent him from returning to Chu. We must join Han as soon as possible.”

    Ying Bu agreed, saying, “I will follow your advice, Mr. Ambassador!” He ordered the execution of the Chu envoy and mobilized his troops to attack King Xiang Yu.

    In response, Chu sent General Xiang Sheng and General Long Ju to attack Jiujiang. After several months of fighting, General Long Ju defeated Jiujiang‘s forces. Fearing that Chu‘s troops would catch up and kill him, Ying Bu considered fleeing to Han but hesitated. He ultimately decided to take Sui He with him along back roads to reach Han.

    In December, Ying Bu arrived at Xingyang. The King of Han, in bed and washing his feet, summoned Ying Bu for an audience. Ying Bu, feeling outraged and humiliated by the king’s casual treatment, briefly contemplated suicide and regretted coming to Han. However, when he returned to his guesthouse, he was astounded by the lavish accommodations, with food service and attendants provided at the same standard as those of the King of Han. Overwhelmed with joy, he sent messengers back to Jiujiang to escort his family.

    By that time, however, King Xiang Yu had already sent Xiang Bo to take over Jiujiang’s troops and executed Ying Bu’s wives and children. Ying Bu‘s assistants gathered his remaining friends, ministers, and officers—about a few thousand people in total—and returned to Han. The King of Han reinforced Ying Bu‘s forces with additional soldiers and assigned him to help defend the city of Chenggao.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 80): Know Thine Enemy

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    Guanque Tower, Linjin, Shanxi Province

    The 2nd year of Emperor Gaozu(205 B.C. continued)

    The King of Han returned to his capital, Yueyang, in June. On June 6, he designated his son, Liu Ying, as the Crown Prince and declared an amnesty for all criminals in the kingdom.

    The Han army besieged and flooded the city of Feiqiu, leading to its surrender. General Zhang Han, seeing no escape, committed suicide. The Kingdom of Yong, which came under the control of the Han, was divided into three commanderies: Zhongdi, Beidi and Longxi.

    During this time, a severe famine struck the Guanzhong region, causing the price of a bushel of rice to soar to ten thousand money units (about half a kilogram of gold). In desperation, some people resorted to cannibalism. The Han government encouraged the starving population to relocate to the more fertile regions of Shu and Hanzhong commandery.

    When the Qin Empire fell, the wealthy hoarded gold and jade. However, Mr. Ren from Xuanqu focused on stockpiling grain in his family cellars. As the Chu and Han armies engaged in prolonged warfare near Xingyang, preventing farmers from tending their fields, the value of food soared. The wealthy soon traded their gold and jade to Mr. Ren in exchange for grain, leading his family to amass substantial wealth that sustained them for generations.

    In August, the King of Han traveled to Xingyang. He assigned Xiao He to remain in Guanzhong to oversee the care of the Crown Prince, granting him full authority over legislation, the construction of altars for ancestral worship, royal palaces, and the administration of counties and towns. Xiao He was empowered to make decisions promptly without the need to consult the King, with the understanding that these decisions would be ratified upon the King’s return. Xiao He also created a comprehensive registry of all households in the Guanzhong region, and he efficiently managed the transport of food supplies and conscripts to the army, ensuring that the forces never faced shortages.

    The King of Han sent Li Yiji to persuade Wei Bao, the King of Wei, to return to Xingyang. However, Wei Bao refused, saying, “The King of Han is rude and abusive. He treats his allies and ministers as if they were slaves. I cannot bear to face him again!”

    In response, the King of Han appointed Han Xin as Vice Chancellor, with Guan Ying and Cao Shen as his lieutenants, and tasked them with leading the campaign against the Kingdom of Wei. The King of Han then inquired of Li Yiji, “Who is the commander-in-chief of Wei?” Li Yiji replied, “Bo Zhi.” The King of Han dismissed this with disdain, saying, “Bo Zhi is just a child, still wet behind the ears! How could he stand up to Han Xin?”

    He continued his inquiry, asking, “Who is their cavalry commander?” Li Yiji answered, “It is Feng Jing.” The King of Han remarked, “He is the son of Feng Wuze, a general of Qin. He is capable, but he will not be able to defeat Guan Ying.” Then he asked, “Who is their infantry commander?” Li Yiji responded, “It is Xiang Tuo.” The King of Han relaxed, saying, “He is no match for Cao Shen. I have no worries.”

    Han Xin also questioned Li Yiji, asking, “Is the commander-in-chief of Wei not Zhou Shu?” Li Yiji assured him, “No, it is Bo Zhi.” With that reassurance, Han Xin felt relieved and commented, “He is just a juvenile.” Confident in their advantage, Han Xin initiated the campaign against the Kingdom of Wei.

    The King of Wei, Wei Bao, positioned his forces at Puban to defend against the Han army stationed at Lijin Pass. Han Xin executed a tactical ruse by deploying decoy troops and displaying numerous boats at Linjin Pass, creating the illusion of a large-scale crossing of the Yellow River. Meanwhile, he secretly sent another force across the river at Xiayang county using pontoons constructed from tree logs and ceramic urns. This surprise attack force swiftly advanced on Anyi County.

    Caught off guard, Wei Bao quickly led his troops to confront Han Xin‘s forces but was defeated. In September, Han Xin captured King Wei Bao, who was then taken to Xingyang. With the fall of Wei Bao, the entire territory of the former Kingdom of Wei came under the control of the King of Han. The conquered region was reorganized into three commanderies: Hedong, Shangdang, and Taiyuan.

    When the Han army suffered a major defeat to the west of Pengcheng, Chen Yu discovered that Zhang Er was still alive. Upon this realization, he immediately turned against the King of Han. After successfully taking control of the Kingdom of Wei, Han Xin proposed leading a force of thirty thousand elite troops to launch a campaign against the northern Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao, as well as the eastern Kingdom of Qi. He also aimed to cut off the supply lines of the Chu forces from the south. The King of Han approved Han Xin‘s strategic plan and assigned Zhang Er to assist him on the mission.

    Han Xin‘s army advanced eastward before turning north to attack the Kingdoms of Zhao and Dai. During the leap month of September, Han Xin decisively defeated the army of Dai and captured Xia Yue, the Prime Minister of Dai, in the town of Yuyu. Following these rapid victories over Wei and Dai, the King of Han ordered Han Xin‘s elite troops to return to Xingyang to reinforce defenses against the advancing forces of Chu.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 79): Passing the Helm

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    Xingyang Pass, Xingyang, Henan Province

    The 2nd year of Emperor Gaozu(205 B.C. continued)

    Tian Heng launched an attack on Tian Jia, the King of Qi appointed by Xiang Yu, forcing Tian Jia to flee to the Kingdom of Chu, where he was eventually killed. Tian Heng then unified the three regions that made up the Kingdom of Qi, bringing them all under his rule.

    The King of Han consulted with his ministers, saying, “I want to step down from leading the campaign to conquer the lands east of Hangu Pass. I wish to pass on the leadership to a few capable leaders and let them conquer on their own. To whom should I hand over this responsibility?” Zhang Liang recommended the candidates: “The King of Jiujiang, Ying Bu, is an outstanding general of Chu, but he does not see eye to eye with Xiang Yu. General Peng Yue, in collaboration with the Kingdom of Qi, is reclaiming the land of Liang (Wei). These two can immediately share the burden. Among the generals under your command, only Han Xin has the ability to take on this significant task and operate independently. If Your Majesty truly wants to step down, passing the leadership to these three generals will lead to the defeat of the Kingdom of Chu.”

    Earlier, King Xiang Yu had requested troops from the Kingdom of Jiujiang for his attack on the Kingdom of Qi, The King of Jiujiang, Ying Bu, took a leave of absence and sent only one of his generals with a few thousand troops. Later, when the King of Han broke into Pengcheng, Ying Bu claimed to be ill again and did not assist in defending the Kingdom of Chu. King Xiang Yu was displeased with Ying Bu‘s actions, sending numerous messengers to reprimand him and summon him to his headquarters. Ying Bu, growing even more fearful, did not dare to comply.

    At the time, King Xiang Yu‘s primary concerns were the Kingdoms of Qi and Zhao in the north and the Kingdom of Han in the west. Despite his frustration with Ying Bu, Xiang Yu valued Ying Bu‘s military prowess and knew that the King of Jiujiang was his only ally in the region, so he refrained from attacking Ying Bu’s camp.

    Meanwhile, the King of Han moved his headquarters from Xiayi county to Dang county and then to Yu county. Frustrated with his situation, he vented to his advisors, saying, “I cannot discuss the important matters of this country with men like you!” Sui He, one of his internuncios, stepped forward and asked, “I don’t understand what Your Majesty means.” The King of Han sighed and said, “Who can be my envoy to Jiujiang to persuade Ying Bu to break faith with Xiang Yu? If Ying Bu could lead his troops to support us and hold Xiang Yu in check for just a few months, I would have a hundred percent chance of winning the country!” Sui He volunteered, saying, “I would like to be the envoy.” The King of Han then sent Sui He as his representative to Jiujiang with a retinue of twenty people.

    The King of Han reached the city of Xingyang in May, where several scattered and defeated troops regrouped. Xiao He also provided drafted soldiers from Guanzhong, including those who were previously unregistered because they were deemed too old or too young, all converging in Xingyang. This bolstered the strength of the Han army and greatly improved its morale.

    The Chu army, having routed the Han forces in Pengcheng, pursued the fleeing Han soldiers northward all the way to Xingyang, riding the momentum of their victory. They engaged the Han army in several skirmishes in Jing County and Suo town, south of Xingyang. As more Chu cavalry joined the battle, the King of Han sought to appoint a cavalry commander from among his forces. His advisors recommended the former cavalrymen of the Qin army, Li Bi and Luo Jia, both from nearby Zhongquan County.

    However, when the King of Han announced their selection, Li Bi and Luo Jia declined, saying, “We might not have the full trust of the Han soldiers because we were once subjects of Qin. We would prefer to support a leader who is both close to Your Majesty and a skilled horseman.” In response, the King of Han appointed Guan Ying as the cavalry commander, with Li Bi and Luo Jia as the Colonel of the left and right wings.

    This newly appointed cavalry force, led by Guan Ying, engaged the Chu horsemen and won a decisive battle to the east of Xingyang. After this victory, the Chu army never advanced west of Xingyang again. The King of Han then set up camp in Xingyang and constructed an express highway from Xingyang to the crossing of the Yellow River, enabling the rapid delivery of grain from his warehouses in Ao’cang.

    Zhou Bo and Guan Ying approached the King of Han, expressing their concerns: “Although Chen Ping is a very handsome fellow, his character is questionable. We’ve heard that he had an affair with his sister-in-law when he was still at home. He worked for the Kingdom of Wei and did not do well there. He then went to the Kingdom of Chu and failed to succeed there as well. Now, he has come to serve the Kingdom of Han. Your Majesty holds him in high regard and has appointed him as the supervisor of the army officers. We’ve heard that he has accepted bribes in gold, giving good positions to those who offered him more gold and bad positions to those who offered less. Chen Ping seems to be an opportunist and a corrupt official. Your Majesty must look into this!”

    The King of Han became suspicious of Chen Ping and summoned Wei Wuzhi, who had recommended Chen Ping, to reproach him. Wei Wuzhi defended himself, saying, “What I spoke of was Chen Ping‘s ability, not his character. Suppose we have a person with an impeccable character like Weisheng or Xiaoji (ancient people known for honesty and filial piety), but who has no influence on winning or losing the war—why would Your Majesty employ such a person? Now, the Kingdoms of Chu and Han are in fierce contention. When I recommended Chen Ping, I did so based on his intelligence and clever ideas that could help the Kingdom of Han. His personal affairs with sister-in-law or accusations of accepting bribes do not disqualify him.”

    The King of Han then called in Chen Ping and berated him: “You didn’t achieve success in the Kingdom of Wei, then you left the Kingdom of Chu, and now you are here with me. Does a loyal person change his allegiances so easily?”

    Chen Ping replied, “I served the King of Wei, but he wouldn’t listen to my advice, so I left. When I worked for King Xiang Yu, he did not trust anyone whose surname was not Xiang or who wasn’t related to him by marriage. Even if he had talented individuals under his command, he wouldn’t make full use of them. I came to work for Your Majesty because I heard that you make the most use of talented people. I came with nothing and accepted donations because I had no resources. I hope Your Majesty will adopt my proposals if they are useful. If not, the money I accepted is all here, and I beg you to take it back and let me leave empty-handed.”

    The King of Han apologized to Chen Ping, rewarded him with more gifts, and promoted him to the Central Commandant of army supervision, responsible for overseeing all the generals. This promotion silenced the complaints among the generals.

    The King of Wei, Wei Bao, took a leave of absence to visit his mother, who was supposedly ill. Upon crossing the Yellow River, he blocked the crossing and switched his allegiance to the Kingdom of Chu.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 78): The Debacle in Pengcheng

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    Yunlong Park in Xuzhou (Pengcheng), Jiangsu Province

    The 2nd year of Emperor Gaozu(205 B.C. continued)

    The King of Han crossed the Yellow River to the south at the crossing of Pingyin Ford. His procession was halted in the town of Xincheng in Luoyang City by Mr. Dong, a local ethics educator(Three Elders of the Town). Mr. Dong addressed the King of Han: “I have heard it said, ‘Those who follow morality will prosper, and those who defy it will perish.’ Another saying goes, ‘A military campaign without a moral justification will not succeed.’ That is why people say, ‘Expose the evil of your enemy first, then you can overthrow it.’ Xiang Yu is profoundly immoral; he exiled his lord and then murdered His Majesty. He is the greatest wrongdoer in the land. A benevolent government does not resort to violence, and seeking justice does not rely on brute force. Your Majesty should mourn the death of the Honorary Emperor by dressing your entire army in white. You should send manifestos to all the kings in the realm, calling on them to unite against Xiang Yu. This would follow the example of the three kings who founded the dynasties (Xia, Shang, Zhou).”

    The King of Han conducted a funeral for the Honorary Emperor, baring his arms and weeping loudly during the ceremony, which lasted three days. He then sent messengers to all the kings with this message: “The Honorary Emperor was inaugurated by the realm, and we all pledged our allegiance to him. Xiang Yu exiled the Honorary Emperor to the south of the Yangtze River and then murdered him. Such an act is an abomination! I will mobilize all the forces of Guanzhong, recruit warriors from Henan, Hedong, and Henei commanderies, and sail down the Yangtze and Hanshui Rivers. I call upon all monarchs to join in avenging the Honorary Emperor!”

    When the messenger reached the Kingdom of Zhao, Chen Yu responded, “We will join if the Kingdom of Han kills Zhang Er.” To meet this demand, the King of Han found a man who resembled Zhang Er, beheaded him, and sent another messenger carrying the severed head to Chen Yu. Satisfied, Chen Yu then dispatched troops to aid the army of Han.

    Tian Rong’s younger brother, Tian Heng, reassembled Tian Rong’s fleeing soldiers and gathered a force of tens of thousands. They launched a rebellion in Chengyang commandery. In April, during the summer, Tian Heng declared Tian Rong’s son, Tian Guang, as the King of Qi and openly challenged Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu engaged in multiple battles with Tian Heng but was unable to defeat him. Although he learned that the army of Han was advancing eastward, Xiang Yu remained bogged down in the land of Qi, as he needed to break Qi‘s resistance before turning to confront Han‘s forces.

    Meanwhile, the King of Han commanded 560,000 soldiers from allied kingdoms to launch a raid into the land of Chu. Upon reaching Waihuang county, Peng Yue led his thirty thousand soldiers to join forces with Han. The King of Han remarked, “General Peng has recaptured a dozen cities of Wei and wants to quickly enthrone a descendant of Wei. Here, the King of West Wei, Wei Bao, is a true descendant of Wei.” He then appointed Peng Yue as the prime minister of the Kingdom of Wei, allowing Peng Yue to command his troops independently to expand their territories in the land of Wei.

    The King of Han entered Pengcheng, the capital of West Chu, and seized Xiang Yu’s treasures and harem. He began to indulge in daily celebrations, wining and dining to mark his victories.

    Xiang Yu, upon learning that his home had been raided, ordered his generals to continue the fight in Qi while he led thirty thousand elite troops southward. Starting from Lu County, they passed through Huling County and reached Xiao County. At dawn, they launched a surprise assault on the Han army, pushing eastward, and by noon, they reached Pengcheng, where they decisively routed the Han forces. The soldiers of Han fled in disarray, many running into the Gu River and Si river, where hundreds of thousands drowned. Others fled south toward the mountains, pursued relentlessly by the Chu fighters, who drove them to the Sui River, east of Lingbi County. There, the Chu forces pressed several hundred thousand Han soldiers against the river, causing so many to perish that their bodies clogged the riverbed, halting its flow.

    Xiang Yu‘s troops encircled the King of Han with three rings of soldiers. Just then, a strong northwesterly wind arose, uprooting trees, tearing roofs off houses, and creating a cloud of dust and sand that turned day into darkness. The blinding storm struck the Chu army, scattering their ranks. Seizing the moment, the King of Han, along with a few dozen cavalry guards, broke through the encirclement and escaped. They planned to stop by Pei County to retrieve their family members, but by the time they arrived, the soldiers of Chu had already beaten them to it, and the King of Han’s family members were nowhere to be found.

    The King of Han eventually encountered his children, Prince Hui (Liu Ying) and Princess Yuan of Lu, and got them into his wagon. As the cavalry of Chu drew near, he panicked and, in his desperation to speed up the carriage, repeatedly pushed his children off it. Duke Teng, Xiahou Ying, who served as the Grand Coachman of Han, was forced to jump off the wagon to retrieve them each time. After the third time, Xiahou Ying pleaded, “I understand the urgency, but the horses cannot go any faster. How could you ditch your children?” He maintained the carriage at moderate speed. The King of Han, enraged, attempted to kill Xiahou Ying dozens of times, but Xiahou Ying’s soldiers protected the retinue, ensuring the safety of both the King’s children and the group.

    Meanwhile, Shen Yiji was escorting the King of Han‘s father (the Grandpa Liu) and wife, Queen Lü, along an alternate route. They attempted to rendezvous with the King of Han but encountered Chu soldiers and were captured, eventually being taken to Xiang Yu‘s camp, where they were held as hostages.

    The brother of Queen Lü, the Marquis of Zhoulü, led a force stationed at Xiayi county. The King of Han managed to reach this location by taking alternate routes, gathering several soldiers who were fleeing. However, as the situation grew dire, many of the allied forces began to defect and return to Xiang Yu‘s camp. The King of Sai, Sima Xin, and the King of Di, Dong Yi, switched their allegiance to the Kingdom of Chu.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 77): Chen Ping, A Handsome Careerist

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    Chen Ping’s hometown, Yuanyang(Yangwu) County

    The 2nd year of Emperor Gaozu(205 B.C.)

    In October of that winter, King Xiang Yu issued a secret order to the King of Jiujiang, the King of Hengshan, and the King of Linjiang to attack the Honorary Emperor. They murdered the emperor and disposed of his body in the river.

    Chen Yu drafted a force from his three-county fiefdom and joined a surprise attack on the Kingdom of Changshan alongside the troops from the Kingdom of Qi. The King of Changshan, Zhang Er, failed to defend his kingdom and fled westward to the army of Han, where he sought refuge with the King of Han in Feiqiu County. The King of Han received him with high regard. Chen Yu welcomed back the former King Zhao Xie from the Kingdom of Dai and reinstated him as the King of Zhao. In gratitude, the King of Zhao granted Chen Yu the title of King of Dai. However, Chen Yu did not go to his kingdom; instead, he remained in the capital to assist the new King of Zhao in establishing a new government. He sent Xia Yue to the Kingdom of Dai as the prime minister.

    Zhang Liang escaped from the Kingdom of Hán and returned by taking an alternate route. The King of Han awarded him the title of Marquis Chengxin. Zhang Liang was in poor health and had never commanded an armed force on his own. He often served as a strategist, remaining at the King of Han‘s side.

    The King of Han went to Shan County to console the people outside the Kingdom of Qin. The King of Henan, Shen Yang, submitted to the King of Han, and the Kingdom of Han established the administration of Henan Commandery.

    The King of Han appointed Xin, the grandson of King Xiang of Hán, as the chief commander of the armed forces of Hán. He ordered Xin’s troops to recapture the territory of the former Kingdom of Hán. Xin led a blitzkrieg on Yangcheng County, compelling Zheng Chang, the King of Hán appointed by Xiang Yu, to surrender. The King of Han then granted Xin the title of King of Hán. Xin continued to command the armed forces of Hán, staying by the side of the King of Han most of the time.

    The King of Han moved the capital to Yueyang City. 

    Several generals of the Kingdom of Han conquered the Longxi Commandery.

    In January of that spring, King Xiang Yu and his army advanced north, arriving at Chengyang Commandery. The King of Qi, Tian Rong, led his troops into a decisive battle there but was defeated. Tian Rong fled to Pingyuan County, where he was killed by the local people. King Xiang Yu then reinstalled Tian Jia as the King of Qi.

    King Xiang Yu’s troops continued north to Beihai Commandery, pillaging cities, burning castles, and destroying residential houses along the way. They buried Tian Rong’s surrendered soldiers alive and took the elderly, the young, and women as prisoners, enslaving them. The devastation they left in their wake forced the people of Qi to unite and rise in revolt.

    A general of Han conquered the town of Beidi and captured Zhang Ping, the younger brother of the King of Yong, Zhang Han.

    In March, the King of Han crossed the Yellow River at Linjin Pass. The King of West Wei, Wei Bao, surrendered and placed his troops under the King of Han’s command. The Han army then sacked the Kingdom of Henei and captured the King of Yin, Sima Ang, establishing an administration in the Henei Commandery.

    A man from Yangwu county named Chen Ping came from a poor family but had a passion for reading. He was once in charge of distributing sacrificial meat among his community after the ceremonies of progenitor worship. Chen Ping sliced and divided the meat so evenly that he received praise from the community. The locals said, “We are fortunate to have this young man in charge of the meat sharing.” Chen Ping sighed and replied, “Ah! If only you could make me responsible for the whole country; public affairs would be as well taken care of as this meat!”

    When the allies rebelled against the rule of Qin, Chen Ping worked for the King of Wei, Wei Jiu, as the minister of transportation. He proposed some ideas to Wei Jiu, but they were not adopted. Disheartened, he left Wei Jiu when a scandal was spread about him. He later joined Xiang Yu and was given a position as a staff officer. When the King of Yin, Sima Ang, rebelled against Xiang Yu, Chen Ping was sent to suppress the mutiny, successfully forcing Sima Ang to back down. On his triumphant return, he was promoted to chief commandant and awarded 480 ounces of gold.

    Shortly afterward, the King of Han took over the Kingdom of Yin, and Sima Ang surrendered. Furious, Xiang Yu considered punishing the officers who had previously suppressed Sima Ang’s mutiny. Fearing for his safety, Chen Ping returned the gold and the seal of the chief commandant to Xiang Yu, changed his clothes, and fled via alternate routes, taking only a sword with him. He crossed the Yellow River and joined the forces of Han in Xiuwu county. With the help of his friend Wei Wuzhi, Chen Ping secured an appointment with the King of Han.

    The King of Han summoned Chen Ping and dined with him. As the King was about to send Chen Ping to rest in the guest house, Chen Ping insisted, “I have come with a mission. What I need to discuss cannot wait another day.” The King of Han, delighted by their conversation, asked Chen Ping, “What rank did you hold in the Kingdom of Chu?” Chen Ping replied, “I was a chief commandant.” The King of Han immediately reinstated him as chief commandant, appointed him to his entourage, and made him the supervisor of army officers.

    These rapid promotions caused an uproar among the Han generals. They complained, “Can you believe it? The King accepts a defector from Chu, puts him in his entourage, and even makes him to be a supervisor to oversee veterans like us!” Despite the complaints, the King of Han, aware of the discontent, only trusted Chen Ping more.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 76): Han Xin Exceeding Expectation

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    Han and the Three Qins(Yong, Zhai, Sai)

    The 1st year of Emperor Gaozu(206 B.C. continued)

    After the nomination ceremony, the King of Han sat down with Han Xin and said, “The Prime Minister has recommended you so many times. What can you teach me about strategy?” Han Xin expressed his gratitude and downplayed the praise before addressing the King of Han, “It is King Xiang Yu who contends with Your Majesty for power in the east, isn’t it?”

    The King of Han confirmed, “Yes, it is him.”

    Han Xin then asked, “In terms of strength and chivalry, how do you compare yourself to Xiang Yu?”

    After a moment of thought, the King of Han admitted, “I am not as good as him.”

    Han Xin saluted the King of Han and encouraged him, saying, “I agree with Your Majesty’s assessment. However, I once served under Xiang Yu, so I know his personality well. Xiang Yu‘s roar alone can make thousands tremble with fear, but he lacks the ability to choose capable people to assist him, which makes him a force of one. While he treats people kindly and is compassionate, he is also soft-hearted and sentimental. He cries when he sees someone suffering from illness and shares his food and drink with the sick. However, he is also stingy in rewarding his subordinates. Even when they achieve great merits, he is reluctant to grant them high ranks, keeping the seals of power firmly in his own hands until edges are worn out. This is what we call the petty kindness of a woman.”

    “Xiang Yu dominates the nation, and all the rulers submit to him, but he chose Pengcheng as his capital instead of staying in the strategically advantageous Guanzhong region. He gave away territories to his friends unjustly, violating the agreement made with the Honorary Emperor. He removed legitimate rulers and replaced them with generals or ministers of his liking, and he even banished the Honorary Emperor to the south of the Yangtze River. Wherever he goes, he leaves destruction in his wake. The people do not support him; they only fear his might. Although he appears to be the hegemon of the country, he has already lost the people’s hearts. This is his weakness.”

    “If Your Majesty does the opposite of what Xiang Yu does, then his strength could easily turn into his vulnerability. Who could cling to life if you deployed the country’s bravest warriors against him? Who would not heed your command if you rewarded your allies with the nation’s best cities? Who would dare stand in your way if you lead your troops back home rightfully? The three kings of Qin (Zhang Han, Sima Xin, Dong Yi) were once generals who forced the people of Qin to fight for years, witnessing countless deaths. Yet, they coerced these same people to surrender to the Chu forces. When Xiang Yu buried 200,000 prisoners of war alive at Xianyang, only the three generals survived. The people of Qin hate these three to the bone.”

    “The Chu authority installed these generals as kings of Qin by decree, but the people did not accept them. When Your Majesty entered Wu Pass, your troops did not harm a single civilian, and you abolished Qin‘s harsh laws, replacing them with the simple law of three articles. The people of Qin love you and wish for you to be their king. According to the allies’ agreement, you should indeed be the rightful king of Qin. The people all knew the pact, and were outraged when you were sent to Hanzhong. Now, if Your Majesty advances eastward, the three kingdoms of Qin could be conquered simply by issuing a proclamation.”

    The King of Han was deeply moved by Han Xin‘s words and regretted not promoting him sooner. He decided to adopt Han Xin‘s strategy and assigned his generals to their respective targets of attack, while leaving Xiao He in Ba and Shu commanderies to collect taxes and ensure a stable food supply for the army.

    In August, the King of Han launched a surprise attack on the Kingdom of Yong by advancing through Gudao county. Zhang Han, the King of Yong, countered the attack at Chencang county, but his forces were defeated and retreated. They regrouped at Haoshi county but were beaten again and fled back to their capital, Feiqiu. The King of Han captured most of the territory of the Yong Kingdom, advancing as far east as Xianyang, and laid siege to the city of Feiqiu and its ruler, Zhang Han. Meanwhile, he dispatched his generals to capture other territories in the Qin region. The King of Sai, Sima Xin, and the King of Di(Zhai), Dong Yi, both surrendered to the King of Han. The King of Han then established the commanderies of Weinan, Heshang, and Shangjun within Qin‘s territory.

    The King of Han ordered Generals Xue Ou and Wang Xi to move eastward through Wu Pass, where they linked up with Wang Ling‘s forces to escort the King of Han’s father and his wife, Queen Lü, to Guanzhong. Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu deployed his troops to block their advance at Yangxia county.

    Wang Ling, originally from Pei County, had gathered thousands of his followers and occupied Nanyang before joining the King of Han‘s camp with his troops. When Xiang Yu learned of Wang Ling‘s approach, he took Wang Ling’s mother hostage and held her under house arrest in his camp. To persuade Wang Ling to switch allegiance, Xiang Yu received Wang Ling’s envoy with respect, seating Wang Ling’s mother in a place of honor. During a private conversation with the envoy, Wang Ling’s mother said, “Please tell my son to remain loyal to the King of Han. The King of Han is destined to rule the country. He must not waver for the sake of me. I will die to see him off.” She then took her own life by throwing herself onto a sword in front of the envoy.

    Enraged by this act of defiance, Xiang Yu ordered his men to boil the corpse of Wang Ling’s mother.

    King Xiang Yu conferred the title of King of Hán to Zheng Chang, the former magistrate of Wu county, to hinder the advance of the King of Han. 

    Zhang Liang sent a letter to King Xiang Yu: “The King of Han did not get what he deserved. He only wishes to possess Guanzhong (Three Qins). He will stop where all agreed upon in the pact and dares not go further east.” He also sent the rebellion manifestos from the Kingdom of Qi and Kingdom of Liang (Wei) to King Xiang Yu, stating: “The Kingdom of Qi intends to ally with the Kingdom of Zhao to annihilate the Kingdom of Chu.” These communications distracted Xiang Yu‘s attention from the west and redirected his attacks to the north.

    The former King of Yan, Han Guang, had no intention of going to his kingdom in Liaodong. The new King of Yan, Zang Tu, attacked and killed him, then annexed Han Guang’s kingdom. 

    The King of Han appointed Zhou Ke, an old friend from Pei County and the current mayor of Xianyang, as the Grand Master of Censorate. 

    King Xiang Yu hastened the relocation of the Honorary Emperor to his new court, and some of the emperor’s ministers and attendants chose to leave his court.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 75): In Pursuit of Han Xin

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    Xiao He chasing Han Xin

    The 1st year of Emperor Gaozu(206 B.C. continued)

    A man from Huaiyin county, named Han Xin, came from a poor family and was unruly. He was neither recommended for a government position nor inclined to make a living through trade or labor. Instead, he spent his time around people, often relying on them for food and drink, which caused most to shun him. One day, while Han Xin was fishing outside the city walls, an old woman doing laundry nearby saw him starving and gave him some food. Han Xin expressed his gratitude, saying, “Aunty, I will reward you greatly someday.” The old woman was unimpressed and reproached him, “You’re a grown man who can’t even feed yourself. I gave you food out of pity, not because I expect anything in return.”

    One day in downtown Huaiyin, a young butcher who liked to bully Han Xin confronted him: “You look tall and strong and like to wear swords and machetes, but I bet you’re a coward inside!” He challenged Han Xin publicly, saying, “If you’re not afraid of death, stab me; if you are, crawl between my legs!” Han Xin stared at the butcher for a long moment, then got down on his hands and knees, crawling under the butcher’s crotch before prostrating himself. The crowd burst into laughter, jeering at Han Xin.

    When Xiang Liang revolted against Qin and led his troops across the Huai River, Han Xin joined his forces with his sword, serving under Xiang Liang but failing to distinguish himself. After Xiang Liang‘s defeat and death, Han Xin joined Xiang Yu’s army as a guard officer in his central command. Despite presenting several strategies, his ideas were dismissed by Xiang Yu. Later, when the King of Han entered Shu commandery, Han Xin left Chu‘s camp and joined his forces, where he remained unnoticed, serving as a logistics officer.

    Han Xin was implicated in a case due for collective punishment, which was punishable by death. Thirteen of his fellow cohorts had already been executed, and it was Han Xin’s turn next. As he looked up, he saw the Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, and called out for help: “Does the king want to conquer the country? Why is he beheading a capable fighter?” Xiahou Ying, impressed by Han Xin‘s words and his stature, commuted his death sentence. After speaking with Han Xin at length, Xiahou Ying was delighted and introduced him to the King of Han, who appointed Han Xin as Colonel of Grain Procurer. Despite this promotion, Han Xin‘s role remained unremarkable.

    Han Xin had several conversations with Xiao He, who was captivated by his potential. When the King of Han reached Nanzheng County, many of his subordinates missed their homeland in the east.  They sang folk songs together and many deserted along the way. Frustrated by his lack of advancement despite Xiao He and Xiahou Ying‘s endorsements, Han Xin also decided to leave. Upon hearing that Han Xin had fled, Xiao He, shocked, immediately chased after him without even informing the King of Han.

    When someone reported to the King of Han, “Prime Minister Xiao He has run away,” the king was livid, feeling as though he had lost his right hand. Two days later, Xiao He returned to see the King of Han, who was both angry and relieved. The King demanded, “Why did you run away?” Xiao He replied, “I didn’t run away; I was chasing after a man who had fled.” When the King asked who that man was, Xiao He answered, “Han Xin.” The King of Han, still upset, retorted, “Dozens of generals have deserted, yet you ran after Han Xin? You are lying!” Xiao He explained, “Those other generals are easy to find, but Han Xin is a rare talent without equal. If Your Majesty only wishes to be King of Han, then Han Xin isn’t essential. But if you intend to conquer the entire realm, there is no better strategist than Han Xin. It all depends on your ambitions.”

    The King of Han admitted, “I do want to return to the east. Who could bear staying in this desolate place for long?” Xiao He urged, “If that is your plan, then you must offer Han Xin a significant position to keep him from leaving.” The King of Han agreed, saying, “For your recommendation, I will make Han Xin a general.” Xiao He was unimpressed, responding, “He won’t stay for just a general’s rank.” The King of Han then said, “How about Grand Marshal?” Xiao He finally approved, “That would be appropriate!”

    As the King of Han prepared to summon Han Xin, Xiao He advised him, “Your Majesty has treated people too casually. You call for someone to take a high position as if you were calling a child. That’s why Han Xin ran away in the first place. If you truly want him to accept the role, you must fast and pray, choose an auspicious day, and hold a ceremony with all due rites. That would be fitting.” The King of Han agreed to the proposal.

    When the news spread, the generals were thrilled, believing they might have a chance at the top military rank. But when the ceremony revealed that Han Xin was being appointed Grand Marshal, the entire army was left in stunned silence.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 73): The Banquet at Hongmen

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    A Mural of Han dynasty Tomb depicting the event

    The 1st year of Emperor Gaozu(206 B.C. continued)

    In December, Xiang Yu’s troops reached the Xi River. Meanwhile, Cao Wushang, the left wing major under Duke of Pei, sent a messenger to Xiang Yu, slandering the Duke of Pei: “The Duke of Pei intends to become the King of Qin. He plans to make Ziying his chancellor and seize all the treasures of Qin.”  Cao Wushang said this to gain favors from Xiangyu.  Infuriated by this information, Xiang Yu organized a feast for his soldiers and prepared to launch an attack on the Duke of Pei the following morning. At that time, Xiang Yu commanded four hundred thousand troops, though he claimed to have a million, and camped at a village called Hongmen[Swan Goose Gate] in Xinfeng County. The Duke of Pei had one hundred thousand troops, with claims of two hundred thousand, and was stationed at Bashang.

    Fan Zeng advised Xiang Yu: “The Duke of Pei was known for his greed and indulgence when he lived east of the Hangu Pass. But since entering the Pass, he hasn’t hoarded any valuables or sought out women. His ambitions now are far greater than mere wealth or pleasure. I sent people to observe the clouds around him, and they reported seeing auspicious signs like those of the dragon and tiger. They even saw a rainbow over him—an omen of the Son of Heaven. You must act quickly and strike him decisively. Do not let him slip away.”

    The left-wing commander of the Chu army was Xiang Yu’s uncle, Xiang Bo, who was a good friend of Zhang Liang. Late at night, Xiang Bo secretly visited the Duke of Pei’s camp to meet with Zhang Liang. He warned Zhang Liang about the imminent attack and urged him to flee together: “You don’t want to die along with all the troops here.” Zhang Liang responded, “The King of Han instructed me to accompany the Duke of Pei into the Pass. Now that the Duke of Pei faces a crisis, it would be a dishonor of me to abandon him. I must speak with him first.”

    Zhang Liang entered the Duke of Pei’s tent and informed him of the situation. Startled, the Duke of Pei asked, “Do you think our soldiers can withstand Xiang Yu’s attack?” Zhang Liang replied, “Our troops are indeed no match for Xiang Yu. But we must act swiftly.” He suggested, “Please speak to Xiang Bo and assure him that the Duke of Pei has no intention of betraying Xiang Yu.” Curious, the Duke of Pei asked, “How do you know Xiang Bo so well?” Zhang Liang explained, “We were playmates under Qin’s rule. He once killed someone, and I saved his life. Now, he repays that favor by warning me.” The Duke of Pei inquired further, “Between you and him, who is older?” Zhang Liang replied, “Xiang Bo is a few years older than I am.” The Duke of Pei decided, “Please invite him to meet me. I will honor him as an elder brother.”

    Zhang Liang returned and insisted that Xiang Bo meet the Duke of Pei, and Xiang Bo eventually agreed. Upon entering the Duke of Pei’s tent, the Duke of Pei warmly received him, raising wine cups and toasting in his honor. He even proposed a marriage alliance between their families. The Duke of Pei explained, “Since entering the Pass, I have not taken even the smallest treasure from Qin. I preserved all the household records and sealed the vaults and warehouses of the Qin government, waiting for General Xiang to distribute these valuables. The reason I ordered the Hangu Pass closed was to prevent bandits and any other incidents. We eagerly await General Xiang’s arrival day and night. How dare I turn against him? Please, Mr. Xiang Bo, convey my pledge that I have no intention of betraying General Xiang.” Xiang Bo affirmed and advised the Duke of Pei, “You must come tomorrow morning to see General Xiang and clear any misunderstandings in person.” The Duke of Pei promised, “You have my word.”

    Xiang Bo returned to his camp that same night, relayed the Duke of Pei’s message, and pleaded with Xiang Yu, “If the Duke of Pei had not entered the Wu Pass first, you would not have so easily walked into the land of Qin. Attacking someone who has just accomplished such a significant feat would be unjust. It would be better to treat him with respect.” Xiang Yu assured Xiang Bo that he would do that.

    The Duke of Pei arrived at Hongmen the next morning with a hundred cavalrymen to meet Xiang Yu. He expressed his regret to Xiang Yu, saying, “I fought alongside the General against the army of Qin. The General battled in the north of the Yellow River, while I fought in the south. By sheer luck, I entered the Wu Pass and arrived in the kingdom of Qin first, which gave me this opportunity to meet the General again. Unfortunately, it seems the General harbors some hard feelings towards me due to the slander of a troublemaker.” Xiang Yu inadvertently admitted, “I wouldn’t have doubted you weren’t it for the words of your left wing major, Cao Wushang.”

    Xiang Yu then invited the Duke of Pei to join him for a meal in his tent. While they were drinking, Fan Zeng repeatedly eye-signaled Xiang Yu and by raising his jade ornament three times, but Xiang Yu ignored these prompts. Frustrated, Fan Zeng left the tent and summoned Xiang Zhuang, Xiang Yu’s younger cousin, giving him an urgent order: “Your Lord is too hesitant. Go inside, toast the Duke of Pei, then perform a sword dance. During the dance, take the opportunity to kill the Duke of Pei. If you don’t act now, we may all end up as his captives one day.”

    Xiang Zhuang entered the tent, made a toast to the Duke of Pei, and then suggested, “There isn’t much entertainment in the army, so let me perform a sword dance.” Xiang Yu approved, “Sure!” Xiang Zhuang drew his sword and began his dance, making threatening moves. Seeing this, Xiang Bo quickly drew his own sword and joined the dance, placing himself between Xiang Zhuang and the Duke of Pei, skillfully shielding the Duke of Pei from Xiang Zhuang’s strike attempts.

    Zhang Liang rushed to the gate of the camp and called for Fan Kuai. Fan Kuai asked, “How are things going today?” Zhang Liang replied, “Xiang Zhuang is dancing with his sword, clearly aiming to harm the Duke of Pei.” Fan Kuai immediately said, “This is urgent! I must go in and share the fate with him.”

    Armed with his shield and sword, Fan Kuai forced his way into the camp. When the guard at the entrance tried to stop him, Fan Kuai knocked the guard down with his shield and pushed his way into the tent. He threw open the curtains, staring directly at Xiang Yu, hairs standing on his head and canthus almost splitting. Xiang Yu was startled and, rising from his seat, reached for his sword. “Who is this guest?” he asked. Zhang Liang quickly introduced him, “He is the Duke of Pei’s body guard, Fan Kuai.” Impressed by Fan Kuai‘s intrepidness, Xiang Yu ordered, “What a strong man! Bring him some wine!”

    A large jar of wine was brought to Fan Kuai, who bowed in gratitude, then stood and drank it all in one go. Xiang Yu then offered him a whole ham. Fan Kuai placed his shield on the ground, used his sword to cut the ham, and ate it with gusto. Xiang Yu asked, “Do you want more wine, brave man?” Fan Kuai responded, “I am not afraid to die; why would I fear more wine?”

    Fan Kuai then launched into a speech, saying, “The rulers of Qin were as cruel as tigers or wolves. They killed without mercy and punished people as if they were in a competition of brutality. This is why the entire country rose up against them. King Huai of Chu made a pact with all his commanders: whoever conquered Qin and entered Xianyang first would become the king of Qin. Now, the Duke of Pei defeated Qin‘s defenders and entered Xianyang first. He didn’t even touch a single piece of treasure. He then withdrew to Bashang to await the General’s arrival. Despite his tremendous effort and success, he hasn’t received any reward. Instead, he faces death because of the slander of a mere loser. This is nothing but a continuation of Qin‘s tyranny. General, I don’t think you should do that!”

    Xiang Yu, with no solid argument against Fan Kuai‘s points, simply replied, “Please sit down.” Fan Kuai took a seat next to Zhang Liang.

    A while later, the Duke of Pei excused himself to go to the restroom, and Fan Kuai followed. Outside, the Duke of Pei said, “We could flee, but leaving without a proper farewell seems impolite.” Fan Kuai bluntly replied, “They are the cleaver, and we are the fish and meat on the chopping board. What need is there for politeness?” Without further delay, they fled.

    From Hongmen to Bashang it is about 40 li. The Duke of Pei left without his wagon and cavalrymen. The Duke of Pei, on a single horse, raced back to Bashang, with his four loyal guards—Fan Kuai, Xiahou Ying, Jin Qiang, and Ji Xin—following on foot, holding swords and shields. They took a shortcut from Lishan through Zhiyang to Bashang, to avoid detection. Before leaving, the Duke of Pei instructed Zhang Liang to stay behind and offer gifts to Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng as an apology for his hasty departure.  He reminded Zhang Liang, ”It is only 20 li by taking this route to our camp.  You may go in to thank General Xiang with our presents when we have arrived at camp.”

    After allowing sufficient time for the Duke of Pei to reach his army, Zhang Liang returned to Xiang Yu‘s tent. He offered the gifts and explained, “The Duke of Pei drank too much and couldn’t say a proper farewell, but he asked me to present these white jade pieces to General Xiang and jade vessels to Uncle Fan Zeng as tokens of his gratitude.”

    Xiang Yu accepted the white jade with indifference, placing it on the table. Fan Zeng, however, furiously smashed the jade vessels with his sword, exclaiming, “One can’t make grand plans with an unworthy brat! The Duke of Pei will take this realm from King Xiang, and soon we all will be his prisoners!”

    The Duke of Pei returned to his camp and immediately executed the informant, Cao Wushang.