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  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 258): Covering up Imperial Infanticide

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

    Infanticide

    The 1st year of Emperor Ai’s Jianping Era (6 B.C.)

    In January of spring, sixteen meteors fell in the northern sky, and a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    Xie Guang, Inspector Colonel of the Capital Region, submitted a memorial, saying: “I have heard that Lady Xu, who held the rank of Lady of Beauty, and Cao Gong, formerly the Empress’s scholarly tutor, had both conceived children through their relations with Emperor Cheng. Those children then disappeared. I dispatched officials to investigate, and they reported the following:

    “In the first year of the Yuanyan era(12 B.C.), Cao Gong became pregnant, and in October she gave birth in the chamber of a cowherd in the women’s quarters. The eunuch attendant of the Yellow Gate, Tian Ke, came bearing an imperial edict and delivered it to Ji Wu, the superintendent of the palace infirmary, ordering him to confine Cao Gong in the palace prison. He further commanded, ‘Do not ask whether the child is male or female; do not speak of whose child it is.’

    “Cao Gong said, ‘Please preserve my child’s placenta carefully! Do you, sir, know whose son this is?’

    “Three days later, Tian Ke returned with another edict and asked Ji Wu, ‘Has the boy died?’

    “Ji Wu replied, ‘Not yet.’

    “Tian Ke said, ‘The Emperor and the Consort Zhao are exceedingly enraged. Why have you not yet killed the child?’

    “Ji Wu knelt and wept, saying, ‘If I do not kill the child, I know I shall die; but if I do kill him, I shall die as well!’

    “Ji Wu then begged Tian Ke to submit a sealed memorial, saying: ‘Your Majesty has no heir, and the child is innocent, no matter to whom he was born. I beg that you reconsider with the utmost care.’

    “That memorial was accepted. Tian Ke then again brought a special edict to take away the child and handed him over to Wang Shun, another eunuch attendant of the Yellow Gate. Wang Shun received the edict, took the child into the inner palace, and selected a wet nurse, instructing her: ‘Nurse the child well, and you shall be rewarded; do not divulge any information about him.’ The wet nurse that Wang Shun chose was a maidservant named Zhang Qi.

    “Three days later, Tian Ke once again brought an edict together with a potion for Cao Gong to drink.

    “Cao Gong said: ‘Is it really the Zhao sisters’ desire to seize the world for themselves? My child is a boy, with hair growing upon his forehead, resembling his grandfather, Emperor Yuan. Where is the child now? He must surely be in danger of being killed! How can we let the Changxin Palace(Empress Dowager’s Palace) know of this?’ She then drank the poison and died.

    “Zhang Qi had nursed the child. Eleven days later, the baby boy was taken away by Li Nan, the chief maidservant of the palace, acting under an edict, and from that time onward his whereabouts were unknown.

    “In the second year of the Yuanyan era, Lady of Beauty Xu became pregnant and gave birth in November. Consort Zhao, who held the rank of Zhaoyi[Lady of Bright Deportment ], reproached Emperor Cheng, saying, ‘You constantly deceive me, saying that you come from the inner palace of the Empress Dowager. If you had truly come from the Empress Dowager’s palace, how could Lady of Beauty Xu’s child have been conceived within? Is Lady of Beauty Xu going to be the Empress after all?’

    “In her anger, she struck herself, beat her head against the wall and pillars, threw herself from the bed to the floor, and, weeping, refused to eat, saying, ‘You must now come to terms with me—I want to go home!’

    “The Emperor said, ‘I am now telling you the truth, yet you are still enraged. I truly do not understand!’

    “The Emperor also refused to eat.

    “Consort Zhao then said, ‘If Your Majesty knew yourself to be without fault, why then do you refuse food? Your Majesty once promised, “I will never betray you.” Now that the lady has borne a child, you have indeed betrayed that promise. What do you have to say now?’

    “The Emperor replied, ‘That promise was made to the Zhao family. Therefore I shall not establish Lady of Beauty Xu, so that no one will stand above the Zhao sisters. There is nothing for you to fear.’

    “Later, an edict was issued ordering the eunuch attendant of the Yellow Gate, Jin Yan, to take the child from Lady of Beauty Xu, place it in a reed basket, and carry it to the south side of the curtain in Consort Zhao’s dressing chamber. The Emperor and Consort Zhao sat there together, and the Emperor ordered the attendant Yu Kezi to untie the basket. After a short while, the Emperor dismissed the attendants and closed the door, remaining alone with Consort Zhao.

    “After some time, he opened the door, summoned an attendant to seal the basket again, and gave an edict to the eunuch Wu Gong, instructing him to tell Ji Wu, the superintendent of the inner court: ‘Inform him that there is a dead child in the basket. Bury it in a hidden place, and let no one know.’ Ji Wu thereupon dug a pit beneath the prison tower and buried the child there.

    “There were other cases during the same period involving poisonings and injuries, all before the general pardon issued on April 18. I respectfully note that in the third year of the Yongguang era, a man named Zhong and others were caught excavating the tomb of Lady Fu at Changling. Although a great pardon had been proclaimed, Emperor Yuan decreed, ‘This is not something that should be pardoned.’ Those responsible were tried and executed, and all under Heaven considered it fitting.

    “Consort Zhao brought chaos upon the sacred dynasty and personally destroyed the Emperor’s heirs. Her clan ought to face the punishment of Heaven. Yet her natal relatives all occupy high office and remain close to the imperial court, causing distress among the officials. I humbly request that Your Majesty conduct a thorough investigation.”

    The Chancellor and the other ministers debated the legal consequences, and the Emperor then demoted Zhao Qin(the younger brother of Zhao Feiyan), Marquis of Xincheng, and his brother’s son Zhao Xin, Marquis of Xianyang, to commoner status, and relocated their families to Liaoxi Commandery.

    The court consultant Geng Yu submitted a memorial, saying: “I have heard that when the succession is not properly transmitted, and a legitimate heir is replaced by a secondary one, it constitutes a grave violation of the sages’ laws and has served as a warning from ancient times to the present. Taibo, however, was an exception. Seeing that Jili(King Wen of Zhou’s father) was the proper heir, he followed the demands of propriety, willingly yielded his place, and devoted himself to Wu and Yue. Because the arrangement made by the ruling house did not adhere to the ordinary rule, King Jili was established, King Wen of Zhou rose to glory, and King Wu of Zhou ultimately gained All Under Heaven. Their descendants enjoyed the fruits of this for seven or eight hundred years, achieving the greatest eminence among the Three Kings(Xia, Shang, Zhou) and the highest standard of moral virtue. For this reason, the honorific title goes back to King Tai of Zhou. Thus, only when extraordinary circumstances arise do extraordinary decisions emerge.

    “Emperor Cheng knew that an heir had not been established in due time. Although sons might still have been born to him in advanced age, they would not have been old enough to govern the state by the time His Majesty passed away. Power would in the end have fallen into the hands of a female sovereign. When a female sovereign becomes proud and overmighty, her indulgent desires know no limit; when a young male sovereign is immature and weak, the high ministers cannot be properly directed. If, in such an age, there is no helper like the Duke of Zhou, who is able to bear the weight of the realm, then one must fear danger to the altars of state and the overthrow and disorder of All Under Heaven.

    “The late Emperor knew that Your Majesty possessed the virtue of sagely worth and penetrating wisdom, together with the benevolence of a sage and the filial devotion of a worthy son. With singular clarity of judgment, he was able to decide the matter for himself. In his later years, he restrained himself from visiting the harem, thereby eliminating the possibility of an infant heir, cutting off the root of chaos and misfortune, and thus intending to establish Your Majesty firmly in order to secure the ancestral temples.

    “Some of your foolish servants have been unable to draw deeply upon the principles of security and peril and settle a succession plan preserved in the Golden Coffer, nor have they known how to expound Your Majesty’s sacred virtue and set forth the intentions of the late Emperor. Instead, they have gone over and scrutinized matters within the inner palace, exposed private intimacies, falsely defiled the Former Emperor with the fault of being swayed and deluded, and thus completed the condemnation of a favored consort for jealousy and spite. In this they have grievously failed the clarity of wise and sagely foresight, and have perversely betrayed the late Emperor’s intention of concern for the state.

    “Now, in discussing great virtue, one must not be bound by common usages; in establishing great merit, one must not conform to the multitude. Such was the profound thought of Emperor Cheng, wherein he surpassed the assembled ministers by ten thousandfold; and such is the flourishing abundance of Your Majesty’s sacred virtue, whereby it accords with August Heaven. How could men of the present age, mediocre and petty ministers of narrow capacity, ever attain to such a height?

    “Moreover, to praise and magnify, to carry forward the virtues of one’s lord and father, and to rectify, remedy, and efface faults already past—this is the common principle of antiquity and the present. When the matter was current, they did not firmly remonstrate and contend, nor did they guard against disaster before it had taken shape; each merely followed the pointing finger and bent in compliance, seeking only ingratiation and favor. Yet after the imperial carriage had departed, when the honored title was already fixed and all affairs already concluded, they then ferreted out matters no longer reachable, exposing and proclaiming hidden faults in the darkness of the bedchamber. This is what pains your servant most deeply. 

    “I beg that the matter be submitted to the proper authorities for deliberation. If it accords with what your servant has said, it should be proclaimed throughout the realm, so that all may fully understand the sacred intention from which the late Emperor acted. Otherwise, empty slander and reproach will rise upward to the mountain tombs and flow downward to later ages, be heard afar among the hundred barbarians and spread nearby throughout the seas within the realm. This would be gravely contrary to the late Emperor’s intention in entrusting those who came after. For the filial son is one who is good at setting forth his father’s intentions and good at completing the undertakings of those before him. May Your Majesty examine this with care.”

    The Emperor also believed that Empress Dowager Zhao had been instrumental in his accession and therefore did not pursue the matter further. Empress Dowager Fu was grateful to Empress Dowager Zhao, and Empress Dowager Zhao in turn returned her loyalty. For this reason, the Grand Empress Dowager and the Wang clan all harbored resentment toward Empress Dowager Zhao.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 257): Rehabilitation of Chen Tang

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

    Iron Swords of Han Dynasty. Photo by Gary Todd

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C. continued)

    Kong Guang and He Wu submitted a memorial, saying: “The timing for the demolition of the ancestral temples should be settled without delay. We request that this matter be discussed with the other officials.” Thereupon, Grand Chamberlain Peng Xuan and fifty-three others all agreed that, although Emperor Wu had great achievements and merits, it was appropriate to demolish his temple, since his degree of kinship to the current Emperor had become too remote.

    Grand Coachman Wang Shun and Colonel of the Central Fortress Liu Xin argued: “According to the rites, the Son of Heaven has seven ancestral temples—the progenitor in the center, with the descendants of the second, fourth, and sixth generations on the left, and those of the third, fifth, and seventh generations on the right. The number seven represents the regular standard and is the fixed rule. However, for those emperors whose temple names include zong (‘ancestor’), they are not restricted by this fixed number. The number of such honored ancestors is not constant. Wherever there are merit and virtue, the ancestor should be included; this should not be predetermined. We believe that Emperor Wu’s achievements and merits were of such importance, and since Emperor Xuan so deeply revered him, it is not appropriate to demolish his temple.”

    The Emperor reviewed their arguments and decreed: “The proposal of Grand Coachman Wang Shun and Colonel of the Central Fortress Liu Xin is acceptable.”

    He Wu’s stepmother was in Shu Commandery, and he sent an official to bring her to the capital. When Emperor Cheng died, however, the official feared bandits along the road, and so his mother remained at home. Some of those close to the Emperor criticized He Wu for failing to care for his mother, and the Emperor also wished to replace his ministers. Thus, in October of winter, He Wu was dismissed from office and returned to his fief as a marquis. On October 9, Shi Dan was appointed Grand Excellency of Works.

    Shi Dan, seeing that the Emperor had made many alterations to Emperor Cheng’s policies, submitted a memorial stating: “In ancient times, those in mourning remained silent, and state affairs were entrusted to the Chancellor. For three years, there should be no changes to the way of the late father. Yet while the late Emperor’s body still lay in the hall, Your Majesty’s attendants, relatives, and others were honored and promoted. Your uncle was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yang’an; the honorific title of the Empress had not yet been determined, yet her father had already been made Marquis of Kongxiang; among those dismissed were Privy Counselor Wang Yi and Colonel of Archers Wang Han. Multiple edicts were issued in haste, and thus changes in government followed in confused and abrupt succession of actions.

    “Though I am unable to expound the great principles with clarity, nor have I firmly declined my own enfeoffment, but have merely followed the crowd and accepted the title of marquis, thereby increasing Your Majesty’s faults. Recently, many regions have suffered earthquakes and floods, with loss of life among the people; the sun and moon have failed to shine clearly, and the five planets have lost their proper courses. These are signs of error in administrative policies and violation of principles in law enforcement, reflecting disorder and confusion between yin and yang.

    “I submit that even a common man without sons, though sixty or seventy years of age, still seeks to widen his household by taking additional concubines. Emperor Cheng, however, understood the Mandate of Heaven profoundly and recognized Your Majesty’s great virtue, choosing you in the fullness of his years as his heir. The late Emperor suddenly departed from the world, yet when Your Majesty succeeded him, peace prevailed within the Four Seas and the people felt no fear. This was due to the late Emperor’s divine virtue, which accorded with the harmony between Heaven and mankind. It is said, ‘Do not act contrary to Heaven’s will, for its might is but an inch away.’ Therefore, I urge Your Majesty to reflect deeply upon the late Emperor’s intention in establishing you as heir, to practice self-restraint in accordance with the tradition of silence during mourning, and to observe the custom of entrusting government to the ministers. All under Heaven already belongs to Your Majesty; there is no cause to fear that your kinsmen and favorites will not in time attain wealth and honor. To act with such haste is unwise, for what is gained so quickly cannot long endure.”

    Shi Dan submitted numerous memorials, many of them containing direct and blunt remonstrance.

    The son of Dowager Empress Fu’s younger cousin, Fu Qian, served as an attendant around the Emperor. Because of his vicious character, he was disliked by the Emperor, removed from his post, and sent back to his former commandery. The Dowager Empress Fu was enraged, and the Emperor, unable to resist her, had Fu Qian reinstated. Chancellor Kong Guang and Grand Excellency of Works Shi Dan then submitted a memorial, saying: “The edicts are contradictory, causing confusion and undermining public trust. We request that Fu Qian be returned to his former commandery, in order to dispel the dishonest cliques surrounding the Emperor.” Their request, however, was not granted, and Fu Qian was restored as Privy Counselor. This clearly showed the overriding influence of Dowager Empress Fu over the Emperor.

    The court consultant Geng Yu submitted a memorial to redress the injustice to Chen Tang: “Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang magnified the awe-inspiring might of the Sacred Han and extended it to the deepest and farthest reaches. They washed away the state’s accumulated shame of many years. They campaigned against a rebellious ruler in distant lands and bound a captive difficult to subdue from ten thousand li away—what deed could compare with this?

    “The Former Emperor commended them and thereupon issued a clear edict, proclaiming and manifesting their merit. He changed the era name and caused the event to be recorded in the calendar, so that it might be transmitted without end. In response, Nanjun Commandery contributed a white tiger as a present, and along the frontiers there were no alarms.

    “When the Former Emperor fell gravely ill, he still did not forget this matter, but repeatedly sent the minister of the State Secretariat to question and press the Chancellor, urging that their merit be formally established without delay. Yet Chancellor Kuang Heng alone obstructed the matter and refused to approve it, enfeoffing Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang with only a few hundred households. For this reason, the meritorious officers and fighting men were left disappointed.

    “Emperor Cheng inherited the foundations of an accomplished reign and rode upon the awe inspired by former campaigns. Weapons and armor were not put in motion, and the state was free of major troubles; yet the great ministers, perverse and devious, sought to monopolize the ruler’s authority, excluding and envying men of merit. Thus Chen Tang, solitary and forsaken, suffered false accusation, arrest, and imprisonment, and could not make his case clear. In the end, though guiltless, he grew old and was cast aside.

    “Dunhuang stands directly upon the route to the Western Regions; yet a minister whose prestige and renown had overawed and vanquished the lands, before he could even turn his heel, was himself reduced to such a state, and again made an object of mockery to the surviving caitiffs of Zhizhi. This is truly lamentable!

    “To this day, those who bear missions to the outer tribes have never failed to recount the execution of Zhizhi, thereby proclaiming the grandeur of the Han empire. To rely on this man’s merit in order to intimidate the enemy, yet cast aside his person in order to gratify slanderers—how could this not be grievous?

    “Moreover, in times of peace one must not forget danger; in times of prosperity one must surely consider decline. Now the state possesses neither the accumulated abundance built up through Emperor Wen’s many years of thrift, nor generals like those repeatedly employed under Emperor Wu to strike down bold chieftains and capture the enemy. There is only one Chen Tang. Even had he lived in another age and failed to encounter Your Majesty, one might still have hoped that the state would have posthumously recorded his merit, enfeoffed his descendants, and marked his tomb, thereby encouraging those who would come after.

    “Chen Tang was fortunate to have lived in a sacred age. His merit was not yet long past, the court instead listened to wicked ministers, who scourged him, drove him away, and cast him far off, so that he fled in exile and in the end died without a settled resting place. Those gentlemen who look far and judge broadly all reckon that Chen Tang’s merit is such that it cannot be matched for generations, while his faults were no more than what ordinary human feeling may contain. If even Chen Tang was treated in this manner, then though other soldiers should once more break sinews and bones and expose their bodies in the field, they would still in the end fall victim to men’s lips and tongues and be ruined by jealous ministers. This is why your servant is all the more deeply distressed for the sake of the state.”

    The Emperor responded to the petition by allowing Chen Tang to return to Chang’an, where he ultimately passed away.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 256): Three Strategies of Water Management

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

    Yin Yang symbol surrounded by five elements: fire, earth, metal, water, and wood with symbols and arrows
    Five Elements interacting around a central Yin Yang

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C. continued)

    On September 25, an earthquake struck more than thirty locations, from the capital to the northern regions, destroying city walls and killing over four hundred people when buildings collapsed on them. The Emperor, seeking an explanation for this calamity, consulted the attendant-in-waiting Li Xun, who replied:

    “The sun is the lord of all things belonging to yang and the emblem of the male sovereign. When the sovereign fails to cultivate virtue, the sun loses its proper force, becoming dim and deprived of its radiance. Recently, the sun has been especially unsettled: its halo has been invaded and diminished, and its corona has repeatedly been encroached upon. This humble servant does not know the inner affairs of the court, yet from observing the sun, I privately infer that Your Majesty’s character and conduct have declined from what they were at the beginning of your reign. Your Majesty should uphold the virtues of firmness and perseverance, maintain the proper standard with steadfast resolve, and not be swayed by the flattery of women in the inner court, by deceitful ministers, or by the false lamentations of favored maids and wet nurses. Such entreaties must be firmly rejected. Uphold the great principles of righteousness with strength and constancy, and do not trouble yourself over petty matters. If there are indeed some whom you cannot bear to do without, you may bestow goods and wealth upon them; but you must not, out of personal favor, grant them office or rank. This is truly the prohibition laid down by August Heaven.

    “I have heard that the moon is the ruler of all things belonging to yin, representing the empress and consorts, the ministers, and the feudal lords. Recently, the moon too has undergone disturbing changes. This suggests disorder within the imperial court, arising from the Empress Dowager’s interference in government and the havoc thereby wrought at court, so that both yin and yang are thrown out of balance, and neither is properly regulated. I am but an outsider to court affairs and do not understand them fully; I know only a little of astrology. Yet the observation of celestial phenomena indicates that even those ministers closest to Your Majesty are not to be relied upon. Your Majesty should personally seek out virtuous scholars, prevent evil men from gaining influence, and thereby exalt the glory of the state and strengthen the dynasty.

    “I have heard that the Five Elements take water as their basis, for water is the measure of balance and fairness. When the kingly way is upright, public order is maintained; when the rivers generally follow their proper courses, the circulation of the realm remains unhindered. But when the court departs from principle and strays from the normal course, the rivers overflow, and disaster follows. Now the floods of the Rushui River and the Ying River, joined with the rains, have inundated the people. This is what the Book of Songs describes as ‘all the rivers in tumult,’ a fault attributed to the Huangfu clan, the affinal relatives of the Zhou house. Your Majesty should therefore place some restraint upon affinal relatives who hold the highest offices.

    “I have heard that the earth is by nature gentle and tranquil, and thus represents the constant condition of yin. Recently, the eastern regions have suffered repeated earthquakes. It would be advisable to exalt yang and restrain yin in order to correct these faults, to strengthen authority, close off hidden avenues of influence, promote the capable, and dismiss the unfit, thereby consolidating the present dynasty. When the foundation is strong, the vital spirit is fortified and able to overcome evil; when the foundation is weak, it invites calamity and danger, and wicked schemes prevail. In the past, when the Prince of Huainan, Liu An, plotted rebellion, the man he feared most was Ji An, while men such as Gongsun Hong were not even worth mentioning. Gongsun Hong was a famous statesman of the Han dynasty, yet even he would still stand unrivaled in the present court. If even Gongsun Hong was held of so little account, what then of those who fall far below him? Thus, when the court lacks capable men, it naturally becomes vulnerable to rebellion and disorder.”

    The Cavalry Commandant Ping Dang, who was in charge of the river embankments, advised: “The Nine Rivers are now all silted up and no longer flow. If one examines the meaning of the Classics, the methods for controlling the waters speak of opening the rivers and deepening the channels, but contain no injunction about building embankments and blocking breaches. From Weijun Commandery northeastward, the Yellow River has often overflowed and broken through its banks; the watercourses are difficult to distinguish clearly, and one cannot deceive the multitudes within the Four Seas. It would be fitting to seek widely for experts able to dredge the channels and open the course of the River.”

    The Emperor approved this suggestion.

    The attendant-in-waiting Jia Rang presented his views: “There are three strategies for managing the river: the superior, the middle, and the inferior. In ancient times, when founding settlements and establishing the people, it was essential to keep away from places where rivers and marshes converged and to choose land beyond the reach of floodwaters. Along great rivers, men did not build dikes, but allowed the smaller streams to flow into them; dams and low embankments were constructed to form marshes where the autumn waters might accumulate, allowing the surrounding currents to move slowly and not become too violent. The need of the land for a river is like the need of a man for a mouth. To heap up earth to restrain a river is like stopping a child’s crying by plugging its mouth: the measure takes effect at once, but the child’s death comes all the sooner. Hence there is a saying: ‘A good manager of rivers opens channels to let the waters flow; a good ruler allows the people to voice their feelings and grants freedom of speech.’”

    “The building of embankments began in the Warring States period, when the various states constructed dikes for their own advantage. Qi, Zhao, and Wei each used the Yellow River as a boundary. Zhao and Wei, being closer to the mountains, and Qi, whose land was lower, each built embankments twenty-five li from the Yellow River. When the waters of the Yellow River reached the embankments of Qi, they overflowed westward into Zhao and Wei. Zhao and Wei in turn also built embankments twenty-five li from the River. Though these were not perfectly aligned, the waters still wandered. Over time, these lands filled with silt and became fertile for cultivation. When the waters receded, people settled there, and the settlements gradually became villages. Then, when the waters rose again and submerged the villages, newer and higher embankments were built for protection. Thus towns and villages gradually shifted their locations, while marshes were drained away, and inundation and drowning continued to occur from time to time.

    “Today the embankments stand much closer to the river, some in the narrowest places reaching to within only a few hundred paces of the water, while others extend for several li. Within the old embankments there are multiple layers, and people live between them, following practices handed down from earlier generations. From Liyang in Henei Commandery to Zhaoyang in Weijun Commandery, stone embankments have been built on both the eastern and western sides. These redirect the floodwaters, forcing the river, over the course of a hundred li, twice westward and then three times eastward, so that it remains continually constricted and unstable.”

    “The superior option is to relocate the people of Jizhou who live within the flood zone, then breach the barriers at Zhehai Pavilion in Liyang, allowing the Yellow River to flow northward into the sea. To the west of the Yellow River lies a great mountain, and to the east lies the Golden Embankment, so that extensive flooding can be prevented. Within a month, the overflow should be brought under control. Critics may argue that such a measure would destroy thousands of cities, fields, and tombs, thereby arousing widespread resentment among the people. Yet when Yu the Great controlled the floods, he cut through mountains that stood in his way, opened the Dragon Gate, cleared Mount Yique, cut through Mount Dizhu, and split rocks all the way to Mount Jieshi. Such labors reshaped Heaven and Earth themselves. Compared with that, a few man-made structures are of no account, and such objections are not worth heeding.

    “At present, the annual cost of maintaining embankments in the ten commanderies along the river amounts to millions, and when great breaches occur, the damage cannot be calculated. If several years’ worth of river-management expenses were instead devoted to relocating the affected people, following the methods of the ancient sages, restoring the mountains and rivers to their proper courses, and ensuring that human habitation and the natural world each remain in their rightful places without encroaching upon one another, then the matter would be resolved. The Han dynasty possesses a realm stretching ten thousand li; why should it haggle with the Yellow River over mere feet and inches? If this strategy were successfully carried out, it would pacify the river and protect the people for a thousand years. This is why it is called the superior option.

    “The middle option is to construct additional canals in Jizhou for irrigation, regulate the distribution of the waters, and thereby ease the fury of the Yellow River. Though this is not the method of the sages, it is a practical means of limiting the damage. Beginning from the mouth of Qi River eastward, stone embankments and numerous sluice gates should be established to control the Yellow River. Some may doubt that such a great river can be managed by channels and gates, yet the transport canal at Xingyang has already proved that water can be harnessed for conveyance. The irrigation canals of Jizhou must likewise rely upon sluice gates to distribute water into their branch channels. When the water is high, the eastern gates should be opened to irrigate Jizhou; when the water is low, the western gates should be opened to divert the river’s flow, thus ensuring proper irrigation of the fields while also preserving the embankments. This method is practical, and could enrich the state and secure the people’s welfare for several centuries. That is why it is called the middle strategy.

    “The inferior option is to repair and extend the old embankments. This is laborious and costly, invites recurring disasters, and remains the least effective of all.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 255): A New Broom Sweeps Cleaner

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33 (continued)

    Liu Xin’s Handwriting

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C. continued)

    During the reign of Emperor Cheng, the folk music of Zheng was especially popular at the court. Renowned palace entertainers such as Bing Qiang and Jing Wu, had risen to prominence, and noble families even competed with the imperial house in employing female musicians and performers. The Emperor, who had disliked this music since his days as Prince of Dingtao and was personally averse to music in general, issued an edict in June: “Did not Confucius say, ‘The music of Zheng shall be banned, the music of Zheng is decadent’? Therefore, the officials of the Music Bureau shall be dismissed. Music for sacrifices and the ancient military music recorded in the classics, excluding that of Zheng and Wey, shall be administered by other offices.” 

    More than half of the musical officials were dismissed. However, as time passed, the people had become accustomed to this music, and since no more elegant alternative had been composed to replace it, the musical indulgence of the wealthy and the officials remained unchanged.

    Wang Mang recommended Liu Xin, Colonel of the Central Citadel, on account of his talent and conduct. Liu Xin was appointed Privy Counselor, then promoted to Grand Master of Merit, and enjoyed the Emperor’s favor. He was given the name Liu Xiu, since the Emperor’s own name was also Liu Xin. The Emperor ordered Liu Xiu to oversee the annotation of the Five Classics and to continue the work of his father, Liu Xiang. Liu Xiu compiled and submitted a general catalogue of the various texts, producing seven summaries: Ji lüe (Summary of the Classics), Liuyi lüe (Summary of the Six Arts), Zhuzi lüe (Summary of the Masters and Philosophers), Shifu lüe (Summary of Poetry and Essays), Bingshu lüe (Summary of Military Texts), Shushu lüe (Summary of Techniques and Astronomy), and Fangji lüe (Summary of Magic and Occult). These summaries encompassed six broad categories, thirty-eight subdivisions, five hundred ninety-six works, and thirteen thousand two hundred sixty-nine scrolls.

    The summaries classified the various schools of thought into nine streams: Confucianism, Daoism, Yin-Yang Theory, Legalism, the School of Names(Logicians), Mohism, the School of Diplomacy, Eclecticism, and Agriculturalism. Liu Xiu argued that “These nine schools of thought arose when the kingly way had declined and the feudal lords exercised power. At that time, rulers held different preferences, and thus these diverse schools of thought arose and reached their height, each advancing its own strengths and contending for influence. Although their teachings differ, they are like water and fire, opposing one another yet also complementing one another. Benevolence and righteousness, reverence and harmony, though opposed, are all intermingled. The Book of Changes says: ‘All under Heaven pursue the same end by different paths; they reach the same destination, though a hundred deliberations.’ Now those of the various schools press forward what each does best, exhausting knowledge and probing thought in order to make their purport clear. Though each has obscurities and deficiencies, if one gathers their essential return, they are also branches and later offshoots of the Six Classics. If such men should encounter an enlightened king and sagely ruler, and get what is properly balanced and harmonized from these schools of thought, they would all be material for the ruler’s limbs and wings, serving as indispensable aids.

    “Confucius once said: ‘When rites are lost, seek them among the wilderness.’ Now, being long departed from the age of sages, the Way and its arts are broken and cast aside, and there is nowhere further to seek them. Are those Nine Schools not still better than the wilderness and countryside? If one can cultivate the arts of the Six Disciplines and, by them, examine the words of these Nine Schools—discarding the shortcomings and taking the outstanding—then one may thereby penetrate strategies suited to the myriad regions.”

    Prince Hui of Hejian, Liu Liang, was able to live in accordance with the example set by Prince Xian of Hejian, Liu De. When his mother, the Queen Dowager, passed away, he observed the mourning rites in full accordance with ritual prescription. He was therefore granted an additional fief of ten thousand households, to serve as a model for the imperial clan.

    Dong Zhongshu had advised Emperor Wu: “Qin adopted the laws of Shang Yang, abolished the well-field system, and allowed the people to buy and sell land. The wealthy accumulated vast estates, while the poor were left with only tiny plots. In small towns there were men as honored and powerful as princes; in the villages there were riches equal to those of dukes and marquises. How could the common people not be oppressed? Although the ancient well-field system cannot easily be restored in full, it would still be beneficial to move toward it gradually. Limit the amount of land the people may own, so that those without land may be provided for, and curb excessive annexation. Remove from masters the power they hold over enslaved laborers, who live in fear of cruel punishments. Reduce taxes and labor service to lighten the people’s burdens, and better governance will then become possible!”

    When the Emperor ascended the throne, Shi Dan again submitted a proposal: “Now, after many generations of peace, the wealthy and the officials have greatly expanded their holdings, while the poor suffer ever more deeply. It would be appropriate to impose some limit on landownership.” The Emperor referred the proposal for deliberation.

    Chancellor Kong Guang and Grand Excellency of Works He Wu proposed: “Let limits be set on the land owned by feudal princes, marquises, and princesses. Let the land owned by marquises within the Pass, officials, and commoners be limited to no more than thirty qing(Chinese hectare), and let the number of slaves be limited to no more than thirty. This should be enforced within three years, and the property of violators should be confiscated by the court.”

    Then the market prices of land, houses, and household slaves fell sharply, and the nobles and ministers close to the Emperor did not regard the measure as beneficial to them. Another edict was therefore issued: “Let the matter be suspended for the present.”

    In addition, an edict was issued to the officials overseeing the garment workshops in Qi, stating: “The officers of the Office of the Three Seasons shall halt the production of patterned silks and embroideries that are difficult to complete and harmful to women’s spinning and weaving. Those already produced shall not be transported to the capital.”

    The edict further stated: “The law of ‘Affirming Patricians,’ which grants preferential advancement to the sons of officials of the 2,000-picul rank, and the laws prohibiting slander and defamation are hereby abolished. Women of the harem under thirty years of age shall be given in marriage. Slaves over fifty years of age shall be freed and made commoners. In addition, officials with salaries of three hundred piculs or less shall receive an increase.”

    At a banquet in Weiyang Palace, the eunuch conductor arranged a seat for Empress Dowager Fu beside the Empress Dowager Zhao. Grand Marshal Wang Mang, while inspecting the seating, rebuked the conductor: “The Queen Dowager of Dingtao, merely a former concubine of a prince, how can she sit alongside the Supreme Sovereign?” He had her seat removed and another one arranged elsewhere. When Empress Dowager Fu heard of this, she was enraged, refused to attend the banquet, and conceived a deep resentment toward Wang Mang. Wang Mang thereupon petitioned for retirement. In autumn, on July 1, the Emperor granted him five hundred cattie of gold and a carriage drawn by four horses, and dismissed him to his residence.

    Many among the Three Excellencies, the ministers, and the nobles praised Wang Mang, and the Emperor consequently showed him even greater favor. He sent palace eunuchs to attend Wang Mang’s household and had meals provided to him every ten days. In addition, a decree was issued increasing the fiefs of Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang; Wang Shun, Marquis of Anyang; and Wang Mang, Marquis of Xindu. The fiefs of Chancellor Kong Guang, Grand Excellency of Works He Wu, and various other officials were likewise adjusted. Wang Mang was appointed Special Appointee and Palace Steward, granted court audience on the new moon and full moon of each month, and accorded ceremonial honors equivalent to those of the Three Excellencies. Furthermore, Wang Li, Marquis of Hongyang, was reinstated to the capital.

    Queen Dowager Fu(Consort of Emperor Yuan)’s cousin, General of the Right Fu Xi, was a learned man of noble character. After Wang Mang was dismissed and retired, public hopes turned to Fu Xi. Earlier, when the Emperor’s affinal relatives were being advanced, Fu Xi alone remained modest and declined high office on the grounds of ill health. When Queen Dowager of Dingtao(Fu) began to take part in state affairs, he often offered advice in opposition to her wishes. As a result, she did not want Fu Xi to assist in the government. On July 4, General of the Left Shi Dan was appointed Grand Marshal and granted the title of Marquis of Gaoxiangting. Fu Xi was given one hundred catties of gold, relieved of his duty as General of the Right, his seal and ribbon taken away, and assigned the post of Grand Master of Merit so that he might recuperate from illness. The office of General of the Right was then given to Peng Xuan of Huaiyang, who was serving as Grand Chamberlain.

    Grand Excellency of Works He Wu and Director of the State Secretariat Tang Lin both submitted memorials to the Emperor, saying: “Fu Xi is a man of righteousness, integrity, and loyalty, wholly devoted to the state. Now, because of illness, he is being sent away, to the disappointment of the people. All say, ‘The worthy son of the Fu family, because he disagreed with the Queen Dowager of Dingtao, has been dismissed,’ and the myriad officials grieve for the state. Loyal ministers are the protectors of a state. The state of Lu had Ji You to bring order out of disorder; the prestige of the kingdom of Chu depended on Cheng Ziyu(Cheng Dechen’s courtesy name); the state of Wei relied on Wei Wuji(Lord Xinling) to rally the feudal lords; and the preservation or destruction of Xiang Yu turned upon Fan Zeng. A single worthy man is worth more than a million soldiers. Thus Qin spent a thousand pieces of gold to sow dissension against Lian Po, and Han scattered gold to estrange Uncle Fan Zeng from Xiang Yu. So long as Fu Xi stands at court, he represents the Emperor’s glory and the rise or fall of the Fu family.”

    The Emperor also valued Fu Xi, and he was therefore soon reinstated.

    The Marquis of Jianping, Du Ye, submitted a memorial criticizing the Marquis of Quyang, Wang Gen, the Marquis of Gaoyang, Xue Xuan, and the Marquis of Anchang, Zhang Yu, and by contrast recommending Zhu Bo. The Emperor, having heard of the Wang family’s arrogance from a young age, could not endure it; yet, because his reign had only recently begun, he chose for the time being to tolerate them.

    A little more than a month later, the Inspector Colonel of the Capital, Xie Guang, reported: “The Marquis of Quyang(Wang Gen) before the mourning for the late Emperor had been completed, openly summoned the former female musicians and entertainers of the imperial court, including Yin Yan and Wang Feijun. He also gave former imperial concubines in marriage as wives to Wang Kuang, the Marquis of Chengdu and son of his brother. In all this, they showed none of the propriety due from subjects, but instead displayed grave disrespect and a complete disregard for moral standards.”

    Thereupon the Emperor said: “The late Emperor treated Wang Gen and Wang Kuang, father and son, with the utmost generosity, yet they have repaid that kindness with betrayal and ingratitude.” Since Wang Gen had once proposed that Emperor Ai be made crown prince, he was merely sent back to his marquisate. Wang Kuang was reduced to commoner status and returned to his native town. All officials who had been recommended or appointed by Wang Gen and Wang Shang(Wang Kuang’s father), were dismissed.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 254): Mother Honored Through Son

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 25 Scroll 33

    Duration of 2 years

    Yanling Mausoleum, Xianyang, Shaanxi Province. Photo by Legolas1024

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (7 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor made royal progress to Ganquan and performed the rites at the Taiyi Altar.

    On February 13, Chancellor Zhai Fangjin died. At that time, Mars lingered in the Heart of the Scorpion. Li Xun of Pingling, a staff consultant in the Chancellery, submitted a memorial stating: “Calamities are imminent, and the burden of responsibility grows heavier by the day. How can we merely dismiss or punish the man in charge? The entire Chancellery, with more than three hundred personnel, should be thoroughly investigated, and all who have served there should be held accountable for the disaster.”

    Zhai Fangjin was deeply distressed and did not know what course to take. Meanwhile, the astrologer Fei Li advised that the senior ministers should be replaced. The Emperor then summoned Zhai Fangjin. After he returned home, before any resolution had been reached, he received an imperial edict reproaching him for failing to manage affairs of state properly, thereby bringing about disasters and causing widespread suffering among the people. 

    The Emperor wrote: “I wish to remove you from office, but I cannot bear to do so. I shall have the Excellency of Works provide you with ten liters of wine and a cow to sustain you. You must take care of yourself.” Zhai Fangjin committed suicide that very day.

    The Emperor kept the matter confidential. He dispatched the Nine Ministers to present an official seal and ceremonial regalia, and provided carriages, sacrificial vessels, and white mourning drapery, all funded and administered by the court treasury. The Emperor personally attended the mourning rites several times, showing exceptional honor beyond the customary treatment accorded to other chancellors.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Yan Ying once said, “Heaven’s mandate is not arbitrary, and fate does not alter its course.” The coming of fortune or disaster cannot be averted. In former times, King Zhao of Chu and Duke Jing of Song, though unwilling to shift disaster onto their officials, said, “If one transfers an illness from the heart to the limbs, what benefit is there?” Even if disaster could be transferred, a benevolent ruler would not do so—how much less when it cannot be done at all?

    If Zhai Fangjin’s offense did not merit death, yet he was put to death in order to answer for a great crisis, then this was to deceive Heaven. If Zhai Fangjin did deserve punishment, yet his execution was concealed and his funeral honors were made exceptionally grand, then this was to deceive men. Emperor Cheng sought to deceive both Heaven and men, yet in the end gained nothing by it. It may indeed be said that he did not understand the Mandate.

    In March, the Emperor made a tour to Hedong to offer sacrifices to the Earth Goddess.

    On March 18, the Emperor died in Weiyang Palace.

    The Emperor had been robust and free of illness. At that time, the Prince of Chu, Liu Yan, and the Prince of Liang, Liu Li, were in attendance at court and were to depart the following morning. The Emperor had spent the night in the White Tiger Hall of the palace, and he also intended to appoint the General of the Left, Kong Guang, as Chancellor, having already prepared the marquis seal and drafted the commendation. The evening and night passed in peace.

    The next morning, when the Emperor was about to rise, he drew up his trousers, whereupon his garments fell loose, and he became unable to speak. Within a few hours, he died. The people were thrown into an uproar, and all blamed Consort(Zhaoyi) Zhao.

    The Empress Dowager issued an edict ordering Grand Marshal Wang Mang, together with the Grand Master of the Censorate, the Chancellor, and the Minister of Justice, to investigate the Emperor’s condition and symptoms. Consort(Zhaoyi) Zhao committed suicide.

    Ban Biao’s praise of the late Emperor: My aunt, who once served as a consort(Jieyu) in his harem, had seen Emperor Cheng, and her father and brothers also served at court. They often told me: “Emperor Cheng was scrupulous in the maintenance of his bearing. When he ascended a carriage, he stood upright; he neither glanced about needlessly, nor spoke rashly, nor pointed with his own hand. In facing the court, he was deeply reverent and maintained a dignified demeanor. This may truly be called the bearing of a Son of Heaven. He studied widely, both past and present, accepted forthright remonstrance, and allowed officials and commoners alike to present their views. The age was one of peace and harmony, and those above and below lived in concord. However, he was deeply given to wine and sensual pleasures; the Zhao clan brought disorder within, and the affinal clan controlled the court, so that it made people short of breath when talking about it.”

    From the beginning of the Jianshi era, the Wang clan began to take control of state affairs; with the short reigns of Emperor Ai and Emperor Ping, Wang Mang ultimately usurped the throne. This was plainly the consequence of the power and favor he accumulated under Emperor Cheng.

    On that day, Kong Guang received appointment as Chancellor and the seal as Marquis of Boshan before the late Emperor’s casket.

    The Marquis of Fuping, Zhang Fang, upon hearing of the Emperor’s death, mourned and wept until he died.

    Xun Yue’s commentary: Zhang Fang did not lack affection for the Emperor, but he lacked loyalty. Thus, affection without loyalty is a theft of benevolence.

    The Empress Dowager decreed that the traditional sacrificial ceremonies held in the Southern and Northern Suburbs of Chang’an should be resumed.

    In summer, on April 8, the Crown Prince ascended the throne and visited the temple of Emperor Gaozu. The Empress Dowager(Wang Zhengjun) was honored as Grand Empress Dowager, and the Empress(Zhao Feiyan) was honored as Empress Dowager. A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the realm.

    At the beginning of Emperor Ai’s reign, he personally practiced frugality, reduced various expenditures, and attended to affairs of state in person. Throughout the court, all aspired to a well-governed administration.

    On April 17, Emperor Cheng was buried at Yanling mausoleum.

    The Grand Empress Dowager(Wang Zhengjun) ordered Queen Dowager Fu and Consort Ding to come to Weiyang Palace every ten days.

    An edict asked the Chancellor and the Grand Excellency of Works: “Where should Queen Dowager Gong of Dingtao reside?”

    Chancellor Kong Guang, who had long known Queen Dowager Fu to be hot-tempered and strong-willed, and skilled in political maneuvering, advised that since she had raised and educated the Emperor from infancy to adulthood and had played a decisive role in his accession, she might interfere in affairs of state. He proposed that a separate palace be rebuilt for the Dowager Empress of Dingtao.

    The Grand Excellency of Works, He Wu, said, “She should reside in the Northern Palace.” The Emperor followed He Wu’s recommendation. The Northern Palace had a purple covered walkway leading directly to Weiyang Palace, and Queen Dowager Fu indeed used this passage to visit the Emperor morning and evening, seeking an exalted title and favoring her relatives, thereby preventing the Emperor from making decisions with full independence.

    The Marquis of Gaochang, Dong Hong, catering to the intentions of Queen Dowager Fu and the Emperor, argued: “The mother of King Zhuangxiang of Qin was originally of the Xia clan and was adopted by Madame Huayang; after he ascended the throne, both women were addressed as Empress Dowagers. Therefore, it is appropriate to establish the Queen Dowager of Dingtao as Empress Dowager Gong.”

    The matter was submitted to the ministers. The Grand Marshal, Wang Mang, and Shi Dan—General of the Left, Marquis Within the Passes, and Recorder of the State Secretariat—submitted a memorial impeaching Dong Hong, stating: “To compare the title of the Empress Dowager with that of the fallen Qin dynasty is to diminish the sanctity of our present reign and is wholly inappropriate.” The new Emperor, being humble and reverent, accepted the counsel of Wang Mang and Shi Dan and reduced Dong Hong to commoner status. Queen Dowager Fu was incensed and demanded that her title be confirmed.

    The Emperor then informed the Grand Empress Dowager and issued an edict honoring Prince Gong of Dingtao (the Emperor’s biological father Liu Kang) as Emperor Gong.

    On May 19, Empress Fu was installed; she was the daughter of Fu Yan, a niece of Queen Dowager Fu.

    The edict stated: “In the Spring and Autumn Annals, a mother is honored through her son. Therefore, the Queen Dowager of Dingtao should be honored as Empress Dowager Gong, and Consort Ding as Queen Dowager Gong. Each shall have her own Left and Right Masters of the Household and shall receive estates comparable to those of Changxin Palace (the residence of the Empress Dowager) and the Central Palace (the residence of the Empress).”

    The father of Queen Dowager Fu was posthumously honored as the Marquis of Chongzu, and Consort Ding’s father was honored as the Marquis of Baode. Consort Ding’s brother, Ding Ming, was created the Marquis of Yang’an; her cousin Ding Man was created the Marquis of Pingzhou; and Fu Yan, the father of the Empress, was created the Marquis of Kongxiang. Zhao Qin, the younger brother of Empress Dowager Zhao Feiyan—who also served as Privy Counselor and Grand Master of Merit—was created the Marquis of Xincheng.

    The Grand Empress Dowager(Wang Zhengjun) decreed that Grand Marshal Wang Mang should withdraw from court and return to his residence, to make way for the Emperor’s affinal relatives. Wang Mang submitted a memorial requesting retirement.

    The Emperor sent the Minister of the State Secretariat to issue an edict summoning Wang Mang, and also dispatched Chancellor Kong Guang, Grand Excellency of Works He Wu, General of the Left Shi Dan, and Commandant of the Guards Fu Xi to inform the Grand Empress Dowager: “The Emperor is deeply grieved by the Grand Empress Dowager’s decree. If the Grand Marshal is to retire, the Emperor will not dare to handle affairs of state.”

    The Grand Empress Dowager then permitted Wang Mang to remain in office and continue his duties.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 253): A Tattletale or Whistleblower

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    He Pu, Guangxi Province. A place for exiles.

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (8 B.C. continued)

    The Commandant of the Palace Guard and Privy Counselor, Chunyu Chang, enjoyed the Emperor’s favor and complete trust. He was held in greater esteem than the Three Excellencies and the Nine Ministers. He cultivated friendships with princes, governors, and prefects, accepted bribes and gifts amounting to tens of millions, and indulged extravagantly in pleasure and luxury. Empress Xu’s elder sister, Xu Mi, was the widow of the Marquis Si of Longluo. Chunyu Chang carried on an affair with Xu Mi and took her as a concubine.

    The deposed Empress Xu, residing at Changding Palace, used Xu Mi as an intermediary to bribe Chunyu Chang in hopes of being restored as a consort of the Emperor with the title Jieyu[Lady of Handsome Fairness]. Chunyu Chang received gold, carriages, and garments from Empress Xu worth more than ten million coins, and falsely claimed that he had spoken with the Emperor about establishing her as Left Empress. Whenever Xu Mi entered Changding Palace, she carried letters from Chunyu Chang. In these letters, Chunyu Chang mocked and teased Empress Xu, making lewd and wanton remarks without restraint. Thus, the exchange of letters and bribes continued for many years.

    At the time, Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang, who was assisting in the governance of the state, had been ill for a long period and had repeatedly requested permission to retire. Chunyu Chang, as an affinal relative, held rank among the Nine Ministers and was widely expected to succeed Wang Gen. The Privy Counselor, Cavalry Commandant, and Grand Master of Merit, Wang Mang, grew jealous of Chunyu Chang’s prominence and secretly investigated these matters. While attending to the Marquis of Quyang during his illness, Wang Mang said to him: “Chunyu Chang, seeing that the general’s illness has dragged on, is secretly pleased and regards himself as the one who will succeed in assisting the government. He has already been privately conferring with gentry and members of the imperial clan about official appointments and the creation of offices.” He then detailed Chunyu Chang’s various misdeeds.

    Wang Gen flew into a rage and said, “If this is so, why were these crimes not reported earlier?”

    Wang Mang replied, “I did not know the general’s intentions, and therefore did not dare to speak out.”

    Wang Gen said, “Go at once and report this to the Eastern Palace!”

    Wang Mang sought an audience with the Empress Dowager and reported that Chunyu Chang was arrogant and dissolute, plotting to replace the Marquis of Quyang, and that he had an illicit relationship with Empress Xu’s sister, from whom he had accepted clothing and valuables. The Empress Dowager was greatly angered and said, “Has that wretch gone so far? Go—report this to the Emperor!”

    Wang Mang then conveyed the matter to the Emperor. Under pressure from the Empress Dowager, Chunyu Chang was dismissed from office but not otherwise punished, and was sent back to his fief.

    The Marquis of Hongyang, Wang Li, was unable to assist in governing and suspected that Chunyu Chang had slandered him, which bred deep resentment. The Emperor was aware of this. When Chunyu Chang was about to return to his fief, Wang Li had his eldest son, Wang Rong, request carriages and horses from Chunyu Chang. Chunyu Chang presented Wang Rong with valuable gifts and bestowed substantial rewards upon Wang Li. Thereupon, Wang Li submitted a sealed memorial to the Emperor, requesting that Chunyu Chang be retained, stating: “Since Your Majesty has entrusted this matter to the Empress Dowager, it would indeed be inappropriate to impose further punishment upon Chunyu Chang.”

    The Emperor became suspicious and ordered an investigation. Officials arrested Wang Rong, whereupon Wang Li compelled Wang Rong to commit suicide in order to silence him. The Emperor grew even more suspicious, suspecting a major conspiracy, and thus had Chunyu Chang arrested and confined in the Luoyang prison for a thorough inquiry. Chunyu Chang was found to have mocked and insulted the resident of Changding Palace, conspired to establish a Left Empress, and committed grave acts of treason. He died in prison. His wife and children, who were subject to punishment, were exiled to Hepu, and his mother, Wang Ruo, was returned to her native place.

    The Emperor dispatched the Minister of Justice, Kong Guang, bearing the tally of authority, to administer poison to the deposed Empress Xu and compel her to commit suicide. The Chancellor, Zhai Fangjin, once again accused the Marquis of Hongyang, Wang Li, of cunning and unscrupulous conduct and requested that he be imprisoned. The Emperor said, “The Marquis of Hongyang is my uncle, and I cannot bear to apply the law against him; he shall be sent back to his march.”

    In addition, Zhai Fangjin requested that Wang Li’s posse—the General of the Rear, Zhu Bo, and Sun Hong, Prefect of Julu—as well as the former Grand Master of Merit, Chen Xian, be removed from office and returned to their native places. Chen Xian, knowing that he would be permanently banished, died of grief.

    Zhai Fangjin was intelligent and accomplished in both letters and administration, combining Confucian refinement with legal expertise, and was renowned for his clarity of judgment and insight. The Emperor valued him highly. He was also adept at discerning the subtle intentions of his superiors and handled affairs in a manner that consistently accorded with their wishes. When Chunyu Chang controlled official affairs, Zhai Fangjin maintained a close relationship with him and praised and recommended him. After Chunyu Chang was punished for treason, the Emperor concealed Zhai Fangjin’s culpability as Chancellor. Zhai Fangjin, however, felt inwardly ashamed and submitted a memorial apologizing and requesting retirement.

    The Emperor replied: “The Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Chang, has already been punished for his crimes. Although you were associated with him, doesn’t the Book of Documents say, ‘A gentleman rejoices when errors made in the morning are corrected in the evening’? Why be troubled by this? Attend solely to your duties, do not neglect your medicine, and take care of yourself.”

    Zhai Fangjin then resumed his duties and continued to submit memorials against those whom Chunyu Chang had favored, including Sun Bao, Intendant of Jingzhao, and Xiao Yu, Intendant of Fufeng. He also dismissed more than twenty officials holding ranks of two thousand piculs or above. Du Ye, Commandant of Hangu Pass and Marquis of Jianping, who had long been at odds with Zhai Fangjin, was accused by him of “receiving a letter from Wang Li, Marquis of Hongyang, and accepting his requests, thereby showing disrespect toward the Emperor.” Du Ye was dismissed and sent back to his march.

    The Emperor praised Wang Mang as the first to expose a grave act of treachery, commending his loyalty and integrity. Accordingly, Wang Gen recommended Wang Mang to succeed him. On November 26, Wang Mang was appointed Grand Marshal at the age of thirty-eight. Having risen above his contemporaries, he succeeded his four uncles in assisting the governance of the state and aspired to surpass the reputations of his predecessors, devoting himself to his duties without rest. He employed virtuous and capable men as clerks and aides, used the rewards bestowed by the Emperor and the income from his fief to support retainers, and was all the more frugal in his own conduct.

    When Wang Mang’s mother fell ill, ministers and marquises sent their wives to inquire after her health. Wang Mang’s wife received them wearing a plain gown that did not reach the ground and a simple cloth apron. Those who saw her mistook her for a maid; when they realized she was Wang Mang’s wife, they were all struck with awe. Such was the extent to which he pursued a reputation for virtue.

    The Chancellor, Zhai Fangjin, and the Grand Excellency of Works, He Wu, submitted a joint proposal, stating: “According to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, those of higher rank should supervise those of lower rank, not the reverse. At present, the provincial inspectors hold the pay grade of a lower grandee, at six hundred piculs, yet they oversee prefects ranked at two thousand piculs. This is inconsistent with proper function. We propose abolishing the office of inspector and restoring the ancient office of governor, with a rank of two thousand piculs.”

    In December, the office of provincial inspector was abolished and replaced with that of governor, likewise ranked at two thousand piculs.

    In Qianwei Commandery, sixteen ancient stone chimes were discovered by the riverbank, an event that court consultants regarded as an auspicious omen. Liu Xiang seized upon this occasion to admonish the Emperor, saying:

    “It would be fitting to establish an imperial school at the capital, to found academies of learning, to array rites and music, to exalt the sounds of the Elegantiae and Hymns, and to display the forms of deference and submission, thereby transforming and civilizing the realm. If this is done and order is still not achieved, such a case has never existed.

    “Some may object that the rites and vessels cannot yet be fully provided. Yet rites take the nourishment of men as their aim. Where there are excesses or deficiencies, this is an error in nourishing the people. Punishments today may extend even to death and bodily harm; they are not the criminal laws of Gao Yao, yet judicial officers still petition to establish statutes—cutting what should be cut and amending what should be amended—in order to meet present needs. But when it comes to rites and music, they claim they dare not proceed. This is the equivalence of daring to kill men, but not daring to nourish them.

    “Because ritual vessels and musical instruments suffer minor deficiencies, one therefore abandons them entirely and does nothing—this is to discard a small deficiency and incur a great one. No delusion is greater than this.

    “As for instruction and transformation in comparison with penal law: penal law is the lighter matter. To abandon what is weighty and hasten what is light is not the proper course. Instruction and transformation are what governance relies upon; penal law is that by which governance is assisted. To discard what is relied upon and to set up only what assists—this is not the way to attain Great Peace.

    “Even in the capital, there are disobedient and unruly sons and grandsons, down to those who fall under capital punishment and are executed without end. All this arises from not practicing the Way of the Five Constant Virtues(benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness). Bearing the decline of a thousand years since the Later Zhou and inheriting the residual corruption of violent Qin, the people have gradually been steeped in vicious customs—greedy, gluttonous, reckless, and deceitful—unacquainted with righteousness and principle. If they are not guided by great transformation but are driven solely by punishments, they will in the end never be reformed.”

    The Emperor transmitted Liu Xiang’s proposal to the officials. The Chancellor and the Grand Excellency of Works proposed establishing an imperial academy campus and ordered a survey south of Chang’an to select construction sites, but the project was never completed and was eventually abandoned. At the time, there was also discussion to the effect that “Confucius, though a commoner, taught three thousand disciples, whereas the Imperial Academy now has but few students.” Accordingly, the number of students at the Imperial Academy was increased to three thousand, but after a year it returned to its former level of about one thousand.

    Liu Xiang was trusted by the Emperor and therefore often exposed and criticized members of the imperial house and contemporary officials, his words sharp yet sincere. The Emperor repeatedly sought to appoint him as one of the Nine Ministers, but was continually obstructed by those in power, including the Wang clan, the Chancellor, and the Grand Master of the Censorate. Thus, he never advanced, remaining a Grandee for more than thirty years until his death. Thirteen years after his passing, the Wang clan usurped the Han dynasty.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 252): Imperial Adoption

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    A Jade Disk Excavated from the Tomb of Prince of Dingtao

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Suihe Era (8 B.C.)

    In the first month of spring, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    The Emperor summoned the Chancellor Zhai Fangjin, Grand Master of the Censorate Kong Guang, General of the Right Lian Bao, and General of the Rear Zhu Bo to the inner court to deliberate on the selection of an heir between the Prince of Zhongshan and the Prince of Dingtao. Zhai Fangjin, Wang Gen, Lian Bao, and Zhu Bo all held that “the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, is the son of the Emperor’s younger brother. The Book of Rites states: ‘The son of a brother is as one’s own son; when established as heir, he becomes imperial son.’ Therefore, the Prince of Dingtao ought to be named heir.”

    Kong Guang alone dissented, arguing: “The Rites give precedence to closeness of kinship in establishing an heir. The Book of Documents, in the chapter Pan Geng, records that during the Shang dynasty succession passed from elder brother to younger brother. The Prince of Zhongshan is the son of the late Emperor and the Emperor’s own younger brother; he should therefore be the heir.”

    The Emperor rejected Kong Guang’s view, stating that “the Prince of Zhongshan lacks capability; moreover, according to the Rites, brothers may not enter the same ancestral temple.” Accordingly, on February 9, an edict was issued appointing the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, as Crown Prince. Feng Shen, the affinal uncle and Grand Master of Remonstration of the Prince of Zhongshan, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yixiang, and the Zhongshan princedom was augmented by thirty thousand households as compensation.

    The Bearer of the Mace, Ren Hong, was appointed Grand Herald and dispatched to summon the Prince of Dingtao. Liu Xin submitted a memorial expressing reluctance, saying: “I lack the competency and virtue required for the position of Crown Prince. I wish to remain in the residence of the Prince of Dingtao in the capital, attending daily upon the court and awaiting the birth of a worthy heir, after which I may return to my princedom and serve as a vassal.” The memorial was presented to the Emperor, who took note of it.

    On February 14, Kong Guang was demoted to Minister of Justice for opposing the decision on the heir, and He Wu was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.

    Earlier, an edict had sought descendants of the Yin (Shang) dynasty, but those descendants were found to have split into more than ten surnames, and the direct line of succession could not be determined. Kuang Heng and Mei Fu both proposed that the descendants of Confucius be appointed as successors to the Yin dynasty. The Emperor approved and granted Kong Ji the title of Marquis Shaojia of Yin. In March, Kong Ji and the Marquis Chengxiu of Zhou, were both elevated to the rank of duke, each receiving a fief one hundred li in extent.

    The Emperor visited Yong and performed sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altar.

    While serving as Minister of Justice, He Wu submitted a proposal, stating: “The decline of customs and the increasing complexity of government affairs mean that present-day chancellors cannot compare with those of antiquity. The Chancellor alone now manages the affairs of the three highest offices, which is why state business has long been neglected and left unresolved. The Three Excellencies should be reestablished.” The Emperor agreed.

    In April of summer, the Emperor bestowed the seal of the Grand Marshal upon Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang, and established a public office for him, while abolishing the post of General of Agile Cavalry. He appointed He Wu, Grand Master of the Censorate, as Grand Excellency of Works and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Fanxiang. These offices were accorded honors equivalent to those of the chancellery, thus constituting the three highest offices.

    In autumn, on August 8, Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan, died.

    Xiongnu Juya Chanyu also died. His younger brother Nangzhiyasi succeeded him as Wuzhuliu Ruodi Chanyu. Wuzhuliu Chanyu appointed his younger brother Yue as Left Tuqi King and Yu as Right Tuqi King. The Han dispatched General of the Household Xiahou Fan and Lieutenant Colonel Han Rong as envoys to the Xiongnu.

    Someone informed Wang Gen: “There is a tract of Xiongnu land wedged deep into Han territory, extending as far as Zhangye Commandery. It produces distinctive resources, such as timber suitable for arrows and eagle feathers. If this land were obtained, it would greatly benefit the frontier: the state would gain abundant resources, expand its territory, and the general’s reputation would be enhanced without limit.”

    Wang Gen relayed this proposal to the Emperor, who was inclined to request the land directly from the Chanyu. However, fearing that a refusal might undermine imperial authority and damage the Emperor’s prestige, Wang Gen disclosed the Emperor’s intention to Xiahou Fan and instructed him to present the request as his own initiative. When Xiahou Fan reached the Xiongnu court, he addressed Wuzhuliu Chanyu, saying: “I have observed that the Xiongnu possess land that intrudes into Han territory as far as Zhangye Commandery. The Han maintain three commandant posts along the frontier, with hundreds of soldiers enduring cold and hardship and suffering prolonged exhaustion. The Chanyu should submit a letter offering this land, straightening the boundary. This would reduce the burden on the commandants and troops, repay the Emperor’s favor, and the recompense from Han would surely be generous.”

    Wuzhuliu Chanyu asked, “Is this an imperial edict, or merely a request from the ambassador?”

    Xiahou Fan replied, “It reflects the intent of an edict, though I am also presenting it here as a proposal for the Chanyu’s consideration.”

    The Chanyu said, “This land is occupied by King Wenyutu. We are not fully aware of its extent or resources. Let me dispatch a man to inquire into it.”

    Xiahou Fan and Han Rong returned to Han. Later, they were again sent as envoys to the Xiongnu and renewed the request for the land.

    The Chanyu responded: “Our ancestors have held this land for five generations. The Han never sought it before—why do they do so now? I have already consulted King Wenyutu. The western vassals of the Xiongnu built their yurts and carts from the timber of this mountain, and it was also land of my late father, which we dare not relinquish.”

    Xiahou Fan returned and was demoted to Prefect of Taiyuan. Wuzhuliu Chanyu sent a letter to the Han detailing Xiahou Fan’s request for the land. An imperial edict replied to the Chanyu: “Xiahou Fan falsely claimed the intent of an edict in requesting land from the Chanyu, an offense punishable by death. However, in light of two recent general amnesties, he has been reassigned as Prefect of Jinan and is henceforth forbidden from ever going to the Xiongnu.”

    In winter, on October 14, Wang Gen fell ill and was relieved of his duties.

    Since the Crown Prince, Liu Xin, had already been adopted as the Emperor’s heir, he could no longer attend to the sacrifices of his own forefathers. In November, the Emperor therefore appointed Liu Jing, grandson of the Prince of Chu, as Prince of Dingtao, to continue the lineage of Liu Kang, Prince Gong of Dingtao. The Crown Prince wished to present his gratitude by genuflection. The Junior Tutor, Yan Chong, argued: “According to the rites, one who has been adopted as heir may not attend to private kinship, nor is it proper for him to offer genuflection.” The Grand Tutor, Zhao Xuan, held that genuflection to one’s father should be allowed, and the Crown Prince agreed with him. An edict was issued to inquire into the grounds for this open expression of gratitude. The Minister of the State Secretariat submitted a memorial impeaching Zhao Xuan, and the Emperor demoted him to Privy Treasurer; the Chamberlain Shi Dan was appointed Grand Tutor in his place.

    When the Crown Prince was young, his grandmother, Queen Dowager Fu, personally raised and cared for him. After he was established as Crown Prince, an edict directed that Queen Dowager Fu and the Crown Prince’s mother, Consort Ding, should reside separately at the Dingtao official lodge in the capital and not see him regularly. After some time, Empress Dowager Wang proposed that Queen Dowager Fu and Consort Ding be allowed to visit the Crown Prince’s palace once every ten days. The Emperor replied: “The Crown Prince is the heir to the throne and should serve Your Majesty together with us; he should not attend to private relatives.”

    Empress Dowager Wang said: “The Crown Prince was small, and Queen Dowager Fu raised him. Now, visiting the Crown Prince’s residence is merely an expression of affection from his nurse and does not constitute impropriety.” Accordingly, Queen Dowager Fu was permitted to visit the Crown Prince’s palace, while Consort Ding, who had not raised him, was not allowed to do so.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 251): Shady Succession

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32 (continued)

    Jetisu, Kazakhstan, which traced back to Wusun, Photo by Mheidegger

    The 2nd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (11 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor traveled to Ganquan and performed the rites at the Taiyi Altar. In March, he went to Hedong to offer sacrifices to Deity Earth. After completing the sacrifices, he proceeded to Mount Longmen, ascended the Daoist Temple at Mount Li(Li Guan), and climbed Mount Xiyue (Mount Hua, the western peak), before returning.

    In April of summer, he established Liu Shou, son of the Prince Xiao of Guangling Liu Ba, as the new Prince of Guangling.

    Earlier, the Wusun Minor Kunmi Anri had been killed by surrendered captives, plunging the Wusun chieftaincy into chaos. An edict summoned Duan Huizong, former Prefect of Jincheng, appointing him Left Bureau Manager, General of the Household, and Grand Master of Merit, and dispatching him to pacify the Wusun. Duan Huizong installed Anri’s brother Mozhenjiang as Minor Kunmi, restored stability to the state, and returned. 

    At that time, the Great Kunmi Cilimi was brave and powerful, and Mozhenjiang feared being absorbed by him. He therefore sent the nobleman Wu’riling to feign surrender and then assassinated Cilimi. The Han court intended to punish this with troops but was unable to do so, and instead sent General of the Household Duan Huizong to establish Yizhimi, grandson of Princess Liu Jieyou, as Great Kunmi.

    After some time, the Great Kunmi Yizhimi and the chieftain Nanqi killed Mozhenjiang, and Anri’s son Anlimi succeeded as Minor Kunmi. The Han regretted not having executed Mozhenjiang earlier and again sent Duan Huizong to mobilize the forces of the various states under the Wuji Colonel in order to put Mozhenjiang’s son Fanqiu to death. Duan Huizong feared that deploying a large army into Wusun territory would alarm Fanqiu and cause him to flee beyond reach. He therefore stationed the assembled troops at Dianlou, selected thirty elite crossbowmen, proceeded directly to the Kunmi’s camp, summoned Fanqiu, charged him with Mozhenjiang’s crimes, and personally executed him with his sword. The officials and attendants were struck with terror and hastened back.

    The Minor Kunmi Anlimi then surrounded Duan Huizong with several thousand cavalry. Duan Huizong explained the grounds for punishing Mozhenjiang, saying: “To surround and kill me now would be like plucking a single hair from a Han ox. The heads of the king of Dayuan and of Zhizhi Chanyu were hung in the marketplace—this is well known among the Wusun.”

    The Minor Kunmi and the others submitted, saying: “Mozhenjiang betrayed the Han, and the execution of his son was justified. But why were we not informed beforehand, so that we might have treated him to food and drink as a farewell?”

    Duan Huizong replied: “Had I informed Kunmi in advance, he would have fled and hidden himself, committing an even greater offense. Had he been treated to food and drink before being handed over, it would have wounded your family bonds. For these reasons, I did not give prior notice.” The Minor Kunmi and the others wept and withdrew.

    Duan Huizong returned and reported on his mission. The Emperor granted him the title of Marquis of the Inner Pass and awarded him one hundred catties of gold. Because Nanqi had killed Mozhenjiang, Duan Huizong appointed him Commandant of Solid Defense. He reprimanded the Dalu and the Dajian (Wusun officers) for their role in the assassination of Cilimi, stripped them of their golden seals and purple ribbons, and replaced these with copper seals and inked ribbons.

    Mozhenjiang’s brother, Beiyuanzhi, conspired to kill the Great Kunmi and led more than eighty thousand people north to Kangju, intending to borrow troops to annex the territories of the two Kunmies. The Han court again dispatched Duan Huizong, together with Protector-General Sun Jian, to guard against them.

    After the division of the Wusun into two Kunmies, the Han was beset by anxiety and unrest, and there were no years of peace. At this time, Kangju once more sent its prince to serve the Han and presented tributes. The Protector-General, Guo Shun, submitted a proposal, stating:

    “In the past, the Xiongnu were powerful not because they controlled both Wusun and Kangju; nor did they submit as vassals because they had lost these two states. Although the Han accepted hostages from all three countries, the states continued to exchange gifts and interact as before. They watched one another closely and seized opportunities to act aggressively. United, they could not trust one another; divided, none could dominate or control the rest.

    “At present, our alliance with Wusun has brought little benefit and instead caused trouble for the central regions. Yet since the alliance with Wusun was established earlier, and now both they and the Xiongnu acknowledge allegiance, it would be inappropriate to reject them. Kangju, however, is arrogant and deceitful, refusing to bow to our envoys. When the Protector-General’s officials arrive in their country, they are seated below the Wusun envoys, and the king and nobles finish eating and drinking before serving our representatives. This is done to display contempt and to boast before neighboring states. Given this, why would they send their son to serve us? It is a fraudulent gesture, feigning goodwill in order to facilitate trade and profit.

    “The Xiongnu, a great nation among the barbarians, now serve the Han with great respect. If the Chanyu hears that Kangju refuses to bow, he may regret having humbled himself. We should send Kangju’s prince back and sever all further exchanges, to demonstrate that the Han does not tolerate disrespectful states.”

    Despite this, as the relationship was newly established and the Han valued contact with distant lands and their envoys, the court did not completely sever ties with Kangju and maintained a relationship.

    The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (10 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 10, a landslide occurred on Min Mountains in Shu Commandery, blocking the river for three days and causing it to run dry. Liu Xiang deeply lamented this, saying: “In the Zhou dynasty of antiquity, when Mount Qi collapsed, the Three Rivers(Jingshi, Weishui, Luoshui river) dried up, and King You of Zhou perished. Mount Qi was the place from which the Zhou arose. The Han dynasty originated in Shu and Hanzhong, and now, in the land of its origin, a mountain has collapsed, the rivers have dried up, and a comet has appeared in the constellation of Scorpius, stretching from Orion to Sagittarius. This is a most dire omen, and the dynasty is likely to fall!”

    On February 20, Chunyu Chang was granted the title of Marquis of Dingling.

    In March, the Emperor went to Yong and performed sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altars.

    The Emperor intended to overawe the nomadic peoples with a grand display of animals. In autumn, he ordered the Intendant of Fufeng to mobilize the populace to enter the southern mountains (Zhongnan Mountains), ranging from Bao Valley and Xie Valley in the west to Hongnong in the east, and south as far as Hanzhong, to set nets and traps and capture bears, wild beasts, and birds. These were loaded into caged carts and transported to the Animal House of Changyang Palace, where they were released into an enclosed ground for the nomadic visitors to engage in hand-to-hand combat. The Emperor personally watched the spectacle.

    The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (9 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor visited Ganquan Palace and performed sacrifices at the Taiyi Altar.

    The Emperor’s younger brother, Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan, and his nephew, Liu Xin, Prince of Dingtao, came to court. Prince Liu Xing brought only his tutor, whereas Prince Liu Xin was accompanied by his Grand Tutor, Prime Minister, and Central Commandant. Finding this curious, the Emperor questioned the Prince of Dingtao about it. Liu Xin replied: “According to Han laws and regulations, princes coming to court may bring officials from their state holding ranks of two thousand piculs. In my princedom, the Grand Tutor, Prime Minister, and Central Commandant all hold ranks of two thousand piculs; therefore, I brought them all.” The Emperor then ordered Liu Xin to recite from the Book of Songs. Liu Xin recited fluently and was able to explain the text.

    On another day, the Emperor asked the Prince of Zhongshan, “Why did you bring only your tutor? Which law or regulation permits this?” Liu Xing was unable to reply. The Emperor then ordered him to recite from the Book of Documents, but he failed. Moreover, when the Emperor granted meals to eat together, Liu Xing continued eating after the Emperor had finished, until he himself was full, which was deemed impolite. When he rose and departed, his socks came loose. The Emperor therefore judged him to be lacking in ability and increasingly favored the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, often praising his talents.

    At that time, only these two princes were closely related to the Emperor. The grandmother of the Prince of Dingtao, Queen Dowager Fu, accompanied him to court. She secretly bribed Empress Zhao, Consort[Zhaoyi] Zhao, and Wang Gen, General of Agile Cavalry. Seeing that the Emperor had no sons, they sought to form alliances for the future and jointly recommended the Prince of Dingtao, Liu Xin, as heir. The Emperor himself admired Liu Xin’s abilities, granted him the rites of adulthood, and sent him back to his state. He was seventeen years old at the time.

    In March, the Emperor visited Hedong and performed sacrifices to the deity of the Earth.

    Two meteorites fell in Duguan county.

    Wang Gen recommended Gu Yong, who was summoned and appointed Grand Minister of Agriculture. Gu Yong submitted more than forty proposals, many of them repetitive and largely focused on personal criticism of the Emperor and his harem. He aligned himself with the Wang clan, which the Emperor was aware of, and thus did not fully trust him. After serving as Grand Minister of Agriculture for more than a year, Gu Yong fell ill. When his sick leave exceeded three months, he was dismissed without extension. He died several months later.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 249): Not Airing Dirty Laundry

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 24 Scroll 32

    Duration of 6 years

    Xia Ji, Mother of Xia Zhengshu

    The 4th year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (13 B.C.)

    In January of spring, the Emperor visited Ganquan and offered sacrifices at the Taiyi Altar; a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire. In March, he visited Hedong and offered sacrifices to the Earth Deity.

    In summer, there was a severe drought.

    On April 11, Linhua Hall of Changle Palace and the Eastern Guarded (Sima) Gate of Weiyang Palace were both destroyed by fire. On June 23, the gate towers of the Baling Tomb also caught fire.

    In autumn, on the last day of July, there was an eclipse of the sun.

    In winter, on November 21, the General of the Guards, Wang Shang, was relieved of his duties due to illness.

    The Prince of Liang, Liu Li, was imperious and unrestrained, committing as many as eleven offenses in a single day. The Prime Minister of Liang, Yu, reported that Liu Li harbored resentment and spoke ill of the affine family. An investigation was conducted, and an illicit affair between Liu Li and his paternal aunt Liu Yuanzi was uncovered. On account of incestuous and beastly conduct, his execution was recommended.

    The Grand Master of the Palace, Gu Yong, submitted a memorial:

    “I have heard that propriety requires the Emperor to remain secluded behind screens, unwilling to see or hear of private matters. Thus, the intentions of former emperors lay in avoiding inquiry into personal affairs and refraining from listening to intimate conversations. The Spring and Autumn Annals deliberately concealed the faults of relatives. The Prince of Liang, Liu Li, is young and suffers from some mental infirmity. The investigation originally concerned malicious speech; when no substantial evidence was found, it extended instead into matters of private conduct unrelated to the initial charge. Though the prince denied the allegations, the authorities persisted, relying on dubious testimony to establish guilt on evidence difficult to substantiate—an approach that brings no benefit to governance. To expose the scandals of the royal house and proclaim them to the world neither preserves the dignity of the imperial clan nor enhances the authority of the court, nor does it advance moral transformation through virtue.”

    “In my foolish opinion, the prince is young, while his paternal aunt is older and of a different generation. The wealth of the Prince of Liang could attract flatterers and deceivers, while his aunt must surely possess a sense of shame. The investigation was originally concerned with malicious words against maternal relatives—why, then, would she gratuitously reveal her own private disgrace? Considering these three points, the alleged affair appears improbable and contrary to common sense. I suspect there was coercion or a slip of the tongue during interrogation. Under persistent pressure and questioning by officials, she was unable to retract her words and may have spoken in error.

    “At the first sign of transgression, leniency should have been applied. Since the investigation proceeded and the prince did not confess, the Minister of Justice should be ordered to select virtuous and knowledgeable officials to reexamine the case thoroughly, ascertain the facts, and correct any errors, then return the case to the lower authorities. This would extend the virtue of accommodating the distant branches of the imperial house and cleanse it of shame, truly embodying the principle of properly treating relatives within a family.”

    The Emperor thereupon halted further proceedings in the case.

    That year, He Wu of Shu Commandery, then Colonel of the Capital Inspectorate, was appointed Intendant of Jingzhao. As an official, He Wu adhered strictly to the law and acted with impartiality, promoting the honorable and dismissing the wicked. Wherever he served, he acquired no conspicuous fame, yet after his departure he was invariably remembered with affection.

    The 1st year of Emperor Cheng’s Yuanyan Era (12 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 1, there was a solar eclipse.

    On January 24, Wang Shang was reinstated as Grand Marshal and General of the Guards.

    In March, the Emperor visited Yong and offered sacrifices at the Five-Deity Altar.

    In summer, on April 1, there was thunder without clouds, and a meteor moved southeast from beneath the sun, its radiance spreading in all directions like rain, from afternoon until dusk.

    A general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.

    In July of autumn, a comet appeared in the eastern Well Mansion.

    The Emperor, troubled by these omens and calamities, sought the counsel of his ministers. The Prefect of Beidi, Gu Yong, responded:

    “When a ruler personally cultivates virtue and accords with the natural order, the seasons arrive in due course, the people enjoy long lives, and auspicious signs appear. If, however, he loses the Way and acts recklessly—defying Heaven and harming the people—then ominous signs arise, disasters and anomalies occur, and famine becomes frequent. If he does not reform, evil accumulates and misfortune continues. In the end, Heaven will cease to issue warnings, and the Mandate of Heaven will pass to one who is virtuous. This is the constant principle of Heaven and Earth, observed by all the ancient kings. Moreover, the measure of an emperor’s merit differs; his lifespan may be long or short, his time earlier or later, and the Way of Heaven alternates between waxing and waning.

    “Your Majesty has inherited the accomplishments of eight generations, stands at the close of a luminous age, and has passed through a cycle of two hundred and ten years. You have encountered the fate of the hexagram Unexpected of the Book of Changes and now face a cycle of calamities in the one hundred and sixth year. Since the first year of the Jianshi era, disasters and anomalies of many kinds have converged and intertwined, now amounting to twenty years. Their number and strangeness exceed all that is recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals.

    “Internally, within the deep confines of the palace’s inner chambers, Your Majesty risks the influence of rash ministers and insolent consorts, and the dangers arising from drunkenness and reckless conduct, which could bring calamity upon the state. In the secluded quarters of the northern palace gardens and lanes, and within the houses of underlings and favored women, there lies the danger of upheavals like those of Xia Zhengshu or Cui Zhu—regicides brought about by adulterous entanglements. Externally, throughout the territories of the realm, there is the threat of uprisings like those led by Fan Bing, Su Ling, Chen Sheng, or Xiang Liang. The fine line between safety and peril, and the gravest concern for the ancestral temples—these are what fill me, Gu Yong, with deep apprehension and compel me to offer repeated warnings year after year.

    “Signs appear below before they manifest above—can we afford not to be cautious? Disasters arise from the smallest beginnings, and treachery grows from the most insignificant circumstances. I respectfully urge Your Majesty to rectify the principles governing ruler and minister, to cease indulging in casual and unrestrained banquets with petty officials, to adhere strictly to the three fundamental bonds—between lord and subject, father and son, and husband and wife—to reform the administration of the inner palace, to restrain and distance those who are insolent and jealous, and to promote and draw close those who are gentle and compliant. Only after proper court procedures are observed should you venture outside; roads should be cleared by troops in advance, and you should avoid traveling alone or visiting the homes of servants for food and drink. Eliminating such practices will block the path to internal disorder.

    “As for the uprisings in various regions, they arise from the people’s hunger and the officials’ indifference, from the people’s suffering under heavy taxation, and from grievances below that are unknown to above. The Hongfan (‘Great Plan’) of the Book of Documents states: ‘When there is hunger without relief, to proclaim peace and prosperity invites ruin.’ In recent years, many regions have suffered damage from floods, and harvests have failed. In such circumstances, it is appropriate to reduce the regular taxes. Yet officials have proposed increasing levies, which runs counter to the principles of good governance and violates the sentiments of the people, breeding resentment and inviting disaster. I hope Your Majesty will reject proposals to raise taxes, further curb extravagant expenditures, extend benevolence broadly, provide relief to the destitute, and encourage agriculture and sericulture, thereby soothing and stabilizing the hearts of the people. If this is done, the uprisings across the realm may yet be brought to an end.”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 248): Greatest Peril to A State

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 23 Scroll 31 (continued)

    Young man with a zipper closed over his lips, symbolizing silence
    Shut Your Mouth

    The 3rd year of Emperor Cheng’s Yongshi Era (14 B.C.)

    In spring, on January 31, a solar eclipse occurred.

    Earlier, the Emperor had followed the advice of Kuang Heng and abolished the Taiyi(North Star) Altar at Ganquan. On that very day, a violent wind struck the Bamboo Palace at Ganquan, breaking and uprooting more than a hundred trees—each with a circumference of ten men’s embraces or more—within the precincts of the Taiyi Altar. The Emperor found this extraordinary and asked Liu Xiang for his view. Liu Xiang replied:

    “Even a single household does not wish to sever its ancestral rites—how much less should the state abandon its ancient altars dedicated to the deities. Moreover, when the altars at Ganquan, Fenyin, and the Five-Deity Altar at Yong were first established, each was preceded by divine signs and miraculous responses; they were not founded lightly. In the reigns of Emperor Wu and Emperor Xuan, these three gods were worshiped with full ritual and reverence, and their numinous power was especially manifest. The sacred sites established by our ancestors are truly not easy to alter. Previously, in accepting Gong Yu’s proposal, Your predecessor abolished these altars, and later administrations followed suit, though the basis for doing so was shaky. The Great Commentary to the Book of Changes says, ‘To deceive the spirits brings calamity upon three generations.’ I am afraid that the blame will not end with Gong Yu and his ilk.”

    The Emperor thereafter harbored resentment toward Gong Yu. As he had long been without an heir, in winter, on October 5, he reported to the Empress Dowager and ordered the officials to restore the Taiyi Altar at Ganquan, the Earth Altar at Fenyin, the Five-Deity Altar at Yong, the Treasure Ancestral Temple[for a meteorite] at Chencang, as well as the renowned altars in Chang’an and the celebrated temples in the various princedoms, all to their former state.

    At that time, the Emperor, still without an heir, had become deeply interested in spirits and supernatural practices. Many people submitted writings on rituals and occult arts, and crowds sought audiences to discuss such matters. The expenses for sacrifices and ceremonies grew exceedingly heavy. Gu Yong advised the Emperor, saying:

    “I have heard that those who understand the nature of Heaven and Earth cannot be deceived by supernatural phenomena, and those who comprehend the nature of all things cannot be misled by the falsehoods of occultists. Those who abandon the upright path of benevolence and righteousness, who do not follow the teachings of the Five Classics, but instead exalt esoteric spirits and portents, expand sacrifices to futile shrines in search of blessings, claim that immortals walk among men, take elixirs said to prolong life without end, and practice alchemy promising levitation and miraculous transformations—these are all charlatans who delude the multitude. They harbor hidden designs and falsehoods to deceive the rulers of the world. To listen to them is to have one’s ears filled with things that seem attainable, yet to pursue them is like trying to seize the wind or grasp a shadow—utterly impossible. Therefore, wise kings keep their distance from such practices and do not heed them, and sages avoid speaking of them altogether.

    “In former times, when the First Emperor of Qin sent Xu Fu with men and women across the seas to seek immortals and elixirs, they fled and never returned, sowing resentment throughout the realm. After the rise of the Han, figures such as Xin Yuanping, Li Shaoweng of Qi, Gongsun Qing, and Luan Da all gained notoriety through deceitful arts and were ultimately executed for their frauds. Only if Your Majesty keeps such practices at a distance can you prevent swindlers from gaining access to the court.”

    The Emperor approved what Gu Yong said.

    In November, thirteen men of Weishi county, including Fan Bing, plotted rebellion. They killed the Prefect of Chenliu, plundered officials and commoners, and proclaimed themselves generals. Corvée laborers Li Tan, Cheng Zhong, Zhong Zu, and Zi Shun joined together to kill Fan Bing and were lauded in the court; all were enfeoffed as marquises.

    In December, two hundred and twenty-eight corvée laborers under the Iron Production Office of Shanyang, led by Su Ling, rose in revolt. They attacked and killed the chief officials, seized weapons from the armory, and styled themselves generals. Passing through nineteen commanderies and principalities, they killed the Prefect of Dongjun and the Commandant of Runan. Yan Xin, Prefect of Runan, captured and beheaded Su Ling and his cohorts. Yan Xin was promoted to Grand Minister of Agriculture.

    Mei Fu of Jiujiang, formerly Commandant of Nanchang, submitted a memorial:

    “In the past Emperor Gaozu of Han accepted worthy counsel as though he could never take in fast enough of it and followed remonstrance as smoothly as a wheel turns. In hearing men’s words, he did not inquire into their credentials; in advancing men for merit, he did not scrutinize their previous status or past deeds. Chen Ping rose from the condition of a fugitive to become chief counselor; Han Xin was lifted from the ranks and established as Supreme General. Therefore, the gentlemen of all under Heaven gathered like clouds and attached to Han, competing to present what was rare and extraordinary: the wise exhausted their stratagems, the dull poured out their thoughts, the brave exerted the utmost of their integrity, and even the timid strove to the point of death. By uniting the wisdom of the world and combining the might of the world, he lifted Qin as though it were a swan’s feather and took Chu as though picking up what had been cast aside. This is why Emperor Gaozu stood without equal in All-under-Heaven.

    “Emperor Wu admired loyal counsel and cherished wise words, bestowing titles without waiting for local recommendation and granting rewards without requiring conspicuous merit. As a result, commoners from across the realm sharpened their ambitions and devoted their efforts to the court, with countless men presenting their talents. Thus, the Han dynasty flourished in its ability to attract worthy individuals. Yet had Emperor Wu fully heeded their plans, a reign of peace might have been achieved. Instead, bodies were heaped and bones lay exposed, merely to satisfy his desire of conquering the nomads and the Yue peoples, leading to the rebellion of Prince of Huainan, Liu An. The reason Liu An’s plots were uncovered and his schemes leaked was that so many virtuous men had gathered at the imperial court that the ministers of Prince of Huainan hesitated and dared not conspire.

    “Nowadays, commoners, peering into the state’s weaknesses and seizing opportunities to rebel—like those in Shu Commandery and the runaway Su Ling’s band in Shanyang, who invaded major cities and commanderies seeking allies and followers—show that they fear no officials. The state’s authority is light, so even ordinary men dare to contend with the Emperor. Talented individuals are the nation’s vital assets: to gain them is to grow strong, to lose them is to display weakness. The Book of Songs says, ‘A multitude of worthy men brought peace under King Wen of Zhou.’

    “The deliberations of the imperial court are not meant to be spoken of by those in the fields or in straw huts. I am afraid that my body may become fodder for wild grass and my corpse lie among the fallen soldiers; thus I have repeatedly sought an audience, only to be dismissed. I have heard that in the time of Duke Huan of Qi, there were those who presented even a multiplication table, and Duke Huan did not reject them, seeking thereby to draw in greatness. What I now submit is far more than a multiplication table, yet Your Majesty has dismissed me three times. This is why the talents of the world do not come forward.

    “In former days, when King Wu of Qin admired strength, he allowed Ren Bi to knock at the gates to recommend himself. Duke Mu of Qin achieved preeminence when You Yu returned from the Western Rong and aligned with him. If Your Majesty wishes to attract the talents of the world, then whenever someone petitions for an audience, refer him at once to the State Secretariat. If his words are worthy of adoption, reward him with a modest stipend and a bolt of silk. This will encourage scholars throughout the realm to speak their true minds and offer wise strategies day by day. Then the world will be set in order, and the state, within and without, will be clear and transparent.

    “Considering the vastness of the Four Seas and the multitude of scholars and commoners, many are able to speak with insight. Yet those who can eloquently articulate policies, present well-formed arguments, test their ideas against the sages of antiquity, and apply them aptly to present affairs are few. Thus, titles and bolts of silk are the whetstones of the world—this is how Emperor Gaozu honed and sharpened the blades of his age. Confucius said, ‘A craftsman who wishes to perfect his work must first sharpen his tools.’ The Qin dynasty, however, failed to follow this principle: it cast nets of slander that drove talent to Han, turning its own blade against itself and handing the hilt to Chu. By not losing the handle, even amid disorder in the realm, no one would dare challenge its edge. In this way Emperor Wu expanded the frontiers, established great achievements, and became the revered progenitor of the Han.

    “Now, Your Majesty, not only do you refuse to receive the words of the people, you slew them for speaking out. When hawks and magpies are harmed, the phoenix flies away; when the foolish are punished, the wise retreat even farther. Recently, many unlearned commoners have submitted petitions, often violating minor statutes, and many have been handed over to the Minister of Justice and executed. Since the Yangshuo era, people throughout the empire have regarded speaking out as a taboo, especially at court. The ministers all conform to Your Majesty’s wishes, and none hold fast to what is right. How, then, can the truth be heard? Take those petitions from the people that Your Majesty approves and refer them to the Minister of Justice; he will surely reply, ‘This is not fit to be discussed; it is gravely disrespectful.’ Try this, and it will not fail.

    “The former Intendant of Jingzhao, Wang Zhang, was by nature loyal and plain-spoken. He dared to argue directly at court, and Emperor Yuan promoted him to rouse the ministers and correct the court’s faults. Yet in Your Majesty’s reign he and his family were put to death. When one punishes evil, the penalty should fall on the person alone. Wang Zhang did not commit treason, yet his entire household was destroyed—breaking the spirit of upright officials and silencing those who would remonstrate. All the ministers knew this was wrong, yet none dared to speak. The greatest peril to a state is when the public is afraid to speak their minds. I beg Your Majesty to follow the path of Emperor Gaozu, avoid the errors of fallen Qin, abolish trivial statutes, and issue an edict encouraging free expression. Then Your Majesty will hear widely, seek counsel even from the humble, and ensure that deep thinkers are not concealed and distant voices not cut off. This is what is called ‘opening the four gates and clearing four views.’

    “The past cannot be undone, but the future can still be set right. At present, ministers violate imperial decrees, the Emperor’s authority is diminished, and the power of affinal relatives grows by the day. If Your Majesty does not see their actions, then at least perceive their effects. Since the Jianshi era, solar eclipses and earthquakes have occurred at triple the frequency recorded in earlier times in the Spring and Autumn Annals, and floods have been innumerable and without precedent. Yin forces flourish while Yang declines; molten metal and iron fly like stars. What do such signs foretell?

    “Since the founding of the Han dynasty, there have been three great crises to the state: the Lü clan, the Huo clan, and the Shangguan clan—all families of empresses. The proper way to treat kin is to support them with worthy teachers and good mentors, instructing them in loyalty and filial piety. Yet instead they are honored and indulged, given high office, and allowed to grow arrogant and unruly, bringing about their own destruction. This is a profound failure in the governance of kinship.

    “Even one as virtuous as Huo Guang could not secure the future of his descendants, showing that when the power of great ministers changes hands, danger inevitably follows. The Book of Documents says, ‘Do not be like fire, which begins with a single spark.’ When a minister’s power overshadows the ruler and his authority rises above that of the sovereign, it is already too late to avert calamity.”

    The Emperor did not accept this counsel.