The Qin forces launched another invasion on the Yiqu, reclaiming twenty-five cities that had gained some autonomy in recent years.
In response to Qin‘s control, the people of the Kingdom of Wei, which had submitted to Qin, rebelled. This prompted Qin‘s military to attack Wei, resulting in the occupation of Quwo. The inhabitants of Quwo were displaced and fled to Wei.
Furthermore, the Qin army secured a victory against the Kingdom of Han at Anmen. As part of a peace treaty, the crown prince of Han was sent to the Kingdom of Qin as a hostage.
The Kingdom of Yan descended into chaos three years after Zizhi had taken the throne. General Shibei and Crown Prince Ping conspired to overthrow Zizhi‘s rule. Hearing about these developments, the King of Qi sent a message to Crown Prince Ping of Yan, offering to support him, saying: “I have heard that Your Grace intends to rectify the hierarchy of lords and their subjects, and establish clear rules for the hereditary transmission of titles from fathers to sons. I humbly offer my small state to support your efforts.”
Encouraged by the King of Qi, Crown Prince Ping joined forces with Shibei and other supporters to try and overthrow Zizhi. However, their coup attempt failed, and Shibei, instead of supporting the crown prince, turned against him. The internal turmoil in Yan went on for several months, leading to the death of tens of thousands of people. The people of Yan were left in a state of horror and distress.
In response to this chaos, the King of Qi ordered his general, Zhang Zi, to lead troops from five cities to invade the Kingdom of Yan. With the support of the northern citizens of Qi, they advanced on Yan. Remarkably, the Yan soldiers did not resist the invaders; they didn’t even close the gates of their cities. The Qi troops captured Zizhi, and he was dismembered and minced. Kuai, the former King of Yan, was also killed in the process. This marked a violent end to the leadership of Zizhi and the turmoil within Yan.
The King of Qi discussed the recent victory with Mencius, saying, “I received conflicting advice regarding the annexation of the Kingdom of Yan. One perspective was against it, while another was in favor. We witnessed a kingdom with ten thousand chariots swiftly conquer another of equal strength in just fifty days. Such an extraordinary feat could not have been accomplished by military might alone. I fear that if we refrain from taking action, Heaven might punish us. What are your thoughts on annexing the Kingdom of Yan?”
Mencius responded, “If the people of Yan support this endeavor, it provides a sufficient reason to proceed with the annexation. Historical precedents exist, as seen in the case of King Wu of Zhou. However, if the people of Yan oppose it, then it becomes a compelling reason not to annex the kingdom, as demonstrated by King Wen of Zhou. When a kingdom with ten thousand chariots overruns another of equal strength and the people of Yan, in a desperate attempt to flee from dire circumstances, come out to welcome the Qi troops with baskets of food and kettles of drink, it is clear that their intentions are to escape impending disaster. If we subject the people of Yan to even more intense fire or flooding, they will have no choice but to flee in the opposite direction.”
Other states were contemplating coming to the aid of the Kingdom of Yan. The King of Qi sought Mencius‘ counsel, saying, “Other lords are conspiring attacks against me. How should I handle them?” Mencius implored him, “I’ve heard of kings who ruled territories as small as seventy miles, such as Tang of the Shang dynasty, without fearing other states. In the Book of Shu, it is recorded, ‘When our king returns, we will recover.’ Now, the Kingdom of Yan has mistreated its people. They believed that Qi‘s troops came to rescue them from the fire and flood. Hence, they welcomed the Qi army with food baskets and wine kettles. But if you kill their fathers and brothers, hurt their children, demolish their temples, and plunder their treasures, how can you do this to them? Other states are indeed concerned about a powerful Kingdom of Qi. Now, your kingdom has doubled in size and treats the people with cruelty. This may incite other states to rise against you. I urge you, Your Grace, to order your troops to return the elderly and young to their homes and cease pillaging. Collaborate with the people of Yan to establish a new king, then withdraw from the kingdom. It’s not too late to prevent attacks from other states.” Regrettably, the King of Qi did not heed his advice.
Later on, the people of Yan revolted against the Qi government. The King of Qi expressed his regret, saying, “I deeply regret not heeding Mencius‘s advice.” His assistant, Chen Gu, consoled him, saying, “Your Grace, please don’t dwell on this.” Chen Gu then approached Mencius and asked, “Who is Duke of Zhou?” Mencius replied, “He is an ancient saint.” Chen Gu continued, “The Duke of Zhou appointed Guan Shu as the supervisor of the Shang dynasty. Guan Shu incited a rebellion against Shang. Did the Duke of Zhou know that Guan Shu was planning to rebel?” Mencius responded, “No, he did not know.” Chen Gu remarked, “So even a saint can make a mistake, right?” Mencius countered, “The Duke of Zhou is Guan Shu’s younger brother, and he treated his elder brother as such. His mistake is understandable. Moreover, in ancient times, a true gentleman corrected his mistakes, unlike contemporary so-called gentlemen who get away with their mistakes! The mistakes of gentlemen in ancient times were like eclipses of the sun and moon—visible to all. People held them in even higher regard once those eclipses had passed. In contrast, today’s so-called gentlemen not only tolerate their mistakes but also seek excuses for them!”
King Xuan of Qi died this year, and his son Di succeeded him as King Min of Qi.
The Kingdom of Qin launched an invasion of the Kingdom of Wei, capturing the city of Yan.
King Hui of Wei passed away, and his son succeeded him as King Xiang of Wei. During this period, the philosopher Mencius visited King Xiang of Wei. Upon coming out of the visit, he shared his experience, saying, “He doesn’t resemble a typical monarch, and there’s no sense of unease when you approach him. Out of the blue, he asked me, ‘How can the world return to peace?’ I replied, ‘By uniting the world as one.’ He inquired, ‘Who could achieve this unification?’ I responded, ‘Those who eschew violence.’ ‘But who would willingly submit without resorting to force?’ I countered, ‘No one in the world could withstand such a force. Your Highness, do you see the sprouts in the fields? In July and August, they wither, but when the clouds come and rain falls, they thrive. It’s much the same—nothing can hinder it.’”
The combined forces of the kingdoms of Chu, Zhao, Wei, Han, and Yan launched an attack on the Kingdom of Qin, advancing towards Gate Hangu. However, the army of Qin mounted a counter-attack and emerged victorious over the troops from the five kingdoms.
The state of Song declared itself a kingdom for the first time.
The army of Qin routed the army of Han at a place called Xiuyu. They beheaded eighty thousands of soldiers of Han, and captured the generals called Sou and Shen Chai at the city of Zhuoze. Other kingdoms were shaken to the core.
One of the high-ranking officials of Qi had a fight with Su Qin to secure favors from the King. The official had Su Qin assassinated.
Zhang Yi addressed King Xiang of Wei (a.k.a. Liang), expressing his concerns, “The territory of the Kingdom of Liang is less than one thousand miles across, and our armed forces number less than three hundred thousand soldiers. The geographical landscape of Liang is a plain, lacking natural barriers like prominent mountains and rivers. Additionally, we need troops to defend our boundaries with the Kingdoms of Chu, Zhao, Qi, and Han. To simply fill the towers and fortresses along these boundaries, we require more than one hundred thousand soldiers. Liang‘s geography makes it a battleground. The other kingdoms have formed a vertical alliance along the Huan River, attempting to display solidarity like brothers defending each other. However, we know that even brothers nowadays fight and kill each other for wealth, going against their own parents. An alliance based on the scheming of individuals like Su Qin is destined to fail.”
He continued, “Your grace, if you decide not to submit to the Kingdom of Qin, Qin‘s troops may invade our land on the west bank of the Yellow River. Once Qin‘s troops occupy the towns of Juanyan and Suanzao, they could launch raids on the State of Wey from there and potentially seize the city of Yangjin. This would cut off the south-bound route from the Kingdom of Zhao. If the people of Zhao do not go south, the people of Liang will not go north. With no north-bound traffic, the corridor of the vertical alliance becomes blocked. In such a scenario, Your grace, our kingdom’s security posture would be compromised.”
Zhang Yi concluded, “I implore your grace to consider these matters carefully and make a decision promptly. I respectfully request to resign from my position.” In response, King Xiang of Wei (Liang) decided to breach the pact of the vertical alliance and requested Zhang Yi to negotiate a peace treaty with the Kingdom of Qin. Zhang Yi returned of Qin and was reinstated as the prime minister.
Duke Jing of Lu passed away, and his son Lv succeeded him as Duke Ping.
During a conflict between the states of Ba and Shu, both of them requested assistance from the Kingdom of Qin. This placed King Hui of Qin in a difficult position. He was inclined to launch an attack against the state of Shu but was concerned about the difficult and dangerous terrain on the road leading to Shu. Moreover, there was an imminent threat of the Kingdom of Han invading Qin. As a result, King Hui found it challenging to make a decision.
Two of his advisors, Sima Cuo and Zhang Yi, had differing opinions on the matter. Sima Cuo proposed launching an attack on Shu, arguing that this course of action would be more advantageous. On the other hand, Zhang Yi disagreed and suggested that it would be wiser to attack the Kingdom of Han. This debate prompted the King of Qin to request further explanations from both advisors regarding their proposed strategies.
Zhang Yi proposed that the King of Qin should nurture friendly relations with the Kingdom of Wei and maintain good terms with the Kingdom of Chu. He suggested: “Start a military expedition in which Qin‘s troops would be deployed to Sanchuan. From there, we would launch an attack on the cities of Xincheng and Yiyang, considered suburbs of the Zhou dynasty’s court. The ultimate objective is to capture the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, symbolizing the emperor’s authority, along with the maps and registrar of the realm. By doing so, we could effectively seize control over the emperor to issue commands throughout the realm and establish authority over the entire world. This is a noble and worthy pursuit.”
Zhang Yi‘s argument was based on this idea: “Seeking recognition from influential centers, symbolized as the ‘court,’ was a way to gain reputation, while engaging in economic endeavors in influential markets was a means to achieve profit. Sanchuan and the court of the Zhou dynasty are the contemporary epicenters of power and economic activity in the world. Instead of engaging here, if we become entangled in conflicts with foreign states, it would be a diversion from our noble objective.”
Sima Cuo presented a counterargument: “I learned that making a state prosperous involved expanding its territory, building a formidable military force required enriching the people, becoming a sovereign power, charity and goodwill were paramount. By having these three essential resources in abundance, the title of emperor would naturally follow.”
Sima Cuo emphasized: “Your grace’s territory is relatively small, and the population remains economically challenged. I prefer a more practical approach. Shu, located in the far western regions, is viewed as the leader among foreign states. It has undergone a transformation similar to historical events involving oppressive rulers such as Jie in the Xia dynasty and Zhou in the Shang dynasty. Launching a military campaign against Shu would be akin to driving predatory animals like jackals and wolves into a herd of sheep.”
He highlighted the advantages of this strategy: “The expansion of Qin‘s territory, the enrichment of its citizens through the acquisition of wealth, and the strengthening of the military through the surrender of Shu‘s forces without incurring massive casualties on our forces. Importantly, by conquering Shu, Qin would not incur global condemnation for violence. Moreover, seizing the western territories of Shu would bring substantial advantages without being criticized as greedy by other states. In this way, we could preserve our reputation and gain considerable benefits. We have won new fame by stopping the riots and mayhem.”
Sima Cuo cautioned against attacking Han or attempting to capture the King of the Zhou dynasty. He argued that such actions would tarnish Qin‘s reputation without yielding significant benefits. These actions might be perceived as reckless, especially when targeting a revered and sacred place in the eyes of other states.
Sima Cuo concluded by expressing the potential risks of such a course of action: “All states are imperial clans with historical ties to the Zhou dynasty. The Kingdom of Han had a close affiliation with Zhou. If the Kingdom of Zhou perceives the imminent loss of its symbol of authority, the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, and the Kingdom of Han faces the prospect of losing its heartland in Sanchuan, they would be compelled to unite their forces. This alliance could extend to seeking assistance from powerful neighboring states like the Kingdom of Qi and Zhao. Simultaneously, they might strengthen their relationships with the Kingdom of Chu and Wei. In this scenario, your grace would be powerless to prevent the court of Zhou from giving the coveted Tripod Cauldrons to the Kingdom of Chu, or the Kingdom of Han from ceding their lands to the Kingdom of Wei. That is, I dare to say, a dangerous scenario.”
Sima Cuo‘s message to the King was clear: the proposed invasion of Shu was a more prudent and beneficial strategy compared to the risks and limited gains associated with other military ventures.
Ultimately, King Hui of Qin sided with Sima Cuo‘s perspective and ordered the invasion of Shu. The campaign was swift and successful, taking only ten months to conquer Shu. The King of Shu was dethroned, and his royal title was demoted to that of a Marquis. Chen Zhuang was appointed as the prime minister of Shu by the Kingdom of Qin, which now stood as a dominant and formidable force in the region.
After Su Qin’s death, his brother Su Dai and Su Li continued their diplomatic efforts among various monarchies. In the kingdom of Yan, the prime minister Zizhi, who was related to Su Dai through marriage, aimed to consolidate his power. When Su Dai returned from a visit to the kingdom of Qi, King Kuai of Yan asked him if the King of Qi was going to become the world’s hegemon. Su Dai replied that this wasn’t the case, explaining that the King of Qi didn’t fully trust his advisors.
In response to this counsel, King Kuai of Yan decided to delegate more authority to Zizhi. Another advisor named Lu Maoshou suggested that history remembered Emperor Yao as a saint because he had willingly passed his supreme power to Emperor Shun. Following this example, if King Kuai ceded power to Zizhi, he too might be remembered as a wise and benevolent ruler. King Kuai accepted this advice, further empowering Zizhi, who then became the dominant figure in the kingdom of Yan.
Another advisor went further: “In the past, Emperor Yu recommended Yi as his minister but appointed officials closely associated with his son Qi. As he grew old, he believed that Qi was not capable of handling the affairs of the entire country, so he transferred his reign to Yi. This caused a power struggle between Qi and Yi. Qi and his supporters took the reign from him. People say that Emperor Yu only passed the reign to Yi in name only, he intended to let Qi wrest the power from Yi. Now Sire is delegating the state affairs to Zizhi, yet all the officials have been affiliated to the crown prince. This is the Zizhi’s administration in name only and the crown prince’s administration in reality.” As a result, King Kuai of Yan rescinded all his appointments of officials with emulation above thirty thousand lb of grain. He collected all the high ranking official seals and ribbons and passed them on to Zizhi, authorizing him to select officials as he saw fit. This move effectively made Zizhi the de facto ruler of Yan, with King Kuai retiring from state affairs and becoming subordinate to Zizhi. All the decisions regarding the state affairs were made by Zizhi.
The Kingdom of Qin launched an offensive against the Kingdom of Wei, resulting in a siege of the cities of Jiao and Quwo. In response, the Kingdom of Wei surrendered the city of Shaoliang and other territories located on the west bank of the Yellow River to the Kingdom of Qin.
The troops of Qin launched an invasion of the Kingdom of Wei, successfully crossing the Yellow River and capturing the cities of Fenyin and Pishi. They also managed to sack the city of Jiao during their campaign.
King Wei of Chu passed away, and he was succeeded by his son, who took the throne as King Huai of Chu.
Meanwhile, in the state of Song, Duke Ticheng’s brother, named Song Yan, orchestrated a surprise attack on Duke Ticheng. Fearing for his safety, Ticheng fled to the state of Qi. Following this, Song Yan declared himself the lord of Song, taking control of the state.
Prince Hua and Zhang Yi of Qin conducted another siege, this time targeting the city of Puyang in the state of Wei. They successfully captured the city during the campaign. However, Zhang Yi, recognizing the importance of diplomacy, persuaded the King of Qin to return Puyang to Wei. In addition to this, he sent Prince Yao to Wei as a hostage to strengthen relations.
Subsequently, Zhang Yi employed his diplomatic skills to lobby the King of Wei. He emphasized that Qin had treated Wei generously and that Wei should reciprocate in kind. As a result, the state of Wei gifted fifteen counties in the Shangjun area to Qin as a token of their gratitude. This diplomatic success led to Zhang Yi‘s promotion to the prime minister of Qin.
The ancient tribal state of Yiqu, a historical rival of the Kingdom of Qin, was incorporated into Qin as a county. The lord of Yiqu now became a subordinate under the rule of the King of Qin.
Additionally, the Kingdom of Qin returned the cities of Jiao and Quwo to the Kingdom of Wei as part of a restitution agreement.
Following the death of Marquis Su, his son, Zhao Yong, ascended to the throne as King Wuling of Zhao. During his reign, he implemented several important reforms. He established the position of three state professors known for their extensive knowledge. Additionally, he appointed three prosecutors each to the left and right justice departments. King Wuling also paid a visit to a respected advisor of his predecessors, Feiyi, and increased his emolument as a sign of recognition and respect.
In the summer season, the ruler of Qin proclaimed himself as a king for the first time, signifying a shift in the state’s status.
During this time, Marquis Ping of Wey passed away, and his son Sijun succeeded him as the new ruler. An interesting incident occurred involving a convict from the state of Wey who had managed to escape to the neighboring state of Wei. In Wei, this convict used his skills to cure an illness afflicting the Queen Dowager. Learning of this, Sijun, the ruler of Wey, decided to bring the convict back to his state and was willing to pay a hefty sum of fifty ounces of gold for his return.
However, the envoys sent to negotiate the convict’s return failed in their mission on five separate occasions. Undeterred, Sijun made a bold decision. He offered the city of Zuoshi in exchange for the release of the convict. His advisors were initially opposed to this, questioning the wisdom of trading a city for a single convict.
Sijun, however, remained resolute in his decision. He said: “You don’t understand. There are no small matters in governance; even the slightest disturbance can lead to chaos. If we don’t uphold the law and ensure that crimes are punished, having ten cities like Zuoshi won’t benefit our state. However, if we maintain the rule of law and hold wrongdoers accountable, the loss of ten cities is insignificant in comparison”
Word of this exchange reached the King of Wei, who commented on the situation: “It does not bode well in opposition to another rule’s will.” He ordered that the convict be put in a prison carriage and returned to Sijun’s state without requesting any compensation, respecting the principles of justice and governance.
Zhang Yi, leading the Qin troops, conducted a successful raid on the Kingdom of Wei, capturing a place called Shan.
Meanwhile, Su Qin became involved in an affair with the dowager of Duke Wen of Yan. When her son, King Yi of Yan, discovered this, Su Qin was filled with terror. To remedy the situation, he proposed to King Yi of Yan that his presence in Yan did not garner more respect for the kingdom and that other states might admire Yan more if he were to go to the Kingdom of Qi and lead from there. King Yi of Yan agreed to this plan. Su Qin then pretended to have a falling-out with Yan and fled to the Kingdom of Qi. King Xuan of Qi appointed him as his visiting adviser. In this role, Su Qin encouraged the King of Qi to build grand halls, arenas, extensive gardens, and hunting grounds, intentionally worsening the finances of the Kingdom of Qi to benefit their rival, the Kingdom of Yan.
In a meeting at the city of Niesang, the Prime Minister of Qin, Zhang Yi, convened with the Prime Ministers from the Kingdoms of Qi and Chu.
Interestingly, during this time, the lords of the states Han and Yan both proclaimed themselves as kings. However, King Wuling of Zhao chose not to do so, stating that he saw no reason to claim a title without the substance to support it. He ordered his people to continue addressing him as Lord.
After the meeting at Niesang, Zhang Yi was removed from his position as the Prime Minister of Qin. He then assumed the role of Prime Minister in the Kingdom of Wei. In this position, Zhang Yi aimed to set an example of submission to the Kingdom of Qin for other states. However, the King of Wei was reluctant to comply with this plan.
In response, the King of Qin ordered an invasion of the Kingdom of Wei and successfully captured the cities of Quwo and Pingzhou. To reward Zhang Yi for his efforts, the King of Qin secretly provided him with additional compensation.
Lord Jingguo considered building walls and fortresses around his fief city of Xue. However, one of his guest advisers offered a different perspective: “Have you heard about the giant fish in the ocean, my lord? The fish is so large that neither nets nor hooks could do anything to it. However, it becomes the victim of bugs as soon as it leaves the water. Now the Kingdom of Qi is the water to you, my lord. As long as you are in charge of Qi, why bother to secure the city of Xue? Conversely, could you count on the city of Xue even if you build the walls sky-high, if you lost the power over the kingdom of Qi?” Lord Jingguo heeded this advice and gave up the idea.
Lord Jingguo has more than forty sons. One of them, Tian Wen, despite his humble birth from a lowly concubine, possessed charisma and shrewdness. He advised his father, Lord Jingguo, to invest generously in hiring scholars and experts as counselors. Tian Wen himself played the role of a gracious host, wining and dining these guests extravagantly. As a result, all the counselors couldn’t help but praise Tian Wen‘s charm in front of Lord Jingguo and recommended him as the successor.
When Lord Jingguo passed away, Tian Wen ascended to the position of Duke of Xue, known as Lord Mengchang. Lord Mengchang actively sought out talent from various states, regardless of their backgrounds as exiles, convicts, or outcasts. He provided them with not only employment but also generous compensation, lodging, and support for their families. His food court often hosted thousands of guests, each one of them thought Lord Mengchang treated him specially. He was widely regarded as a benevolent and exceptional ruler, earning fame across the kingdoms.
Sima Guang’s comments: A ruler employs savants in order to serve his people. As the Book of Yi says: ”A saint nurtures the talented, for the benefit of all people.” The moral character of a learned man moral has the power to shape social norms; the capabilities of a learned man’s abilities and skills can improve the functioning of an administration; the wisdom of a learned man enables them to identify flaws and anticipate future challenges; the integrity of a learned man upholds humanity and righteousness. On a large scale, a learned man benefits the whole world; On a small scale, a learned man benefits a state or a community. Rulers, recognizing the value of such individuals, reward them with wealth and titles as a way of nurturing them to benefit the broader population. This approach to staffing is considered wise and effective.
On the other hand, Lord Mengchang put persons on his payroll, regardless if the person is wise or foolish, an angel or a criminal. That’s abusing the Kingdom’s resources to fund his cronies. They spread fake accolades of Lord Mengchang, cheating the King above them and corrupting the common people below them. That’s a treacherous act and it is despicable, like the saying in the book Shu:”Accepting the deserters and renegades makes human sewage.”
Lord Mengchang was sent to the state of Chu for a diplomatic mission, and the King of Chu gifted him an exquisite bed decorated with ivory carvings. He asked his attendant, Dengtu Zhi to oversee the shipment. Dengtu Zhi did not want to take this chore. He spoke to a disciple of Lord Mengchang, whose name is Gongsun Xu: ”The ivory bed is such a treasure worthy of thousands ounces of gold. I could not, even if I sell my whole family, to compensate for a tiny bit of damage. If you can talk me out of this assignment, I have a precious sword passed down from my ancestors that I’m willing to offer in return.” Gongsun Xu promised him and went to see Lord Mengchang: ”The reason that all these small states want to appoint you as their prime minister is because you can uplift the poor, revive the fallen, and continue the lineage. They all appreciate your righteousness and admire your incorruptible integrity. But now, upon arriving in Chu, if you were to accept this ivory bed, how can you face the states that have not yet had the opportunity to host you?” Lord Mengchang agreed. He politely declined the gift from Chu. As Gongsun Xu walked out and before he exited the middle court, Lord Mengchang called him back: ”I saw you hopping out with joy, why were you so excited?” Gongsun Xu confessed about the sword. Lord Mengchang then posted an announcement at the city gate, which read: ”Any one who can improve Tian Wen’s reputation and correct Tian Wen’s mistakes, even if you take someone’s bribe for doing it, is urged to come forward with constructive criticism!”
Sima Guang’s comments: It can be said that Lord Mengchang was receptive to counselings. As long as the advice is good, even coming from ulterior motives, can still be taken, let alone the advice that is offered with selfless honesty. The book of Shi has a poem: ”Pick collard greens, pick turnip greens; don’t care about the lower stems.” Lord Mengchang possessed the spirit of this.King Xuanhui of Han set out to appoint both Gongzhong and Gongshu to be in charge of the state affairs. He consulted with his advisor Mu Liu. Mu Liu was against the idea: ”Don’t do that. Jin was characterized by the use of the Six Ministers leading to the division into three states. In the case of Qi‘s Duke Jian, he relied on Master Chen Cheng and Kan Zhi, which ultimately led to his assassination. In Wei, they relied on Xi Shou and Zhang Yi, and the lands west of the Yellow River were lost. Now, if you, my lord, rely on two prime ministers, the one with greater power will form factions internally, while the other with less power will seek external influence. Among your ministers, some will build internal factions to influence you, while others will seek external alliances to gain territory. In either case, our state is in danger.”ll form factions internally, while the other with less power will seek external influence. Among your ministers, some will build internal factions to influence you, while others will seek external alliances to gain territory. In either case, our state is in danger.”
Su Qin continued his persuasive efforts with King Xuanhui of Han: “The kingdom of Han boasts a large expanse of land, spanning nine hundred miles, and possesses hundreds of thousands of well-armed soldiers. The world’s finest bows, crossbows, and swords are all crafted right here in the state of Han. Han‘s archers are so skilled that they can leap into the air and unleash a continuous barrage of a hundred arrows. It is beyond doubt that the valor of a single Han soldier, armed with the best weaponry, can withstand the assault of a hundred adversaries.”
“Your grace, if you yield to Qin‘s demands, they will not stop at just taking Yiyang and Chenggao as they did this year. Next year, they will seek even more territory. In the end, you will have nothing left to give. Any concession made now will only nullify the goodwill you have shown before, inviting calamity upon us. Your land is limited, while the kingdom of Qin‘s appetite is boundless. Attempting to satiate an insatiable hunger with limited resources is akin to trading grievances for misfortune. We are losing territory without putting up a fight. As the saying goes, ‘I would rather be a chick’s beak than the behind of a cow.’ It is regrettable that your wisdom, your grace, and the valor of Han‘s army are earning a reputation as the backend of a cow!” King Xuanhui of Han heeded Su Qin‘s counsel and decided not to concede to Qin‘s demands
Su Qin continued his diplomatic efforts, this time directing his persuasive skills toward the King of Wei: “Your grace, your kingdom, although not extensive in terms of land, spans a thousand miles. It is a densely populated region filled with countless farms and residences, leaving little room for pastures. The population is so dense, and the traffic so bustling, that one might think it’s perpetually hosting armies on the move. In my humble opinion, your kingdom rivals the vastness of the kingdom of Chu.”
“I have also come to understand the might of your armed forces: you command two hundred thousand heavily armed soldiers, two hundred thousand black-cap servicemen, two hundred thousand gladiators, and one hundred thousand auxiliary supporters. In addition, you possess six hundred chariots and five thousand cavalry.”
“Yet, it troubles me to see that you are currently heeding advisors who advocate servility towards the Kingdom of Qin. I implore you to reconsider this stance and examine the charter of alliance provided by my lord, the King of Zhao. The charter is unequivocal: your commands are to be executed by the alliance!” King of Wei, after consideration, agreed to Su Qin‘s proposal.
Su Qin‘s persuasive efforts extended to the King of Qi: “Your grace, the Kingdom of Qi boasts fortresses on all four borders, with territory spanning two thousand miles. It commands hundreds of thousands of well-armed soldiers and vast grain reserves. Your standing armies are well-disciplined, and five independent military forces are at your disposal in five cities. Your warriors move as swiftly as arrows, fight fiercely like thunderstorms, and retreat like showers. Even if a military conflict were to arise, the aggressors would have to clear Mount Tai, cross the Qing River, and navigate Bohai Bay.”
“The city of Linzi alone houses seventy thousand families, and a rough estimate of three able-bodied men per family gives you two hundred and ten thousand potential fighters in Linzi alone, without counting neighboring counties. Linzi‘s people are prosperous and affluent, indulging in activities like cockfighting, dog racing, chess, and football. On Linzi‘s streets, cartwheels clash, pedestrians rub shoulders, and their sleeves brushing together could form a backdrop curtain, while wiping sweat from their brows could create a downpour.”
“However, certain ministers who fear Qin‘s proximity dominate the strategic decisions of the states of Han and Wei because they share borders with Qin. The survival or downfall of these states can be decided within ten days of mobilizing their troops. Even if they win, they might lose half their forces and face border incursions. If they lose, their state may face defeat and collapse. This is why the states of Han and Wei tend to appease Qin and hesitate to engage in combat. Qi‘s security against a Qin invasion is entirely different. Qin invaders must traverse the lands of Han and Wei, navigate the narrow road at Yanjin (in Wei), and break through the strategic Kangfu Pass. Qin‘s chariots cannot move in combat formations, and cavalry cannot advance side by side through these passages. A hundred defenders on these bastions can thwart thousands of attackers. Qin‘s army may want to advance deep into Qi, but they must also be cautious, wary of attacks from Han and Wei from behind.”
“It is evident that Qin does not pose an immediate threat to Qi. They resort to trickery, threats, and bluster rather than moving into combat. Those ministers who advocate submission to Qin do not fully grasp the situation, Your grace. You possess the means to safeguard your state and need not be labeled as subservient to Qin. Please consider our strategy carefully.” The King of Qi approved of Su Qin‘s counsel.
Su Qin continued his diplomatic efforts in the southwest, addressing the King of Chu: “The Kingdom of Chu stands as a world superpower, spanning a vast territory of six thousand miles. Its army numbers one million strong, equipped with thousands of chariots and tens of thousands of horses. Its granaries hold enough grain to sustain the state for a decade, a resource that signifies dominance. To the Kingdom of Qin, Chu represents a greater threat than any other state. The strength of Chu corresponds to the weakness of Qin, and vice versa. Qin and Chu cannot coexist peacefully.”
“To your advantage, the Kingdom of Chu should join the vertical alliance to isolate the Kingdom of Qin. I will ensure that other states east of Xiao Mountain pay tribute to you with seasonal produce, obey your orders, entrust their state affairs and heritage to you, and train their soldiers to follow your lead. Joining the vertical alliance implies that all states cede their lands and are subject to Chu, while joining the horizontal alliance implies that the Kingdom of Chu surrenders its land and is subject to Qin. The consequences of these two options are vastly different. Which one do you choose?” The King of Chu concurred with Su Qin‘s proposal.
With Su Qin‘s successful diplomacy, he assumed the role of chief commander and prime minister for all six states of the vertical alliance. He traveled north to report to the Marquis of Zhao, accompanied by an impressive entourage equipped with chariots and well-armed guards, rivaling that of a king.
King Wei of Qi passed away, and his son, Piqiang, ascended to the throne as King Xuan of Qi. King Xuan of Qi recognized that Marquis Cheng (Zou Ji) had wrongfully accused Tian Ji and reinstated Tian Ji to his former position.
Duke Wen of Yan also passed away, and his son succeeded him as King Yi of Yan.
Marquis Cheng of Wey passed away, and his son took over as Marquis Ping of Wey.
The king Hui of Qin, in an attempt to disrupt the vertical alliance, sent Xi Shou to deceive the Kingdoms of Qi and Wei into forming a coalition against the state of Zhao. This move aimed to thwart the alliance that Su Qin had been working on. When Marquis Su of Zhao discovered this plot, he held Su Qin responsible, and Su Qin became fearful.
To make amends, Su Qin offered to lobby the state of Yan to seek revenge for Qi‘s actions. As Su Qin left the state of Zhao, the vertical alliance fell apart. The people of Zhao breached a dam to flood the armies of Qi and Wei, forcing them to withdraw.
In a gesture of reconciliation, the Kingdom of Wei ceded the city of Yinjin to the Kingdom of Qin. This city is now known as Huayin.
Subsequently, the King of Qi launched a campaign against the state of Yan, capturing ten cities. However, they later returned these cities to their original owner Yan.
The king of Chu launched an attack on the state of Qi and defeated the Qi army. He besieged Xuzhou and ordered the expulsion of Tian Ying. However, Tian Ying sent an envoy named Zhang Chou to plead with the King of Chu. After hearing Zhang Chou’s plea, King of Chu decided to halt the attack on Qi.
The construction of the grand palace portal in the state of Han has been completed. Marquis Zhao of Han had passed away, and his son had succeeded him, assuming the title of King Xuanhui of Han.
Earlier, Su Qin from the city of Luoyang had approached the King of Qin with a proposal for unifying China, but the King of Qin had not taken his advice seriously.
Su Qin then decided to visit Duke Wen of Yan and presented a persuasive argument: “The reason the state of Yan has remained free from the harassment of bandits and soldiers is the protective shield provided by the state of Zhao to the south. If the state of Qin were to wage war against Yan, it would have to do so thousands of miles away from its own territory. On the other hand, if the state of Zhao were to engage in conflict with Yan, it would be doing so only hundreds of miles from its own borders. It is unwise to worry about a distant enemy while ignoring a threat much closer to home. I propose, Your Grace, that you form a marital alliance with Zhao, ultimately uniting with the state of Zhao. This way, Yan will have no more cause for concern.”
Duke Wen of Yan recognized the wisdom in Su Qin‘s advice and not only accepted it but also facilitated his journey to the state of Zhao to pursue this alliance further.
Su Qin employed his persuasive skills once more, this time lobbying Marquis Su of Zhao. He presented his case: “At present, there is no state stronger than Zhao. Qin considers Zhao its primary adversary but has refrained from launching an offensive due to concerns that Han and Wei may conspire against them from behind. There are no natural barriers like large mountain ranges and rivers between Qin and these two states. Qin‘s strength allows it to gradually encroach on their territory, eventually besieging their capitals. Han and Wei would then succumb to Qin‘s pressure, becoming Qin‘s vassals. If Han and Wei no longer pose a threat, the state of Zhao will be next in line.
“As I examine the map of the realm, I see that the combined land area of all the other states is five times greater than that of Qin. It is estimated that these states possess ten times as many soldiers as Qin. If the six major states unite and launch a westward offensive against Qin, Qin will be overpowered. There are consultants who will attempt to encourage other states to dole out territories to appease Qin‘s threat. They will be rich and famous if Qin gets its wish. They will not concern themselves with the danger Qin poses to their states. This is why you are seeing these lobbyists constantly urging you to cede land to pacify Qin.
“Therefore, I implore you, your grace, to scrutinize their proposals. If I may offer a plan, it would be to unite the six states—Han, Wei, Qi,Chu, Yan, and Zhao—through marriage alliances to resist Qin‘s aggression. We can invite ministers and generals from all six states to a conference near the Huan River, forming an alliance by exchanging hostages as a guarantee. Our alliance charter will state: ‘All states shall send their finest soldiers to aid any state attacked by Qin or to retaliate against Qin. Any state violating this charter will face collective retaliation from the other five states.’ With all six states united against Qin, Qin‘s armored divisions will not dare to venture out of the Hangu Pass to threaten the states east of Xiao mountain.”
Marquis Su of Zhao was greatly impressed by Su Qin‘s wisdom and appreciated his advice. He treated Su Qin with great honor, bestowing him with gifts and rewards, and entrusted him as his envoy to negotiate with the leaders of the other states.
During this period, the army of Qin, under the leadership of Xi Shou [Gongsun Yan], launched a military campaign against the state of Wei. They defeated the Wei army of forty thousand troops, captured the Wei general Long Gu, and seized the city of Diaoyin. With the Qin army poised to advance further eastward, Su Qin became increasingly concerned that they would reach the state of Zhao before he could establish the alliance. He couldn’t think of anyone in Qin who would be willing to collaborate with him.
In an act of chicanery, Su Qin deliberately angered his friend Zhang Yi, who was also a student of Master Guigu and had expertise in political strategy. Su Qin believed that Zhang Yi was more skilled than himself in this art. Zhang Yi had been traveling among various states trying to garner support for their cause but had found few willing listeners. He became stranded in the state of Chu.
Su Qin summoned Zhang Yi to the state of Zhao and personally insulted him. This mistreatment infuriated Zhang Yi, who realized that only the state of Qin had the potential to pose a significant threat to Zhao. Consequently, he decided to travel westward to Qin, with the intention of aiding them in their campaign against the eastern states.
Su Qin acted covertly by sending his servant along with Zhang Yi, providing him with gold coins for his journey. Zhang Yi used these resources to bribe his way into an audience with the King of Qin. The King was impressed with Zhang Yi‘s persuasive abilities and appointed him as an advisor.After successfully gaining the King of Qin’s favor, Zhang Yi’s servant bid him farewell and explained Su Qin‘s strategy. Su Qin had intentionally provoked Zhang Yi and then arranged for him to travel to Qin. This was all part of Su Qin‘s plan to ensure Zhang Yi could wield influence in Qin, preventing a Qin invasion of Zhao and preserving the alliance. Zhang Yi was deeply impressed by Su Qin‘s strategic acumen: ”Alas! This is my specialty and I did not even realize what happened! It is obvious that Mr. Su is a superior strategist. Please convey my gratitude to Mr. Su. As long as he is in charge, Zhang Yi won’t interfere with his plan.”
An altar at Taiqiu of state Songcollapsed. Meng Ke, from Zou, traveled a long distance to visit King Huiof Wei. King Huiwarmly welcomed him and remarked, “Old man, you have journeyed tens of thousands of miles to visit us. You must have Wei‘s interests at heart.”Meng Kereplied, “Why should Your Excellency speak of interests when we should be talking about love and righteousness? A king seeks the interests of the nation, an official seeks the interests of his kin, and a commoner seeks personal interests. If everyone only pursues their self-interest, it will endanger the entire country. People who love others won’t neglect their families, and those who are righteous will serve their lord first.”King Huiof Weiappreciated Meng Ke‘s wise words.Meng Ke, also known as Mencius, studied under Zisi, the eldest grandson of Confucius. During his studies, Menciusasked about the priority in managing people. Zisi responded, “Personal interest is the top priority.”Menciuswas puzzled and asked, “A virtuous person should educate their people on love and righteousness. Why do we emphasize personal interest?”Zisiexplained, “Love and righteousness ultimately serve everyone’s interests. A leader who lacks love and righteousness will not provide for the needs of their people, and an unjust leader will lead their people into deceit and harm their personal interests. This is why the Book of Changes says, ‘Personal interest is the sum of the righteousness of all people.’ It also states, ‘It is in your own interest to improve your life. A better personal life enhances your morality.’ This underscores the importance of personal interests.”Sima Guang‘s comments: The teachings of Zisiand Menciusare of the highest caliber. Only those who possess love and righteousness truly understand what constitutes their own interests. People who lack love and righteousness cannot comprehend the essence of genuine self-interest. When Mencius conversed with King Huiof Wei, he primarily emphasized the principles of love and righteousness because he recognized his audience and the significance of these virtues in governance.
The state of Qininvaded Han, and took the city of Yiyang.The King of Qiappointed Tian Yingas the ruler of Pengcheng. Tian Yingadvised the King of Qi, saying, “The strategies and plans of the five ministers are something you should listen to and review daily.” The king followed his advice but later became weary of it, so he entrusted all his authority to Tian Ying. As a result, Tian Yinggained full control over the state affairs of Qi.
Tian Yingserved as the prime minister of the state of Qi. The King of Qiand The King of Weiheld a meeting in Xuzhouto proclaim each other as a king. When King of Chuheard about this meeting, he became furious with Tian Ying.Marquis Zhao of Hanwas building a portal in his place. Qu Yijiu warned him:”You should refrain from walking through this portal. Why, you ask? It’s a matter of timing, not in terms of the chosen date, but rather in the sense that people go through ups and downs in life. In the past, when everything was going well, you didn’t consider building a portal. Just last year, Qin took our city Yiyang, and this year we grappled with a drought. You seem to be overlooking the suffering and urgent needs of the people while pursuing extravagant decorations. This is akin to spending lavishly when you’re financially strained. It’s not the right timing for such endeavors.”King of Yue, Wuqiang, initially planned to launch an attack on the state of Qi. In response, the King of Qisent an envoy to persuade Wuqiang, highlighting the greater benefits of instead targeting the state of Chu. King Wuqiang reconsidered his strategy and redirected his forces towards an assault on the state of Chu.The state of Chu, however, proved to be a formidable adversary, decimating the troops of Yue. Following this victory, Chuexpanded its territory, extending eastward into Zhejiang. This defeat led to the disintegration of the state of Yue, as noble families within Yuevied for titles and power. Some declared themselves kings, while others claimed the title of princes. They scattered along the coastline and ultimately became subservient to the King of Chu.
Wey Yang spoke to Duke Xiao of Qin: “The state of Wei is a threat to Qin, much like a heart disease to a person. If Qin does not annex the state of Wei, Wei will surely annex Qin. Why do I say this? The state of Wei lies to the west of a mountain range with its capital at the city of Anyi. It shares a border with Qin along the Yellow River, providing it with a unique defensive advantage to the east of the mountain range. During favorable times, Wei could launch an invasion westward into Qin. In unfavorable times, Wei could move eastward and expand its territory. Currently, Qin is strong and prosperous under your excellent leadership, while Wei suffered defeat at the hands of the state of Qi last year and has been bullied by other states. This presents an opportune moment to weaken Wei. Wei is no match for Qin, and it would have no choice but to move eastward. Qin can secure the mountain range and the Yellow River as natural defensive lines, obtaining a much better strategic posture against the states to the east. This is the path to dominate all states and establish Qin as the preeminent power.”
Duke Xiao of Qin approved and designated Wey Yang as the commander of the invasion of Wei. On the Wei side, Prince Ang was appointed as the general leading the defense.
When both armies were in their positions, Wey Yang sent a letter to Prince Ang: “We used to be friends, and now we find ourselves as commanders on opposing sides. I truly cannot bear the thought of attacking you. I propose that we have a reunion, share a drink together, and then cease fighting for the sake of the people in our states.”
Prince Ang liked the idea, and they arranged to meet. During their reunion, they shared drinks. However, after the meeting, Wey Yang ordered his armored soldiers to launch a surprise attack, capturing Prince Ang. Then he ordered an assault on the Wei army, which had lost its commander. The Wei army was decisively defeated. King Hui of Wei, fearing further losses, sent an envoy to offer all the land west of the Yellow River to the state of Qin as a means to negotiate for peace.
As a result of these events, the state of Wei moved its capital from Anyi to Daliang. King Hui expressed his regret, acknowledging that he should have heeded the advice of Gongshu Cuo.
The state of Qin rewarded Wey Yang with fifteen cities in Shang as his fief, and he was granted the title “the Lord of Shang,” or Shang Yang, which he held from that point forward.
During this time, the states of Qi and Zhao launched raids against the state of Wei.
Meanwhile, in the state of Chu, King Xuan passed away, and he was succeeded by his son, who became known as King Wei of Chu.
Duke Xiao of Qin passed away, his son ascended to the throne as King Huiwen of Qin. Prince Qian and his supporters accused Shang Yang of plotting against the new king. King Huiwen ordered Shang Yang‘s arrest, prompting Shang Yang to flee to the state of Wei. However, he was not welcomed there and subsequently returned to Qin.
Shang Yang and his followers attempted to escape to his fiefdom but were intercepted by the people of Qin. They fled northward and besieged the city of Zheng. However, the Qin people caught up with Shang Yang and killed him. His body was torn apart by five horses, and all his family members were executed as well.
Shang Yang, who previously served as the prime minister of Qin, ruled with iron wrists, strict and harsh enforcement of the law. His methods were often brutal, and he frequently executed prisoners along the banks of the Wei River, staining its waters red. After governing Qin for a decade, he had accumulated many enemies.
One day, a man named Zhao Liang approached Shang Yang. Shang Yang posed a question to him, asking whether he thought Minister Five-Goatskins [Baili Xi, the prime minister of Duke Mu of Qin] or himself was the better ruler. Zhao Liang responded cautiously, saying, “The confirmation of thousands of yes-men, is not worth the honest discourse of one. May I speak freely without fear of retaliation?” Shang Yang agreed, saying, “You have my word.”
Zhao Liang continued his candid assessment: “Minister Five-Goatskin rose from being a cow herder in the state of Chu to becoming the prime minister of Qin, a position of immense power overseeing tens of thousands. This was an unimaginable ascent. During his six or seven years in office, he launched military campaigns against Zheng to the east, orchestrated the installation of three lords in the state of Jin, and rescued the state of Chu from dire straits. He led a frugal life, traveling without carriages or bodyguards even during sweltering summers. When he passed away, the people of Qin, regardless of age or gender, mourned his loss deeply. Even children stopped singing, and farmers halted their work to pay their respects.”
Zhao Liang then shifted his focus to Shang Yang: “Your rise to power was facilitated by the eunuch Jing Jian’s introduction to Duke Xiao. Your governing style has been characterized by oppressing the lower classes and bullying the upper classes. Gongzi Qian endured eight years of house arrest under your rule. You executed Zhu Huan, one of his teachers, and disfigured Gongsun Gu’s face. As the Book of Songs suggests, those who are popular rise, and those who are unpopular fall. Your actions, as I mentioned earlier, have not garnered popularity.”Zhao Liang pointed out Shang Yang‘s reliance on force: “Whenever you go out, you are surrounded by chariots and heavily armed guards. A group of burly men drives your chariot while encircling you. You parade through the streets with a procession of armed guards. Without a significant armed escort, you dare not venture outside. As the Book of Shu warns, those who rely on virtue prosper, but those who rely on force perish. Your actions have not been rooted in virtue, and your reign may be as fleeting as a drop of morning dew. While you enjoy the wealth from your fief and maintain a tight grip on power in Qin, the grievances of the people are mounting. If the current King of Qin loses control of power or decides to exclude foreigners from his government, there would not have been a shortage of people in Qin who wanted to put you in prison.” Shang Yang did not heed Zhao Liang‘s advice, and within five months, he faced his downfall.
Pang Juan of Wei led a raid on the state of Han, prompting Han to request aid from the state of Qi. King Wei of Qi sought advice from his advisers regarding when to come to Han’s aid. Marquis Cheng, the prime minister of Qi, Zou Ji, suggested not getting involved at all. Tian Ji disagreed, stating that aiding Han sooner was better to prevent Wei from annexing it. Sun Bin, however, had a different strategy.
“If we help the armies of Han and Wei before they are weakened, it’s like we are substituting for Han and brunt the assault of Wei‘s armies, effectively acting under the direction of Han. Furthermore, if Wei harbors ambitions to conquer other states and sees that Han is on the verge of collapse, Han will likely turn their sights to the east and seek support from Qi. Therefore, it is strategically sound to strengthen our ties with Han, profiting from their resources, while delaying our clash with Wei. In this way, we can secure significant benefits and enhance our reputation.”
King Wei of Qi approved Sun Bin‘s plan and promised assistance to Han while letting the Han envoy leave empty-handed. Han, with the assurance of Qi‘s support, entered the battlefield confidently but lost all five battles, eventually consigning the entire state to Qi at its mercy. Qi then sent its army, led by generals Tian Ji, Tian Ying, and Tian Pan, with Sun Bin as the chief strategist, to aid Han. The army moved directly toward Wei‘s capital.
Pang Juan, commander of Wei‘s forces, learned of Qi‘s movement and immediately returned with his army from Han. Wei mobilized its people to defend against Qi, appointing Crown Prince Shen as the commander. Sun Bin advised Tian Ji to use strategy to turn the situation in their favor.
“Those three states derived from Jin have always possessed formidable and valiant armies, while they consider Qi as having a reputation for timidity in battle. A wise military commander takes advantage of the enemy’s disposition and leads them toward his own advantage. As mentioned in the Art of War, ‘Charging a hundred li[Chinese mile] forward to engage the enemy might lead to the loss of a top general, while charging fifty li[Chinese mile] forward might cause half the troops to fall behind.’”
Sun Bin ordered the army to build one hundred thousand hearths on the first day upon entering Wei‘s territory. On the second day, they reduced the number to fifty thousand, and on the third day, to thirty thousand. Pang Juan heard this report and became overconfident, thinking that the soldiers of Qi feared them. He left his infantry behind and personally led his cavalry to chase the retreating Qi army all day and night.
Sun Bin, aware of Pang Juan‘s movement, estimated he would arrive at Maling at sunset. Maling was a place with a narrow path surrounded by barriers, ideal for an ambush. Sun Bin had a large tree trunk hacked and wrote “Pang Juan dies under this tree” in white characters. He then positioned archers around the path, instructing them to shoot when they saw fire after sunset.
At sunset, Pang Juan reached the hacked tree and lit a torch to read the white characters. Before he could finish reading, thousands of arrows were shot at him. The army of Wei fell into disarray, and realizing he had no way out, Pang Juan took his own life, saying, “I made that son of a bitch famous!” The troops of Qi capitalized on the momentum and routed the army of Wei, capturing Crown Prince Shen of Wei in the process.
Marquis Cheng, Zou Ji, held a strong dislike for Tian Ji. In an attempt to implicate Tian Ji, Marquis Cheng devised a cunning plan. He sent an individual carrying ten ounces of gold to a local market and engaged a fortune teller’s services. The fortune teller was told that the person seeking guidance was a follower of Tian Ji and that their lord had won three battles and was revered around the world. The fortune teller was further informed that their lord was planning a significant move and inquired whether it would be successful.As soon as the fortune teller completed the session and the customer left, Zou Ji had the fortune teller arrested. Tian Ji found himself unable to defend against the accusations of conspiracy and, in response, led an attack on the capital city of Linzi with his followers. Their aim was to capture Marquis Cheng. Unfortunately for Tian Ji, they were unable to breach the defenses of Linzi, leading him to flee to the state of Chu. Ji, they were unable to breach the defenses of Linzi, leading him to flee to the state of Chu.
Wey Yang, the defense minister of the State of Qin, spearheaded a military campaign against the State of Wei.
In an unexpected turn of events, Wei emerged victorious over the combined forces of several states, by leveraging assistance from the troops of Han, during a battle at Xiangling. As a response to the escalating conflict, Qi sent Jing She from Chu on a mission to negotiate peace. In response, King Hui of Wei orchestrated a meeting with the armies that had laid siege to them, representing both Qi and Song.
Wey Yang of Qin besieged the city of Guyang in the state of Wei, which eventually surrendered to Qin.
The state of Wei returned the city of Handan to the state of Zhao, and the two states established an alliance along the Zhang River.
Marquis Zhao of Han appointed Shen Buhai as the prime minister of Han. Shen Buhai had a humble background, having served as a lowly servant in the state of Zheng before it was annexed by Han. He was well-versed in both Taoism and Legalism and applied his philosophical knowledge to assist Marquis Zhao in governing. Shen Buhai managed government affairs and education within the state of Han meticulously, while also maintaining diplomatic relations with other states’ princes and envoys. Over a span of fifteen years, Han‘s internal affairs were well-ordered, and its military forces were well-prepared.
Shen Buhai made a request to Marquis Zhao on behalf of his cousin to be appointed to an official position. However, Marquis Zhao did not grant approval, leading to Shen‘s dissatisfaction. In response, Marquis Zhao engaged in a thought-provoking conversation with Shen Buhai: “You taught me about governing a state based on merits. Now you seek positions for your relatives, which principle should I follow – your advice or your request? Should I violate the regulations you’ve advocated by appointing your cousin, or should I uphold your regulations and deny your application?” Shen Buhai, acknowledging Marquis Zhao‘s wisdom, rose from his seat and bowed, stating, “You are the lord I truly want to serve!”
An anecdote is also mentioned where Marquis Zhao had a pair of worn-out pants, which he instructed his assistant to save. When questioned about this unusual act, Marquis Zhao explained: “A wise lord cherishes his expressions of disapproval and approval. Just as a frown is reserved for matters deserving disapproval, and a smile for matters deserving approval, these worn-out pants are no different. I will give them to those who deserve them.”
Shang Yang (formerly referred to as Wey Yang) constructed gates and palaces in Xianyang, subsequently relocating the capital of Qin there. He introduced new laws, which included a prohibition on adult sons living in the same household as their fathers and brothers. Additionally, he amalgamated numerous small towns and villages into counties, assigning an executive officer (commander) and a judicial officer (sheriff) for each county. The state of Qin encompassed a total of thirty-one counties. Shang Yang abolished the # field system, also known as the Nine-squares system, where public land (state-owned) was cultivated jointly with private lands. He flattened the ridges and gutters that divided fields into squares, constructing broader field paths within farmland. Furthermore, he standardized the measurement system across the state of Qin, publishing standard measurements for volume, weight, and length.
The armed forces of Qin and Wei encountered each other at Tong, resulting in a confrontation.
Marquis Cheng of Zhao passed away, and his son Xie engaged in a dispute with the Crown Prince Yu over the succession. Prince Xie’s attempt to establish himself failed, and he fled to the state of Han. The Crown Prince Yu succeeded to the throne and became Marquis Su of Zhao.
In the state of Song, Lord Ticheng deposed the ruler and declared himself as the new ruler..
Shang Yang introduced a new taxation law in the state of Qin, further solidifying the ongoing land taxation reform. This law was implemented immediately upon its promulgation.
An official named Mou from the state of Qi was executed for recommending unsuitable candidates.
Duke Kang of Lu passed away, and his son Yan succeeded him as Duke Jing of Lu.
The smaller state of Wey reduced its noble title from Duke to Marquis and became subservient to the larger states composed of Jin, which are Han, Wei, and Zhao.
The heads of all vassal states gathered at the capital city of Zhou for a meeting.
Duke Xiao of Qin appointed his son, Prince Shaoguan, to lead troops to a conference at Fengze, where all the heads of states convened. Following the conference, the participants paid homage to King Xian of Zhou.
King Xian of Zhou officially acknowledged the state of Qin as the foremost leader among all the vassal states. The King of Qin had received congratulations from the other states.Following the passing of King Wu Zhuān, his son King Wu Qiàng ascended to the throne in the state of Yue.
King Wei of Qi and King Hui of Wei went hunting together in the suburbs. King Hui of Wei asked, “Does the state of Qi have any treasures?” King Wei of Qi replied, “No.” King Hui said, “Even my small state has pearls of an inch in diameter. We have ten of those pearls that illuminate twelve chariots in the front and twelve chariots in the back. How come there are no treasures in a large state such as Qi?”
King Wei of Qi responded, “Your grace, our definition of treasures seems to differ. I have a minister named Tanzi, who guards the southern cities. The large state of Chu dares not harass our border, and the twelve small states along the Si River pay homage to my state. I have a minister called Panzi. When he defends the city of Gaotang, the people of state Zhao dare not fish on the east Yellow river. I have an official named Qianfu, who guards the city of Xuzhou. The people of the State of Yan pay tributes at the north gate of Xuzhou, and the people of the state of Zhao pay tributes at the west gate of the city. More than seven thousand families have since moved into the city. I also have a minister named Zhongshou. When asked to reduce robbery crimes, he has made the people won’t pick up things that others dropped. I have these four ministers who shine through thousands of miles, not to mention twelve chariots.”
The army of the State of Qin routed the army of the State of Wei, beheading seven thousand soldiers. The State of Qin also captured the city of Shaoliang from the State of Wei.
King Hui of Wei led a campaign against the State of Zhao and laid siege to the city of Handan.
In response to the situation, the King of Chu ordered his general Jin She to come to the aid of the State of Zhao.
Sun Bin and Pang Juan, both students of the art of war in their youth, followed very different paths. While Pang Juan rose to become a general for the State of Wei. Sun Bin‘s superior capabilities ignited Pang Juan‘s jealousy. Pang Juan falsely accused Sun Bin of a crime upon summoning him to Wei. Pang had his feet cut off and branded his face, disabling him for life.
However, fate took a twist when an envoy from the state of Qi arrived in Wei. Sun Bin, though treated as a prisoner, managed to secretly share his story with the envoy. He persuaded the envoy to hide him in his vehicle, enabling Sun Bin to escape to Qi. General Tian Ji extended respect towards Sun Bin and introduced him to King Wei of Qi. The king, recognizing Sun Bin‘s exceptional understanding of warfare, engaged in discussions with him. Impressed by Sun Bin‘s insights, King Wei appointed him as his teacher.
As the discussion turned to aiding the state of Zhao against Wei‘s onslaught, King Wei and General Tian Ji sought Sun Bin‘s counsel. However, Sun Bin, due to his fugitive status, declined the role of a general. Instead, they decided on Tian Ji as the general and Sun Bin as his strategic adviser. Positioned in a caravan, Sun Bin oversaw the military strategies.
When Tian Ji initially planned a direct intervention to defend Zhao, Sun Bin advised against a head-on confrontation: “In the art of warfare, direct frontal assaults are not always the most effective approach. Instead, it is wiser to target the enemy’s vulnerabilities and critical areas, altering the dynamics of the battle by imposing constraints on both sides. This strategic shift can naturally lead to the cessation of hostilities.”
“At this time, the states of Wei and Zhao were locked in conflict along their borders. The youth and most skilled fighters were engaged in this border dispute, leaving the interior areas defended by older and weaker soldiers. Why not take advantage of this situation? Lead our troops swiftly to Wei‘s capital, seize the strategic gateways and thoroughfares of the state, and strike at its exposed weak points. The Wei forces, preoccupied with the defense of their own home, would be compelled to redirect their efforts, abandoning the siege on Zhao. By executing this strategic maneuver, we can not only defeat Wei‘s army but also relieve the siege on Zhao in one decisive move.”
Tian Ji heeded Sun Bin‘s advice. In October of the winter, the city of Handan surrendered to the state of Wei. The Wei army rushed back to its home territory, abandoning their heavy equipment and walking day and night. They walked into a trap set by Qi‘s forces at Guiling. In this ambush, the army of Wei suffered a devastating defeat.
The state of Han raided the sovereign of East Zhou, took the cities of Lingguan and Linqiu.
Zhao Xixu held the position of prime minister in the state of Chu. One day, Jiang Yi addressed the King of Chu with a story: “There is a man who has a deep affection for his dog. Unfortunately, the dog frequently urinates in the well. Observing this, concerned neighbors wished to caution the man about the contamination. However, when they approached his doorstep, the dog fiercely barked and even bit them. In a similar manner, Zhao Xixue behaves like that dog. He vehemently opposes my proposals. Just as your grace would get closer to someone who constantly praises others as he looks like a nobleman, and to avoid someone who constantly criticizes others as they might be unpleasant. There are sons who commit parricide and assistants who betray their lords, but often these matters go unnoticed. Why? Because your grace is inclined to listen to favorable things and averse to hearing unfavorable truths.”
In response, the King of Chu concurred, acknowledging the wisdom in Jiang Yi‘s words: “You are absolutely correct. I should have made an effort to listen to both sides of the story.”
King Xuan of Chu once asked his ministers, “I have heard that the people in the northern regions fear Zhao Xixu. Is this really the case?” The ministers remained silent. Jiang Yi spoke up and said, “The tiger seeks to eat all beasts and captures a fox. The fox says, ‘You wouldn’t dare to eat me. The Heavenly Emperor appointed me to govern all beasts. If you eat me, you are defying the Heavenly Emperor’s command. If you doubt my words, I will go ahead of you, and you can follow behind me. Let’s see if any of the other beasts dare not flee upon seeing me.’ The tiger believed this and followed the fox. When the other beasts saw them, they all fled. The tiger didn’t realize that the beasts feared itself and fled, not the fox. Similarly, although Your Majesty’s realm covers five thousand miles and you have an army of one million soldiers, the northern regions’ fear of Zhao Xixu is actually due to their fear of your mighty military force, just like the beasts’ fear of the tiger.”
Jingshan of Song and Gongsun Cang of Wey joined the forces of Qi. The force of the coalition besieged Wei’s army at Xiangling.
Reflection by Rio Grande 