In May of summer, a general amnesty was proclaimed throughout the empire.
The Xiongnu Chanyu, learning that the Han host advanced in full force, removed all stores and provisions northward to the banks of the Zhiju River. The Left Tuqi King led his people across the Yuwu River, traveling six to seven hundred li, and encamped by Mount Douxian(Khangai). The Chanyu himself led picked troops across the Guqie River. When Shangqiu Cheng’s army arrived, they followed Xiongnu‘s trail, but found nothing and withdrew.
The Xiongnu sent a general together with Li Ling, leading more than thirty thousand cavalry, to pursue the Han forces. They fought for nine days, reaching the Punu River, but suffered defeat and withdrew.
Ma Tong’s army reached the Tianshan Mountains. The Xiongnu dispatched their chief general, Yanqu, with over twenty thousand cavalry to intercept them; seeing the strength of the Han forces, they turned back. Ma Tong returned without gain or loss.
At this time, the court feared that the forces of the Jushi Kingdom might impede Ma Tong’s army. The Emperor sent the Marquis of Kailing, Cheng Mian, to command troops from six states—Loulan, Weili, Weixu, and others—encircling Jushi, seizing its king and people, and then returning.
The army of Ershi General crossed the frontier. The Xiongnu sent the Right Grand Commandant and Wei Lü with five thousand cavalry to attack the Han forces at the gorge of Mount Fuyanggou. The Han army defeated them, driving them north in pursuit to the city of Madame Fan. The Xiongnu fled in disorder, none daring to stand before the Han troops.
When Ershi General set forth, Chancellor Liu Quli prayed to the Road God, held a banquet in his honor, and escorted him to Wei Bridge. Li Guangli said, “I hope the Marquis will soon petition for the Prince of Changyi to be named Crown Prince. Should he ascend the throne, what else would the Marquis then have to worry about?”
But the Chief Usher of the Inner Court, Guo Rang, reported, “The Chancellor’s wife has cast spells upon the Emperor; the Chancellor and Ershi General have offered sacrifices in prayer, plotting to enthrone the Prince of Changyi.” Upon investigation, their crime was judged to be high treason and sacrilege.
In June, an edict commanded that Liu Quli be paraded in a slaughter cart, then waist-chopped in the Eastern Market. The heads of his wife and children were displayed upon Huayang Street. The wife and children of Ershi General were also cast into prison.
Hearing of this, Ershi General grew apprehensive and afraid. His staff officer, Hu Yafu—a convict who had joined the army to escape punishment—urged him, saying, “Your wife and family are under interrogation. Should you return and matters go ill, imprisonment will be your fate. Might you yet find your chance north of the Zhiju River?”
Ershi General’s mind became unsettled. Still hoping to gain merit and seek pardon, he led his forces onward until they reached the Zhiju River. Finding the enemy withdrawn, he sent twenty thousand cavalry, under the Protector of the Army, across the river. They encountered twenty thousand Xiongnu horsemen under the Left Tuqi King and the Left Grand General, and fought a battle that lasted the whole day. The Han forces slew the Left Grand General and inflicted heavy losses.
The Chief of Staff and the Commandant of Juesui, Marquis Huiqu, Lei Dian, conspired against Li Guangli, saying, “Ershi General harbors treacherous designs, seeking private gain at the cost of the host; we fear certain ruin.” They plotted to seize him. On hearing this, Ershi General executed his Chief of Staff, then led his troops back toward Mount Yanran.
The Chanyu, knowing the Han forces to be weary, led fifty thousand cavalry to cut off Ershi General. A great battle was fought, with severe losses on both sides. That night, the Xiongnu dug trenches several feet deep before the Han’s front lines, then attacked from the rear, throwing them into confusion. Ershi General surrendered.
The Chanyu, knowing him to be a foremost general of Han, gave him his daughter in marriage, raising him above Wei Lü. Thereafter, the Emperor exterminated Li Guangli’s entire clan.
In autumn, a plague of locusts occurred.
In September, Gongsun Yong, former Magistrate of Chengfu County, conspired with his client Hu Qian and others to rebel. Hu Qian, feigning to be Grandee of the Chamberlain, claimed to be on imperial orders to apprehend thieves and bandits. Tian Guangming, Prefect of Huaiyang, learned of this and sent troops to seize and execute Hu Qian. Gongsun Yong reached Yu County clad in embroidered robes and riding in a carriage drawn by four great horses; the Sheriff of Yu County, Wei Buhai, put him to death. Wei Buhai and three others were enfeoffed as marquises for their merit.
Reports spread of witchcraft and Gu poison among both officials and commoners, but upon investigation most were found baseless. The Emperor came to understand that the Crown Prince had been driven by menace and bore no treasonous intent.
At this time, Tian Qianqiu, a guard at the Shrine of Emperor Gaozu, submitted an urgent memorial pleading justice for the Crown Prince, saying: “If a son takes his father’s soldiers without approval, he should be whipped; but if the Emperor’s son mistakenly kills a man, is it a crime? I dreamed of an old man with white hair instructing me to lay this matter before Your Majesty.”
The Emperor was deeply moved, summoned Tian Qianqiu, and said, “In the affairs between father and son, few dare to speak; you alone have declared what was unfitting. The spirits of the Temple of Emperor Gaozu sent you to instruct me. Henceforth you shall aid me.” He at once appointed Tian Qianqiu Grand Herald.
The clan of Jiang Chong was exterminated; Su Wen was burned alive upon the Heng Bridge. The official who had brandished arms against the Crown Prince at Quanjiuli had first been promoted to Prefect of Beidi, but later he and his clan were put to death.
The Emperor, moved by compassion for the Crown Prince’s innocence, built the Palace of Missing Son, and in Hu County raised the Terrace of Longing for the Return. Throughout the realm, all who heard of this mourned deeply.
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Zhenghe Era (91 B.C. continued)
The Crown Prince issued a proclamation to the officials, saying, “The Emperor lies ill and in distress at Ganquan Palace. I suspect treacherous ministers are plotting a riot.”
Meanwhile, the Emperor departed Ganquan Palace and proceeded to the Jianzhang Palace west of the city. He summoned troops from the nearby counties of the Three Metropolitan Districts, ordering that all officials of rank two-thousand-picul and below be placed under the command of the Chancellor.
The Crown Prince dispatched envoys bearing forged decrees, proclaiming amnesty to the prisoners in the central prison of Chang’an, and appointing Junior Tutor Shi De, together with his client Zhang Guang, to lead troops. He further sent a convict of Chang’an, Ruhou, bearing his royal scepter, to muster Changshui tribe cavalry battalions stationed at Xuanqu Palace, and bring them to Chang’an.
Palace Gentleman Ma Tong, sent by the Emperor to Chang’an, seized Ruhou. He addressed the nomad cavalrymen, saying, “This order is false; you must not obey it!” Thereupon he executed Ruhou, and led the cavalry into Chang’an. In addition, ship rowers were mustered and placed under the command of the Grand Herald, Shangqiu Cheng.
The sceptres of Han were all of red hue, yet as the Crown Prince also bore a red sceptre, yellow ribbons were bound upon it for distinction.
The Crown Prince halted his chariot before the North Gate of the Northern Army Camp, summoning Ren An, Guardian of the Northern Army, and handed him the tally, commanding him to deploy the troops. Ren An received the tally yet remained within, refusing to open the gate. The Crown Prince then withdrew with his forces, compelling tens of thousands from the four boroughs of Chang’an to follow.
Reaching the western gate of Changle Palace, they encountered the Chancellor’s host. The two sides fought for five days, with corpses strewn in heaps and blood flowing into the gutters. Rumors spread among the populace that the Crown Prince had rebelled; the people ceased to support him, while the Chancellor’s numbers swelled.
On the seventeenth day of the seventh month, the Crown Prince’s army was routed, and he fled south toward the Fu’ang Gate. Tian Ren, Judicial Assistant of the Chancellor, was then closing the gate. Considering the Crown Prince the Emperor’s son, he refrained from rash action and let him pass. The Chancellor sought to execute Tian Ren, but the Grand Master of the Censorate, Bao Shengzhi, said to him, “Tian Ren, a judicial officer of rank two-thousand-picul, ought to be judged with imperial sanction. How can you execute him at will?” The Chancellor thereupon spared Tian Ren.
When the Emperor heard of this, he was enraged and questioned the Grand Master of the Censorate, saying, “The Judicial Administrator let the rebel escape. By law, the Chancellor should have executed him. Why did you intercede?” Bao Shengzhi, fearing retribution, took his own life.
Decrees were issued to the Minister of the Imperial Clan, Liu Chang, and the Bearer of the Mace, Liu Gan, commanding them to take from the Empress the Imperial Seals and Insignia. The Empress, Wei Zifu, thereupon took her own life.
The Emperor held that Ren An, being a seasoned minister, had witnessed the rebellion yet hesitated to act, choosing instead to side with the victor, thus harboring a divided allegiance. Accordingly, Ren An and Tian Ren were both sentenced to death by waist chop.
The Emperor rewarded Ma Tong, who had seized Ruhou; Jing Jian, a man of Chang’an, who had accompanied Ma Tong and captured Shi De; and Shangqiu Cheng, who, after fierce combat, took Zhang Guang alive. Ma Tong was enfeoffed as Marquis of Chonghe, Jing Jian as Marquis of De, and Shangqiu Cheng as Marquis of Du.
All of the Crown Prince’s close retainers and those who frequented the palace gates were put to death. Those who had joined the Crown Prince’s rebellion were exterminated together with their clans. Those coerced or compelled to follow the Crown Prince were judged guilty under the law and banished to Dunhuang Commandery. As the Crown Prince was beyond the walls, troops were stationed at the several gates of Chang’an for the first time.
The Emperor was greatly enraged, and the court was in fear, none knowing what to do. Linghu Mao, Three-Elder of Huguan, submitted a memorial:
“It is said that a father is as Heaven, a mother as Earth, and the children as the myriad beings. When Heaven is tranquil and Earth is at peace, the myriad beings flourish. When the father is kind and the mother loving, the children are filial.
“Now, the Crown Prince, as the appointed heir of Han, bears the charge of a thousand generations, inheriting the solemn charge of the ancestors. In kinship, he is the Emperor’s own son. Jiang Chong, a base man of the alleys, was raised and employed by Your Majesty, entrusted with the highest authority to press and constrain the Crown Prince. Having received the supreme command, he assailed and cornered the Crown Prince, using craft and falsehood, joining with charlatans and deviants to frame him. Thus father and son were sundered, unable to meet. Advancing, the Crown Prince could not see the Emperor; retreating, he was hemmed in by traitorous ministers, left alone in injustice with no place to appeal. Unable to bear his wrath and grief, he rose and slew those who had wronged him. Fearing punishment, he sought to flee. His taking of his father’s troops was solely to preserve himself from mortal peril; I dare assert there was no rebellious intent in his heart.
“As the Book of Songs says: ‘The buzzing flies circle, alighting on the hedge. The noble man, mild and gentle, believes not in slander. Slander unbridled brings disorder to the four quarters.’ In the past, Jiang Chong slandered and slew the Crown Prince of Zhao; this is known throughout the realm. Now Your Majesty, without due reflection, has dealt harshly with the Crown Prince, arousing his great anger, raising a vast host to pursue him, with the Three Excellencies leading the van. The wise dare not speak, and the eloquent dare not present their case; my heart is grieved beyond measure.
“I beg Your Majesty to calm your wrath and find repose. Restore your affection for the Crown Prince; let him not wander in peril for long. I am deeply troubled, and thus I lay forth these words, offering my life with utmost sincerity, awaiting at Jianzhang Palace to receive punishment.”
The memorial was received by the Emperor, stirring in him a sense of awakening, yet he did not at once grant a clear pardon.
The Crown Prince fled eastward to Hu County, hiding in a neighborhood called Quan’jiu’li. The householder was poor and daily sold shoes to provide for the Crown Prince. The Crown Prince had an acquaintance in Hu County who was wealthy, and sent to summon him for aid; this revealed his whereabouts.
On August 8, the local officials surrounded and seized the Crown Prince’s hideout. Knowing there was no escape, the Crown Prince entered a room, shut the door, and hanged himself. A foot soldier, Zhang Fuchang of Shanyang, broke the door open with his foot, and an assistant to the Magistrate of Xin’an, Li Shou, rushed in, holding up the Crown Prince and loosening the cord. The householder fought the intruders with desperate valor and was slain, and both the Crown Prince’s sons were also killed.
The Emperor, grieving for the Crown Prince, ennobled Li Shou as Marquis of Yu, and Zhang Fuchang as Marquis of Ti.
Earlier the Emperor had established Bowang[Broad View] Park for the Crown Prince, so that he might entertain his retainers and follow his inclinations. Many among his clients were not Confucians, and they instilled in him heterodox ideas.
Sima Guang’s commentary: In antiquity, enlightened kings reared their crown princes by selecting men of uprightness and virtue to serve as teachers, guardians, and companions, so that they were together day and night, and all around them were men of propriety and decorum. Yet even so, there were still those who indulged in wantonness and deviancy, bringing upon themselves calamity and ruin. Now the Crown Prince was permitted to associate freely with clients and indulge his own desires—uprightness is hard to befriend, but flattery easily takes root. This is the way of human nature, and it likely brought about the Crown Prince’s unhappy ending.
On August 20, there was an earthquake.
In September, Shangqiu Cheng was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate. Liu Yan, younger son of Prince Jingsu of Zhao(Liu Pengzu), was made Prince of Pinggan.
The Xiongnu raided Shanggu and Wuyuan, slaying and plundering officials and commoners alike.
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Zhenghe Era (91 B.C. continued)
The Emperor, in his fury, ordered the execution of several hundred concubines and high-ranking officials, suspecting their involvement in voodoo and dark arts. Troubled by suspicion, the Emperor once napped by day and dreamt of thousands of wooden figurines wielding sticks, poised to strike him. Startled awake, he was overcome with profound unease, suffering from severe and recurrent bouts of forgetfulness.
Jiang Chong, perceiving himself at odds with the Crown Prince and the Wei clan, feared that upon the Emperor’s passing he would be slain by the Crown Prince. Exploiting the Emperor’s advanced age and malaise, Jiang Chong fabricated a suspicion that the Emperor’s ailments stemmed from Gu poisoning. The Emperor appointed Jiang Chong as his representative to oversee all matters pertaining to witchcraft.
Jiang Chong summoned nomad shamans and witches to dig the ground in search of buried effigies. Those accused of witchcraft, of conducting nocturnal rituals, or of mediumship were apprehended. Jiang Chong himself buried wooden figurines and marked the spots with animal blood; witches claiming to detect spirits would then unearth these figurines. Suspects were seized and subjected to rigorous interrogation and torture. Heated iron pincers were applied to burn the accused, forcing confessions through excruciating torment.
False accusations of witchcraft spread rapidly, with officials hastily branding the accused as monsters. This frenzy led to the deaths of tens of thousands across the capital–the Three Metropolitan Commanderies, and throughout provinces and commanderies.
At this time, the Emperor, advanced in age, grew ever more suspicious, believing Gu poison and spells encircled him from all sides. Whether guilty or innocent, none dared plead their case. Jiang Chong, aware of the Emperor’s troubled mind, enlisted the nomad warlock Tan He, who proclaimed, “Gu air lingers within the palace; unless it is eradicated, the Emperor shall never recover.” Acting upon this, Jiang Chong was granted authority to enter the palace, search the administration hall, dismantle the imperial throne, and excavate the grounds for signs of Gu poison. He was assisted by the Marquis of Andao, Han Yue; censor Zhang Gan; and Yellow Gate eunuch Su Wen.
Jiang Chong first targeted concubines unnoticed by the Emperor, then proceeded to the residences of the Empress and Crown Prince, excavating so extensively that the beds of both found no place in sleeping chambers.
Jiang Chong declared, “Within the Crown Prince’s residence are numerous wooden figurines and written scrolls containing immoral contents; these must be reported.”
Fearful, the Crown Prince sought counsel from his Junior Tutor Shi De. Fearing that both he and his pupil might be condemned, Shi De said to the Crown Prince, “The former Chancellor and his son, along with two princesses and the Wei Kang family, have been punished for this matter. Now, with warlocks and envoys digging up the grounds in search of evidence—whether planted or genuine—there appears to be a cause. We cannot clear ourselves by ordinary means. It would be better to forge a decree, apprehend Jiang Chong and his cohorts, and thoroughly investigate their deceit.”
“Moreover,” Shi De continued, “the Emperor lies ill at Ganquan. The Empress and palace attendants have not seen His Majesty upon their visits, raising doubts as to whether the Emperor yet lives. With traitors at large, does the Crown Prince not recall the fate of Prince Fusu of Qin?”
The Crown Prince replied, “As a son, how can I arbitrarily execute men? Better to return and plead for mercy, hoping to escape without blame.”
As the Crown Prince prepared to depart for Ganquan, Jiang Chong pressed him urgently. Uncertain what to do, the Crown Prince resolved to follow Shi De’s counsel.
In the autumn, on July 7, the Crown Prince dispatched his retainer, who, posing as an envoy from the Emperor, proceeded to arrest Jiang Chong and his associates. The Marquis of Andao, Han Yue, suspecting the envoy’s designs, refused to comply and was slain by the retainer.
The Crown Prince personally oversaw the execution of Jiang Chong, pronouncing a swear: “Barbarian of Zhao! Was sowing discord between the King of Zhao, his father, and son not enough for you? Now you dare to foment turmoil within my own household!”
Furthermore, the Crown Prince consigned the warlock Tan He to flames in Shanglin Park.
He sent his retainer Wuzu, bearing a tally, to infiltrate the Changqiu Gate of the Weiyang Palace under cover of night. Through the lead attendant Yihua, he informed the Empress of the unfolding events. Utilizing chariots from the imperial stables, he transported archers, released weapons from the armory, and mobilized guards from Changle Palace, the Empress’s residence.
Chaos engulfed Chang’an, with rumors rife that the Crown Prince had risen in rebellion. Su Wen fled, escaping to Ganquan Palace, where he reported that the Crown Prince was out of control. The Emperor remarked, “The Crown Prince must be fearful and resentful of Jiang Chong and the others; this is the cause of these disturbances.”
The Emperor then dispatched messengers to summon the Crown Prince. Yet these envoys, fearful to approach, returned of their own accord, reporting, “The Crown Prince’s rebellion has already begun. He sought to kill us, and we fled for our lives.”
Enraged by this news, the Emperor’s fury deepened. Upon hearing of the unrest, Chancellor Liu Quli fled, abandoning his seal and ribbons, and commanded his chief-of-staff to hasten to the Emperor by express mail carriage to report the matter.
The Emperor inquired, “What is the Chancellor doing?”
The chief-of-staff replied, “The Chancellor has kept it a secret and dared not mobilize the troops.”
Thereupon, the Emperor issued a decree to the Chancellor: “Whoever captures or slays the rebels shall be rewarded or punished accordingly. Employ ox carts to barricade the streets; avoid close combat and thus minimize the soldiers’ casualties. Secure the city gates tightly; Don’t let the rebels escape!”
The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Taishi Era (94 B.C. continued)
Jiang Chong of Zhao, was appointed as the Commandant of the Water and Revenue Management. Initially, Jiang Chong had been a client of Prince Jingsu of Zhao, but due to a conflict with Crown Prince Liu Dan of Zhao, he fled and sought refuge. Upon reaching the imperial court, Jiang Chong disclosed the secret misdeeds of Liu Dan, which led to the banishment of the Crown Prince of Zhao.
The Emperor summoned Jiang Chong for an audience. Jiang Chong, with his imposing appearance, dressed in light and luxurious attire, astonished the Emperor. They discussed matters of state, and the Emperor, greatly pleased, found much satisfaction in the conversation. As a result, Jiang Chong gained the Emperor’s favor and was appointed as an embroidery-robed special agent, granted the authority to inspect and scrutinize the extravagance of the nobles and close attendants. Jiang Chong, fearless in his accusations and reports, acted without hesitation, and the Emperor came to view him as loyal and straightforward, finding that his words resonated with the Emperor’s own thoughts.
On one occasion, during an excursion to Ganquan in the company of the Emperor, Jiang Chong encountered an envoy from the Crown Prince‘s household speeding along the imperial express road in a carriage. Jiang Chong, without hesitation, arrested the rule-breaker and brought him to the authorities. Upon hearing of this, the Crown Prince(Liu Ju) sent someone to apologize to Jiang Chong, saying, “It is not that I cherish my chariots and horses, but I truly did not wish for this matter to reach the Emperor’s ears, for it gives the impression that I have failed to properly teach and discipline my attendants. Only Lord Jiang could show such leniency.”
Ignoring the Crown Prince’s plea, Jiang Chong proceeded to report the incident to the Emperor, who, upon hearing the account, praised him, saying, “A minister should indeed act this way!” As a result, Jiang Chong gained immense trust and influence, evoking both awe and fear throughout the capital.
The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Taishi Era (93 B.C.)
In March of spring, the Emperor traveled to Mount Tai. On March 25, he conducted sacrificial rites at the Temple of Heaven to honor Emperor Gaozu, as a complement to the worship of the Supreme Deity, followed by receiving the financial records of the principalities and commanderies.
On the following day, March 26, he performed sacrificial rites at the Bright Hall to honor Emperor Jing. On March 27, he oversaw the repair and expansion of the Heaven Altar. On March 29, he made offerings at Mount Shilǘ for the Earth Deity.
In April of summer, he traveled to Mount Buji. In May, he returned and visited the Jianzhang Palace, issuing a general amnesty.
During the winter, on October 30, a solar eclipse occurred.
In December, the Emperor traveled to Yong and conducted sacrifices at the Five Deity Altars, proceeding westward to An’ding and Beidi.
The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Zhenghe Era (92 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor returned and visited the Jianzhang Palace.
Liu Pengzu married Consort Nao, a consort favored by King Yi of Jiangdu(Liu Fei), and gave birth to a son named Liu Naozi. At that time, Consort Nao’s brother was an eunuch in the Han court. The Emperor summoned him and inquired about Liu Naozi’s character. He responded, “He has excessive desires.”
The Emperor commented, “Excessive desires are unsuitable for a Prince who rules over his subjects.”
He then asked about the Marquis of Wushi, Liu Chang, and the response was, “Neither Notorious nor distinguished.”
The Emperor remarked, “That would be acceptable,” and thus appointed Liu Chang as the Prince of Zhao.
In the summer, a severe drought afflicted the land. While residing in the Jianzhang Palace, the Emperor observed a man bearing a sword entering the Middle Longhua Gate. Suspecting him to be an intruder, the Emperor ordered his arrest. The man, dropping the sword, fled and evaded pursuit. Enraged by this incident, the Emperor commanded the execution of the gatekeeper.
In November of winter, the Three Metropolitan Mounted Guard conducted a thorough search of Shanlin Park. The gates of Chang’an were sealed for eleven days during this operation. Thus commenced the prosecution of witchcraft Gu(Kodoku) poisoning throughout the realm.
Chancellor Gongsun He’s wife, Wei Junru, was the elder sister of Empress Wei, by whose favor Gongsun He gained prominence. His son, Gongsun Jingsheng, succeeded him as Grand Coachman but behaved with extravagance and lawlessness, misappropriating nineteen million coins from the treasury of the Northern Army. Upon discovery, he was arrested.
At that time, an urgent order was issued to apprehend the valiant knight-errant Zhu Anshi of Yangling. Gongsun He volunteered to capture Zhu Anshi in hopes of redeeming his son’s crime, and the Emperor consented.
Subsequently, Zhu Anshi was captured. Mocking Gongsun He with a smirk, he declared, “The Chancellor’s misfortune shall extend to his household!” From prison, Zhu Anshi submitted a memorial accusing Gongsun Jingsheng of an illicit affair with Princess Yangshi, the Emperor’s daughter, and of plotting nefarious deeds during the Emperor’s sojourn at Ganquan. He further charged that Gongsun Jingsheng instructed a witch to bury figurines along the road, casting a wicked spell against the Emperor.
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Zhenghe Era (91 B.C.)
In January of spring, Gongsun He was imprisoned. Officials were dispatched to interrogate and investigate the case. Both father and son perished in custody, and their family was eradicated. The Prefect of Zhuojun, Liu Quli, was appointed Left Chancellor and granted the title Marquis of Peng. Liu Quli was a son of Prince Jing of Zhongshan, Liu Sheng.
In April of summer, a great windstorm arose, blowing off roofs and toppling trees.
In the intercalary month, Princess Zhuyi, Princess Yangshi, both were daughter of Express Wei, and Wei Kang, Marquis of Changping and son of Wei Qing, were all implicated in the witchcraft Gu Poison case and subsequently executed.
The Emperor then embarked on a tour to Ganquan.
At the age of twenty-nine, the Emperor begot a son, Liu Ju, whom he dearly cherished and designated as Crown Prince. As the prince grew, he exhibited qualities of benevolence, forgiveness, warmth, and prudence. Yet the Emperor harbored suspicions that the prince lacked the abilities and talents befitting a ruler and was unlike himself. The Emperor’s favor gradually shifted toward the sons born of Madame Wang, Liu Hong, and of Consort Li, Liu Dan, Liu Xu, and of Madame Li, Liu Bo.
The Empress Wei and the Crown Prince, as a consequence, fell from favor and lived in constant apprehension. Perceiving this, the Emperor confided in Grand Marshal Wei Qing, saying, “The foundation of the Han remains fragile. With the four barbarians encroaching upon our lands, unless I reform the system, future generations will lack legal means to govern. Without campaigns to conquer, the realm will not know peace. Such undertakings necessarily burden the people. Should my successors follow my path, they will repeat the fall of Qin. The Crown Prince is diligent, respectful, and a peace-lover. He will surely bring stability and relieve me of anxiety. Who better than the Crown Prince to seek as ruler, one who cherishes culture and virtue? I hear murmurs that the Empress and Crown Prince harbor unease. Is this true? You must explain my intent to them.”
The Grand Marshal Wei Qing bowed deeply and expressed gratitude. Upon learning of this, the Empress removed her hairpin and entreated forgiveness. Whenever the Crown Prince counseled against campaigns to conquer neighboring barbarians, the Emperor would laugh, saying, “I will take the hardship, so that you may live a carefree life. Isn’t that nice?”
When the Emperor embarked on his tours, he often entrusted the affairs of state to the Crown Prince and domestic matters to the Empress. Once decisions were made, upon the Emperor’s return, the Crown Prince would report the most important matters. For the most part, the Emperor showed no dissent, though occasionally he overlooked certain items.
The Emperor enforced strict laws and entrusted officials known for their ruthlessness and severity. On the other hand, the Crown Prince’s leniency and fairness in many judgments earned him favor among the people, which those ministers inclined towards harsh enforcement took umbrage. The Empress, fearing the long-term consequences, repeatedly admonished the Crown Prince to heed the Emperor’s intentions and not act upon his own preferences. When the Emperor learned of this, he sided with the Crown Prince over the Empress.
Many tolerant and seasoned courtiers supported the Crown Prince, while the harsh law enforcers disparaged him. Corrupt officials formed alliances, resulting in the Crown Prince receiving little praise and abundant criticism. After the passing of Wei Qing, with no external support to check these alliances, they conspired against the Crown Prince.
The Emperor seldom interacted with his sons, and the Empress rarely saw him. On one occasion, when the Crown Prince visited the Empress and remained for a lengthy time, the Yellow Gate Attendant Su Wen reported to the Emperor, “The Crown Prince frolics with palace maids.” In response, the Emperor increased the number of palace maids to two hundred for the Crown Prince. When the Crown Prince later learned of this, he bore a grudge against Su Wen.
Su Wen, together with the inner Yellow Gate Attendants Chang Rong, Wang Bi, and others, frequently kept close watch on the Crown Prince’s actions, reporting even the slightest impropriety to the Emperor. Enraged, the Empress instructed the Crown Prince to execute Su Wen and his cohorts. Yet the Crown Prince replied, “If I have committed no fault, why should I fear Su Wen? The Emperor is wise and does not heed deceitful words. There is no cause for concern.”
Once, when the Emperor felt faintly unwell, he commanded Chang Rong to summon the Crown Prince. Upon Chang Rong’s return, he reported, “The Crown Prince appeared happy,” which displeased the Emperor, though he spoke no word. When the Crown Prince arrived, the Emperor observed his demeanor and detected traces of tears beneath his feigned cheerfulness. Puzzled, the Emperor inquired further, and upon learning the truth, ordered the execution of Chang Rong.
Though long fallen from favor, the Empress remained skilled in self-preservation, avoiding suspicion and continuing to receive respectful treatment.
At that time, diviners, shamans, and witches swarmed the capital, practicing deceitful black magic and leading the people astray with their cunning arts. Female witches often visited the palace, instructing the beauties of the harem in methods to avert misfortune, burying wooden figurines as offerings in every house. Spurred by jealousy and resentment, they traded accusations and malicious slanders, alleging that curses had been cast upon the Emperor—an offense most heinous.
The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Tianhan Era (98 B.C.)
In February of spring, the Grand Master of the Censorate, Wang Qing, accused of grave offenses, ended his life by suicide. In his stead, Du Zhou, the Bearer of the Mace, was appointed as the new Grand Master of the Censorate.
The monopoly on the sale of alcohol was established for the first time, consolidating the state’s control over this trade.
In March, the Emperor, embarking on an auspicious journey, ascended Mount Tai. There, he expanded the altar, performed rituals at the Bright Hall, and received statistics and registration accounts from commanderies and princedoms. Upon his return, he made a pilgrimage to Changshan, where he interred black jades. Although diviners and seekers of the mythical land of Penglai continuously pursued their quest, none succeeded in their efforts. However, Gongsun Qing persistently interpreted signs of giants as omens of great portent. Though the Emperor, weary and increasingly disenchanted with the eccentric and fantastical language of the diviners, kept them close in hopes of witnessing true abilities, his interest waned. Following this, an increasing number of diviners claimed the power to communicate with spirits, though their effectiveness remained unpromising as expected.
In April of summer, a severe drought ravaged the land. In response, the Emperor issued a general amnesty, extending mercy to the populace.
In the autumn, the Xiongnu launched an invasion of Yanmen Pass. The Prefect of Yanmen, charged with cowardice in the face of the enemy, was publicly executed as a warning to others.
The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Tianhan Era (97 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor convened a court at Ganquan Palace with various feudal lords in attendance.
The Emperor, seeking to augment his forces, dispatched seven categories of outcasts—convicted officials, escaped prisoners, matrilocal son-in-laws, merchants, former merchants, and those with a merchant father or grandfather—along with brave volunteers from the seven provinces, to serve in the army. Ershi GeneralLi Guangli, leading sixty thousand cavalry and seventy thousand infantry, set forth from the Shuofang. The Commandant of the strong cross-bow, Lu Bode, with more than ten thousand soldiers, was assigned to rendezvous with Ershi General. Guerrilla General Han Yue, commanding thirty thousand infantry from Wuyuan, and Yinyu General Gongsun Ao, with ten thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry from Yanmen, also joined the expedition.
Upon learning of this mobilization, the Xiongnu relocated their possessions and families far to the north of the Yuwu River, while the Chanyu stationed his forces, numbering one hundred thousand, to the south of the river, preparing to confront Ershi General. After prolonged engagements lasting more than ten days, Ershi General was forced to retreat and return. Guerrilla General failed to gain any advantage in his maneuvers, and Yinyu General, having fought against the Left Tuqi King without success, eventually withdrew.
The Emperor dispatched Gongsun Ao deep into Xiongnu territory to seek out Li Ling. However, Gongsun Ao‘s mission yielded no results, and he reported, “I captured live captives who spoke of Li Ling advising the Chanyu to prepare troops against the Han army, but my efforts achieved nothing.” Upon hearing this, the Emperor ordered the execution of Li Ling‘s entire clan. Subsequently, it was discovered that the Han defector who had advised the Xiongnu was not Li Ling, but rather Li Xu. In response, Li Ling sent an agent and assassinated Li Xu.
Great Yanzhi, the Chanyu’s mother, sought to execute Li Ling, but the Chanyu concealed him in the northern regions. After the death of Great Yanzhi, Li Ling returned. The Chanyu, in recognition of Li Ling‘s service, married his daughter to him and appointed him as the Right Tuqi King, granting him substantial power alongside Wei Lü. While Wei Lü remained at the Chanyu’s side, Li Ling resided outside the Chanyu’s court, only entering to discuss matters of great importance.
In April of summer, the Emperor designated his son, Liu Bo, as the King of Changyi.
The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Taishi Era (96 B.C.)
In January of spring, Gongsun Ao was put to death by waist chop for the crime of his wife, who practiced the black magic of Gu, using venomous vermin to poison others.
Nobles and elites from various regions were relocated to the Mao Mausoleum.
In the sixth month of summer, a general amnesty was granted across the entire nation.
During this year, the Chanyu of the Xiongnu, Qiedihou, passed away, leaving behind two sons. The elder son was titled the Left Tuqi King, and the younger one, the Left Grand General. However, as the Left Tuqi King had not yet arrived, some nobles, suspecting an illness, proclaimed the Left Grand General as the new Chanyu. Upon hearing this, the Left Tuqi King hesitated to advance. The Left Grand General sent for the Left Tuqi King, offering his position. The Left Tuqi King, citing his illness, declined, but the Left Grand General insisted, saying, “If by ill fortune you die, then I shall succeed you.” The Left Tuqi King, accepting the offer, ascended to the throne as Hulugu Chanyu. The Left Grand General was made the Left Tuqi King, a position he held for several years until his death due to illness. His son, Xian’xian’shan, was unable to succeed him as the Left Tuqi King and was instead appointed as the Rizhu King. The Chanyu himself designated his own son as the Left Tuqi King.
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Taishi Era (95 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor embarked on a journey to visit Huizhong Palace.
Du Zhou passed away, and the Grand Master of Chamberlain, Bao Shengzhi, was appointed as the Grand Master of the Censorate.
During the autumn, a severe drought ravaged the land.
The Grandee of the Palace in the Principality of Zhao, Bai Gong, proposed the construction of a canal to divert water from the Jing River. The canal was to originate from Gukou and end in Yueyang, flowing into the middle of the Wei River. It stretched for approximately two hundred li, irrigating over four thousand five hundred acres of farmland. The canal, named the Bai Canal, brought prosperity to the people.
The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Taishi Era (94 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor traveled to Ganquan Palace. In February, he journeyed to Donghai and caught a red goose. He then visited Langya, performed rites to worship the Sun at Mount Cheng, ascended Mount Zhifu(island), sailed upon the sea, and eventually returned.
During this year, the Prince Liu Fuling, was born. His mother, Consort Zhao of Hejian, resided in the Gouyi Palace and gave birth after a gestation of fourteen months. The Emperor, upon hearing of this, remarked, “I have heard that Emperor Yao was born after fourteen months of pregnancy, and now, in Gouyi Palace, the same has just occurred.” Accordingly, he named the gate of her residence the Gate of Mother Yao.
Sima Guang’s commentary: For a ruler, every action and decision must be carefully considered, for what occurs within the court will invariably manifest outwardly, known to all. At that time, both the Empress and the Crown Prince were in good health, yet the naming of the gate of Gouyi Palace as the Gate of Mother Yao was ill-advised. This act exposed the Emperor’s extraordinary affection for the youngest son, thereby allowing cunning ministers to probe his intentions. Such knowledge gave rise to schemes that ultimately endangered the Empress and the Crown Prince, leading to the calamity of Gu poisoning. What a tragic outcome!
Sima Qian’s Tomb and Ancestral Temple, Photo by dayu490301
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Tianhan Era (99 B.C. continued)
Li Guang had a grandson named Li Ling, who served as a privy counselor and was skilled in horse riding and archery. He had a good rapport with common soldiers. The Emperor, noticing his similarity to Li Guang‘s character, appointed him as the Commandant of Cavalry. Li Ling was tasked with leading five thousand men from Danyang and Chu areas to train in archery at Jiuquan and Zhangye to prepare against the Xiongnu.
During the campaign against the Xiongnu, the Emperor issued a decree to Li Ling, intending to make him responsible for leading the supply train for Ershi General‘s army. Li Ling kowtowed and pleaded, “The soldiers I command stationed at the border are all brave warriors from Jingzhou and Chu, with exceptional swordsmanship skills. They can wrestle with tigers and hit the mark with their arrows. I request to lead a detachment, heading to the south of Mount Lanyu, to divide the Chanyu’s forces and prevent them from solely targeting Ershi General’s army.”
The Emperor replied, “You don’t like to be under another commander, do you? I have already dispatched so many troops and have no cavalry to spare for you.”
Li Ling countered, “Without cavalry, I am willing to lead a small force against a large one. I will take five thousand infantry to confront the Chanyu in his court.”
The Emperor, in a moment of inspiration, granted his request.
He then ordered Lu Bode to lead troops to meet Li Ling halfway. However, Lu Bode felt embarrassed to trail behind Li Ling, so he reported, “It is still in autumn, the Xiongnu‘s horses are fat and strong, it’s not suitable for battle yet. I propose keeping Li Ling‘s forces until spring before setting out together.”
The Emperor, angered and suspicious that Li Ling was chickened out, reluctant to engage and telling Lu Bode to propose delay, decreed Lu Bode to lead troops to fight the Xiongnu in the Xihe immediately.
Li Ling received the decree to depart in September. The Emperor ordered him to set out from the Juyan Pass, reaching the Longle River south of the East Mount Junji, scouting the enemy territory, and returning if not encountering any adversaries, resting the troops in the “Home of Defectors” city.
Li Ling led his five thousand infantrymen leaving Juyan Pass, traveling north for thirty days until they reached a stop at Mount Junji. He charted the topography of the mountains and rivers along the way, instructing his cavalry subordinate Chen Bule to bring the map to the Emperor. Upon meeting the Emperor, Chen Bule praised Li Ling‘s leadership and the efforts of his soldiers who risked their lives. The Emperor was greatly pleased and appointed Chen Bule as a Palace Gentleman.
Li Ling arrived at Mount Junji, encountering the Chanyu’s forces. The Xiongnu had around thirty thousand cavalry surrounding Li Ling‘s army, positioned between two mountains with their camp fortified using large chariots. Li Ling arranged his soldiers outside the camp in formation, with the front rows holding spears and shields while the rear rows carried bows and crossbows. Seeing the smaller Han army, the enemy charged straight towards the camp. Li Ling engaged them in battle, launching a volley of a thousand crossbows, causing chaos among the enemy ranks. The Xiongnu retreated uphill, with the Han forces pursuing and killing thousands.
The Chanyu, alarmed, summoned more than eighty thousand cavalry from the left and right flanks to attack Li Ling. Li Ling fought while retreating southwards for several days, reaching a mountain valley where continuous battles occurred, and his soldiers suffered arrow wounds. Those with three wounds were carried to chariots, those with two wounds driving the chariots, and those with one continued fighting. They beheaded over three thousand enemies.
Leading his troops southeastward, following the former Longcheng Road for four to five days, Li Ling arrived at a vast marshland with reeds. The Xiongnu set fire from an advantageous position, and Li Ling ordered his army to do the same for defense. Continuing southward to the foothills, the Chanyu was positioned on a southern hill and sent his son to lead a cavalry attack against Li Ling. Li Ling‘s forces fought amidst the trees and killed thousands more. Li Ling then unleashed a barrage of crossbows toward the Chanyu, forcing him to retreat downhill.
On that day, the Han soldiers captured a Xiongnu soldier who reported, “The Chanyu said, ‘These are elite Han soldiers. We cannot defeat them. They continually draw us southward near the border. Could they not have ambushes waiting for us?’ All the Xiongnu chiefs and leaders agreed, ‘The Chanyu himself led tens of thousands of riders against a few thousand Han soldiers, and yet he couldn’t eliminate them. There’s no way to send generals to the frontier later, making Han further disdainful of the Xiongnu. Let’s fight fiercely in the mountain valleys, it is forty to fifty lis before we reach the plain. If we couldn’t conquer them by then, we will turn back.’”
The situation for Li Ling‘s army grew increasingly dire. With numerous Xiongnu cavalry attacks occurring multiple times a day, they managed to kill over two thousand enemy soldiers. The Xiongnu leaders were frustrated, and they intended to withdraw. However, at that critical moment, a Han officer named Guan Gan, who had been insulted by Colonel Han Yannian, defected to the Xiongnu and revealed crucial information. He told them, “The army led by Li Ling has no reinforcements, their arrows are almost depleted. Only General Li Ling and Colonel Han Yannian, the Marquis of Cheng’an leading eight hundred men each as the front line, identified by their yellow and white flags. They are the ones to shoot at; once they’re down, victory will be certain.”
The Chanyu was delighted upon hearing this and ordered a full-on assault against the Han army, loudly urging, “Li Ling, Han Yannian, surrender quickly!” They immediately blocked Li Ling‘s path and attacked fiercely. Li Ling was in a valley, while the Xiongnu were on the mountain, shooting arrows from all directions like rain fall. As the Han army moved southward and before reaching Mount Dihan, their five hundred thousand arrows were exhausted within a single day, and they abandoned their chariots. With only over three thousand men remaining, soldiers broke the chariot axles and carried them as cudgels, civil clerks held scribe knives as weapons. They advanced toward the mountains, entering a narrow valley where the Chanyu blocked their retreat, throwing rocks from the mountains, resulting in many deaths among the Han soldiers, preventing them from advancing.
After dusk, Li Ling, dressed plainly, walked out of the camp alone, saying, “Don’t follow me! I will take on the Chanyu man-to-man!” After some time, Li Ling returned, sighed deeply, and said, “The battle is lost; death is imminent!” He then proceeded to cut down all the banners and buried the treasures in the ground. Li Ling lamented, “If only I could find dozens of arrows, I could escape. Now, without soldiers for battle, by daybreak, I will be captured and bound. Why don’t we disperse like birds and animals, some of us might manage to escape and report to the Emperor.”
He instructed his soldiers to carry two liters of grain and a piece of ice each, agreeing to rendezvous at the defense barrier at the border. At midnight, when Li Ling beat the drums to issue commands, the drums were broken and failed to make a sound. Both Li Ling and Han Yannian mounted their horses, accompanied by around ten brave men. Several thousand Xiongnu cavalry pursued them, and in the ensuing battle, Han Yannian perished. Li Ling, realizing the situation and said to himself: “I have no dignity to face the Emperor”, surrendered, and the soldiers scattered, with over four hundred managing to escape to the border.
The place of Li Ling‘s defeat was over a hundred li (approximately 50 kilometers) towards the border and his situation was widely known to the frontier. The Emperor wished Li Ling to fight to the death. However, upon hearing of Li Ling‘s surrender, the Emperor was greatly angered and interrogated Chen Bule. Unable to withstand the pressure, Chen Bule committed suicide.
All court officials blamed Li Ling, and the Emperor asked Sima Qian, the Grand Astronomer, for his opinion.
Sima Qian defended Li Ling, “Li Ling was filial to his family, loyal to his soldiers, and always showed selfless dedication to the urgent needs of the country. His inherent qualities were those of a true patriot. Unfortunately, in this instance of adversity, those who have selfishly protected themselves and their families rush to exploit his shortfall. It’s truly regrettable! Moreover, Li Ling led less than five thousand soldiers, facing tens of thousands of enemies. The Xiongnu neglected tending to their wounded and deceased so as to mobilize their full populace to encircle Li Ling. Li Ling still fought a thousand-li journey. When their arrows were depleted and the path blocked, the soldiers stood empty-handed, risking their lives, fighting valiantly against their northern adversaries. The power of the soldiers’ sacrificial bravery in the face of death rivals that of renowned ancient generals. Though Li Ling himself faced defeat, his conquests and defeats are enough to win admiration of the world. The fact that he did not die perhaps signifies his wish to have the opportunity to repay the court in the future.”
The Emperor charged Sima Qian with falsehood, alleging that he had conspired to slander the Ershi General and plead on behalf of Li Ling, and sentenced him to be castrated.
After some time, regretting that Li Ling had received no assistance, the Emperor proclaimed, “When Li Ling exited the borders. I should have issued an edict for the Commandant of Strong Crossbows Lu Bode to go after him as reinforcement. My edict was issued too early, inciting old general Lu Bode to be jealous, acting dishonorably.” He then sent envoys to reward and honor those remaining soldiers of Li Ling‘s army who managed to escape.
The Emperor, enforcing strict laws, favored the use of austere officials, and as a result, many of the prime ministers and prefects in charge of the commanderies and principalities, holding ranks of 2000 piculs, were generally cruel and oppressive. This led to the people and officials increasingly disregarding the law. Bandits and thieves in the eastern regions multiplied, forming large groups of several thousand gangs, attacking cities and towns, seizing armories, releasing prisoners on death row, and humiliating the county magistrates and commandants, leading to the killing of officials holding the rank of 2000 piculs. Smaller gangs, each numbering in the hundreds, pillaged countless villages and neighborhoods, making the roads impassable.
Initially, the Emperor tasked the Chief of Censorate and the Chief of Staff of the Chancellor to supervise the public safety, but they couldn’t control it. Subsequently, the Emperor dispatched his special agents, the Grandee of Chamberlain, Fan Kun, and former Nine Ministers, such as Zhang De, donned in embroidered silk clothing, holding the sceptres and tiger seals, to raise armies and suppress the uprising. The beheading of a large number of individuals, some exceeding ten thousand, was followed by the legal execution of those who were complicit in communications, provisions, or any other connections, with several thousand people in the various commanderies facing punishment. After several years, they managed to capture some of the leaders, but many of the scattered gangs, who had lost contact, regrouped and formed bands, retreating to strongholds in the mountains and on rivers, often gathering in large numbers. There was nothing that could be done to stop them by the government.
The Emperor issued the “Law of Life Censure,” which stated, “In the case of banditry arising without being reported, or if discovered but not fully resolved, officials ranging from 2000 piculs rank to minor officials shall face the death penalty.”
Following this law, the fear of punishment among lower officials became widespread, resulting in instances where even if theft occurred, they dared not report it, fearing their inability to resolve it would lead to punishment. The commandery officials, afraid of being implicated, refrained county magistrates from reporting such incidents. Consequently, the numbers of bandits and thieves increased as both high-ranking officials and ordinary citizens concealed crimes through crafty speech to evade punishment.
At that time, Bao Shengzhi, who was directly appointed by the Emperor as an agent. He executed an unusual number of 2000-picul ranked officials, establishing a strong authority over the commanderies and principalities. Upon reaching Bohai Commandery, he heard about a man named Juan Buyi, who was highly esteemed by the locals and requested an audience with him. Juan Buyi had a dignified appearance and wore impressive attire. When Bao Shengzhi heard Juan Buyi was coming to meet him, Bao Shengzhi rose to greet him without properly tying his shoes. After sitting down, Juan Buyi pushed up from the floor and said, “Even lying low on the coast, I have long heard of the fame of Bao Gongzi(Bao Shengzhi’s courtesy name). Today, I humbly receive your audience. In serving as an official, if one is overly rigid, people tend to break out; if too yielding, the law is not enforced. To establish one’s achievements and fame enduringly, wield authority tempered with kindness.” Bao Shengzhi deeply appreciated his admonition.
At that time, Bao Shengzhi, who was directly appointed by the Emperor as an agent. He executed an unusual number of 2000-picular ranked officials, establishing a strong authority over the commanderies and principalities. Upon reaching Bohai Commandery, he heard about a man named Juan Buyi, who was highly esteemed by the locals and requested an audience with him. Juan Buyi had a dignified appearance and wore impressive attire. When Bao Sheng heard Juan Buyi was coming to meet him, Bao Shengzhi rose to greet him without properly tying his shoes. After sitting down, Juan Buyi pushed up from the floor and said, “Even lying low on the coast, I have long heard of the fame of Bao Gongzi(Bao Shengzhi’s courtesy name). Today, I humbly receive your audience. In serving as an official, if one is overly rigid, they tend to break; if too yielding, they are useless. To establish one’s achievements and fame enduringly, wield authority tempered with kindness.” Bao Shengzhi deeply appreciated his admonition.
Upon his return, Bao Shengzhi recommended Juan Buyi. The Emperor summoned Juan Buyi and appointed him as the Inspector of Qingzhou. Similarly, Wang He of Ji’nan, also served as a censor in embroidery, chasing and capturing bandits in Wei Commandery. He had released and pardoned many of them, contrary to the requirements of his mission. He was dismissed. He sighed, “I’ve heard that saving a thousand lives earns a title for one’s descendants. I’ve saved more than ten thousand lives; will there be a future reward for my posterity?”In that year, the Han court bestowed the title of Marquis of Kailiang upon Cheng Wan, the Jiehe King of the Xiongnu who defected to the Han. Cheng Wan led troops from the Loulan kingdom to attack Cheshi. However, the Xiongnu dispatched the Right Tuqi King with tens of thousands of cavalry to reinforce Cheshi. The Han forces did not fare well in the encounter and subsequently withdrew from the conflict.
The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Tianhan Era (100 B.C.)
In January of the spring, the Emperor embarked on an excursion to Ganquan Palace, performing the suburban sacrifices at Five Deities Altar. In March, he proceeded to Hedong, offering sacrifices to the Earth Deity.
The Emperor praised Xiongnu Chanyu for his righteousness. He sent General of Household Su Wu to escort the Xiongnu envoys who came to the court back to the Xiongnu, and offered substantial gifts to the Chanyu as a response to his goodwill. Su Wu was accompanied by his deputy, General of Household Zhang Sheng, as well as valet Chang Hui and others. Once they reached the Xiongnu territory, they presented the gifts to the Chanyu. However, the Chanyu became more insolent, which was not what the Han had hoped for.
Gou Wang(Hunye King’s nephew), Yu Chang from Changshui tribe, and Wei Lǜ, together with those who surrendered under the command of Wei Lǜ, secretly conspired to abduct Chanyu’s mother, Yanzhi, and bring her back to the Han. Wei Lǜ, whose father was originally an aboriginal Xiongnu from the Changshui tribe, was a good friend of the Commandant of Harmony Tune (court music instrument tuner)Li Yannian. Li Yannian recommended Wei Lǜ as ambassador to Xiongnu. Wei Lǜ went to the Xiongnu, but upon learning that Li Yannian’s family was detained on his way back, Wei Lǜ fled and surrendered to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu admired him and involved him in state affairs, eventually establishing him as King of Dingling.
While Yu Chang was in the Han court, he had a prior acquaintance with the Deputy Envoy Zhang Sheng. In private, Yu Chang told Zhang Sheng, “I heard that the Han Emperor hated Wei Lǜ. I am capable of assassinating Wei Lǜ with a hidden crossbow for the Han. My mother and brother are in Han; hopefully, they will receive rewards.” Zhang Sheng agreed and awarded Yu Chang with goods.
A month later, during a hunting trip by the Chanyu where only Yanzhi and her children remained behind, Yu Chang and around seventy others intended to carry out their plan. However, one person among them fled during the night and reported their plan to the Chanyu’s sons, who then mobilized troops and fought against Gou Wang and the others. Gou Wang and the conspirators died, but Yu Chang was captured alive.
The Chanyu ordered Wei Lü to handle the case. When Zhang Sheng learned of this, fearing the exposure of their previous conversation, he informed Su Wu. Su Wu said, “As it happens like this, it will certainly implicate me. To be accused of crimes as an ambassador is an insult to the state.” He wanted to commit suicide, but Zhang Sheng and Chang Hui stopped him.
Yu Chang indeed implicated Zhang Sheng. The Chanyu was furious and summoned his nobles to discuss killing the Han envoys. Left Yizhizi King said, “What would be the penalty for plotting against the Chanyu, if we kill the envoy for plotting against Wei Lǜ? It’s better to force them all to surrender.”
The Chanyu sent Wei Lü to pass his words to Su Wu. Su Wu said to Chang Hui and others, “To compromise my integrity and endure this humiliation, even if I live, how can I face the Han?” He drew his dagger and stabbed himself.
Wei Lü, startled, held Su Wu and rushed to summon a doctor, dug a pit in the ground, lit a charcoal fire, and placed Su Wu above it, pressing on his back to extract blood. Su Wu lost consciousness, but after half a day, he regained consciousness. Chang Hui and others wept as they escorted Su Wu back to camp. The Chanyu admired Su Wu‘s character, sent people to inquire about Su Wu‘s condition morning and night, and imprisoned only Zhang Sheng.
Su Wu‘s health improved, and the Chanyu sent messengers to inform him, expressing a desire for him to surrender. During sentencing of Yu Chang, they intended to use this opportunity to persuade Su Wu to surrender. After beheading Yu Chang with a sword, Wei Lü stated, “The Han envoy Zhang Sheng plotted to assassinate a close advisor of the Chanyu. He deserves death, but the Chanyu offers amnesty to those who surrender.”
When Wei Lü raised his sword to strike, Zhang Sheng pleaded for surrender. Wei Lü said to Su Wu, “The deputy ambassador is guilty, and you are both co-conspirators.”
Su Wu replied, “There was no conspiracy, and he’s not my relative. Why am I implicated?”
Wei Lü raised his sword again, and Su Wu remained unmoved. Wei Lü continued, “Mr. Su, I previously betrayed the Han to join the Xiongnu, received great favor, was given a king title, and amassed tens of thousands of followers and countless horses, enjoying such wealth and status! If you surrender today, tomorrow will be the same for you. If not surrendering, You would waste away in the wilderness, and who would know about it?”
Su Wu remained silent. Wei Lü said, “If you surrender because of me, we’ll be brothers. If you don’t listen to my advice now, even if you wish to see me later, will it be possible?”
Su Wu cursed Wei Lü, “As a subject, you disregard loyalty and righteousness, betray your lord and family, and surrender to barbarians! How can you face anyone? The Chanyu trusts you, letting you decide life and death, but instead of being fair and just, you instigate between two lords, watching disaster unfold. When the Nanyue killed Han envoys, they were exterminated; when the King of Dayuan killed Han envoys, his head was hung at the northern gate; when Gojoseon killed Han envoys, they were swiftly wiped out; only the Xiongnu haven’t faced this fate yet. If you know I won’t surrender, you still push to instigate conflict between the two nations, the calamity of the Xiongnu will start with my death.”
Wei Lü realized Su Wu wouldn’t be coerced, reported to the Chanyu, and the Chanyu grew more eager for his surrender. They confined Su Wu in a deep pit, cutting off food and drink. During a snowfall, Su Wu lay down, chewing snow and eating wool on his jacket, surviving for several days. The Xiongnu believed him to be divine, relocating him to a deserted place by the Northern Sea(Lake Baikal), allowing him to shepherd only male goats, saying, “Only when the male goats produce milk can you return.” They dispersed Su Wu‘s subordinates, including Chang Hui, to various locations.
White curly wools fell from the sky.
During the summer, there was a severe drought.
In May, a general amnesty was declared throughout the country.
Convicts were sent out to the border garrisons in Wuyuan commandery as a form of punishment and exile.
Zhao Ponu, the Marquis of Zhuoye, escaped from the Xiongnu and returned to the Han.
In this year, Wang Qing, the Prefect of Ji’nan, was appointed as the Grand Master of Censorate.
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Tianhan Era (99 B.C.)
In spring, the Emperor traveled to the East Ocean. On his way back, he took Huizhong road.
In May of summer, Ershi General, Li Guangli, was dispatched with thirty thousand cavalry from Jiuquan. They attacked the Right Tuqi King of Xiongnu at the Tianshan Mountains, capturing more than ten thousand enemy soldiers before returning. The Xiongnu trapped Ershi General in a siege, causing a shortage of food in the Han army for several days, resulting in numerous casualties.
Acting as the Marshal, Zhao Chongguo from Longxi led over a hundred men to break the siege and breach the enemy lines. Ershi General followed Zhao Chongguo with his forces, successfully breaking the siege. However, around sixty to seventy percent of Han soldiers died, and Zhao Chongguo sustained more than twenty wounds. Upon reading Ershi General‘s report, the Emperor summoned Zhao Chongguo to the court, personally examined his cuts and bruises, expressed sorrow for his condition, and appointed him as the Gentleman of Household.
The Han court once again sent Yinyu General Gongsun Ao to venture out from the Xihe and join forces with Qiangnu[Strong Crossbow] General, Lu Bode, at Zhuotu Mountain, but they achieved no significant gains.
The 3rd year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (102 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Prefect of Jiaodong, Yan’guang, was appointed as the Grand Master of Censorate.
The Emperor went on an eastern tour by the sea but found no signs of immortals or deities. He ordered the officials to conduct rituals at Mount Tai. During April of summer, upon returning, the Emperor carried out ceremonies at Mount Tai and presented sacrificial offerings at Mount Shi’lǘ[drelling of immortals].
XiongnuEr Chanyu passed away, leaving a young son behind. The Xiongnu then enthroned his paternal uncle, the Right Tuqi King, Goulihu, as the new Chanyu.
The Emperor dispatched Chamberlain, Xu Ziwei, to venture out from Wuyuan Pass several hundred li, extending even further to over a thousand li, to build forts, barriers, and pavilions. This extension covered the northwest area to Luxu. He stationed the General of Guerrilla Warfare, Han Yue, and the Marquis of Changping, Wei Kang, nearby. Additionally, the Crossbow Commander, Lu Bode, was tasked with constructing facilities near the Juyan Lake.
In autumn, the Xiongnu conducted a major incursion into Dingxiang and Yunzhong, resulting in the killing and abduction of several thousand people. They defeated several officials of the 2000-picul rank and departed, damaging the forts, pavilions, and barriers constructed by Xu Ziwei. Moreover, the Right Tuqi King raided Jiuquan and Zhangye, taking away several thousand individuals. The military Supervisor Ren Wen came to intervene, the Xiongnu lost what they gained and then withdrew.
In this year, the Marquis of Suiyang, Zhang Chang, was found guilty of negligence in performing sacrificial rites as the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, leading to the abolition of his title and fiefdom.
Emperor Gaozu ennobled 143 meritorious individuals as marquis in the aftermath of a great turmoil. At the time numerous people fled from major cities and renowned metropolises, resulting in a population count reduced to twenty or thirty percent of what was before the war. The largest marquisate(march) had no more than ten thousand households, while the smallest had five to six hundred households. The Emperor Gaozu made an oath: “Even if the Yellow River became a girdle, and Mount Tai reduced to a cairn, this polity will perpetuate and extend to the descendants.” The pledge was recorded as a cinnabar-inked letter and was sworn by a sacrifice of a white horse.
During the era of Empress Gao(Empress Lü) , the ranking of marquis titles was clearly documented, and the documents were kept in the ancestral temples, with backup copies stored in the government offices.
By the time of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, four or five generations later, the refugees had returned, and the population had increased, leading to major marquisate households amounting to three to four hundred thousand households. Small territories had doubled in size, accumulating wealth and prosperity. However, the descendants became presumptuous and extravagant, frequently disregarding laws and regulations, leading to their downfall and annulment of their enfeoffment. Only four marquis titles among the original merit-based ennoblements remained. Yet the laws were more meticulously enforced.
After the defeat of the Han forces in the incident with the Marquis of Zhuoye, ministers wished to withdraw their troops from Dayuan and focus entirely on combating the Xiongnu. The Emperor thought he had already sent an army to attack Dayuan, and if Dayuan, a small state, could not be defeated, then the more powerful polities such as Daxia would gradually diminish Han‘s prestige. Moreover, if the excellent horses of Dayuan were not brought to the Han, and the Wusun and Luntai tribes would have grown increasingly hostile to the Han envoys, the diplomats of the Han would become a subject of ridicule for foreign nations. The Emperor punished the officials, including Deng Guang and others, who raised concerns about the impracticality of launching a campaign against Dayuan.
The Emperor granted amnesty to prisoners, conscripted delinquent youths and border riders, and within a year, around sixty thousand individuals were mustered to march from Dunhuang. There were extra private servants or porters who had gone with the army. Additionally, there were a hundred thousand heads of cattle, thirty thousand horses, and ten thousand donkeys and camels. A substantial supply of provisions, arms, and crossbows was prepared. The instability was evident throughout the empire, with over fifty colonels mobilized to attack Dayuan.
The city of Dayuan had no wells within its walls, drawing water from outside streams. To take advantage of this, the Han sent engineers to redirect these external water sources, intending to use the waterway as conduit to dig underneath the city wall. Furthermore, there were an additional one hundred eighty thousand troops stationed at Jiuquan and Zhangye in the north, establishing garrisons in Juyan and Xiutu to protect Jiuquan. The Han government also conscripted seven different categories of individuals: criminals, fugitives, matrilocal son-in-laws, merchants, former merchants, and individuals with parents or grandparents who had been merchants. These men were all compelled to serve in the army. They provided supplies for the Ershi General’s troops, transporting goods and forming long lines of carts. Two men skilled in horse-riding were appointed as Horse Training Colonel and Horse Driving Colonel, tasked with selecting and training the best horses after the Dayuan campaign.
Then Ershi General’s troops resumed their march, and as it was formidable, every small kingdom it reached welcomed it and provided provisions for the soldiers. When they arrived at Luntai, the city refused to surrender. After a few days of siege, it was captured and sacked. Continuing westward, they reached Dayuan‘s city with a force of thirty thousand soldiers. The forces of Dayuan met the Han troops in battle, but the Han forces routed them, causing the Dayuan troops to retreat into their city for protection.
Ershi General planned to attack the city of Yucheng, but as he was concerned that delaying the march would allow Dayuan to devise more deceptive tactics. Therefore, they first arrived at Dayuan, diverted its water source, causing the city to be in a dire situation. They then besieged the city and attacked it for over forty days. Within Dayuan, the nobles deliberated: “King Mauakes hoarded the excellent horses secretly and killed the Han emissaries. Now, if we kill our king and present his head, the Han troops might retreat. If they don’t, we’ll fight valiantly and die—there’s still time for that.” The nobles unanimously agreed on this plan and killed their king Mauakes. The outer walls were breached, and a noble general of Dayuan Jianmi was captured.
Filled with terror, the remaining people of Dayuan retreated inside the city, holding the head of their former king Mauakes. They sent envoys to Ershi General, negotiating: “If the Han forces refrain from attacking us, we will give you all the excellent horses and provide food for your soldiers. If you refuse, we’ll slaughter all the great horses, and when Kangju reinforcements arrive, we’ll fight the Han forces together. Which option will you choose?”
At that moment, the Kangju scouts observed that the Han forces were still numerous and did not dare to advance. Ershi General learned that the people inside Dayuan had the Han captives taught them how to dig wells, and still possessed a significant amount of food. Assessing the situation, he concluded, “We came to punish the criminal Mauakes, now Mauakes’ head has already been in our hands. If we do not grant their request, they will steadfastly defend their city. The Kangju waited for the Han troops to be fatigued, then helping Dayuan, will certainly beat the Han army.” Therefore, Ershi General approved the request of Dayuan.
Dayuan released its horses, allowing the Han forces to select the ones they liked, and provided ample food for them. The Han troops took several dozen of the best horses and more than three thousand mares and stallions. Ershi General appointed a local man named Mocai, who was known to have been friendly to the Han previously, as the new ruler of Dayuan, made a peace agreement, and then withdrew his troops.
At first, Ershi General set out from Dunhuang heading west, dividing into several units taking both the northern and southern routes. Colonel Wang Shen’sheng led a group of over a thousand soldiers, separately arriving at Yucheng. However, the King of Yucheng attacked and annihilated Wang Shen’sheng’s forces, causing a few individuals to escape and flee to Ershi General’s camp.
The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (101 B.C.)
In spring, Ershi General arrived at the capital. As he passed through smaller kingdoms and tribes, upon hearing about the destruction of Dayuan, they sent their children to offer tribute and see the Emperor, some even stayed as hostages. When the army returned, they brought back more than a thousand horses. Although the army did not lack food and casualties in battles were not excessive, the generals and officials were greedy, showing no regard for the soldiers, taking advantage and abusing them. Due to these incidents resulting in deaths, many fell victim.
The Emperor thought leading a campaign of thousands of miles was a great achievement, he did not investigate these wrongdoings. Instead, he issued a decree to confer Li Guangli as the Marquis of Haixi, Zhao Di as the Marquis of Xinshi, promoting Shangguan Jie to the position of Privy Treasurer, three military officers were promoted to among Nine Ministers. Additionally, there were more than a hundred officers who were promoted to ministers of feudal lords, prefects of commanderies, and high officials with 2000-picul rank. More than one thousand officers were promoted to mid-level officials of over a thousand picul of grain. Those who volunteered to join the expedition had been rewarded exceeding their expectation; those convicts were forced to join as a punishment for their misconduct, all their previous sentencing were dismissed, and the soldiers were given a reward equivalent of forty thousand coins each.
The Xiongnu heard of Ershi General‘s expedition against Dayuan and intended to intercept it. However, seeing the strength of Ershi General‘s forces, they did not dare to confront them directly. Instead, they dispatched riders to intercept the Han envoys passing through Loulan, aiming to cut off communication. At that time, Military Judge Ren Wen, leading the troops stationed at the Yumen Pass, captured some living captives and reported the situation. The Emperor decreed that Ren Wen led his troops to capture the King of Loulan and brought him to the court for questioning.
The King of Loulan responded, saying, “Being a small state amidst larger ones, without dual allegiance, there is no way to ensure our safety. I am willing to relocate my kingdom to live within the territories of the Han.” The Emperor accepted his argument, allowed him to return to his country, and also asked him to observe the Xiongnu. From then on, the Xiongnu were not very trusting or friendly toward Loulan.
After the fall of Dayuan, the Western Regions were filled with fear, and the status of Han envoys entering the Western Regions elevated. Consequently, from Dunhuang westward to the Salt Marsh, numerous stations were set up, and there were several hundred soldiers stationed in places like Luntai and Quli. Officials and Colonels were appointed to oversee and protect these regions, providing assistance to diplomats.
A year or so later, influential figures from Dayuan accused Mocai of being excessively subservient to Han and resulting in harm to their country, slaughter to their people. They conspired to kill Mocai and established the younger brother of King Mauakes, Chanfeng, as the King of Dayuan. They also sent Mauakes‘ son to serve in attendance at the Han court. The Han government used gifts and bribes to pacify and maintain stability in the region. Chanfeng made an agreement with the Han to annually offer two heavenly horses as tribute.
In autumn, the Mingguang Palace was constructed.
During winter, the Emperor undertook a tour to Huizhong.
The Chanyu of Xiongnu, Xulihu, passed away. Xiongnu then appointed his younger brother, Left Grand Commandant Qiedihou, as the new Chanyu. The Emperor desired to take advantage of the momentum from the campaign against Dayuan to further pressurize the Xiongnu. Therefore, he issued a decree stating, “The Emperor Gaozu passed down the thorny grief of the Pingcheng; then during the reign of Empress Dowager Gao(Express Lü), the Chanyu wrote the blasphemous letter, cutting off communication. As in the past when Duke Xiang of Qi avenged a nine-generation vendetta, the Spring and Autumn Annals thought his act was righteous.”
The newly installed Chanyu, fearing an attack from the Han, declared, “How could I as a son-in-law dare to compare to the Han Emperor? The Han Emperor is my father-in-law’s lineage.” He sent back the Han envoys who had been detained yet not submitted to Xiongnu, such as Lu Chongguo, and also sent diplomats to the Han court with gifts.
A Majestic Akhal-Teke Stallion, the breed fought over by the Han and Dayuan, photo by Artur Baboev
The 1st year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (104 B.C.)
In October of winter, the Emperor journeyed to Mount Tai. On the 1st of November, during the morning of the winter solstice, the Emperor performed the worship of the Supreme Deity at the Temple of Heaven. The Emperor then proceeded to the eastern shores of the Gulf of Bohai, consulting occultists and those who had traveled overseas. However, no supernatural signs were found. Despite this, further attempts were made in the hope of encountering such signs.
On November 22, a fire broke out at the Bo’liang Terrace.
On December 1, the Emperor personally conducted the ritual of offering sacrifices to the Earth at Mount Gaoli, overlooking the Bohai Sea, with the intent of seeking divine signs related to Mount Penglai, hoping for extraordinary revelations.
In the spring, upon his return, and in light of the fire at Bo’liang Terrace, the Emperor held court with the feudal lords and received statistical reports at Ganquan Palace. The residences of the feudal lords were constructed at Ganquan.
A man named Yongzhi from Yue remarked, “In our Yue customs, when a fire disaster occurs and buildings are reconstructed, they must be grander to overcome the adversity.”
Heeding this counsel, the Emperor ordered the construction of the Jianzhang Palace, which was said to have a thousand doors and ten thousand windows. To the east stood the Fengque Tower, rising more than twenty zhang (about 10 ft per zhang) in height; to the west lay the Tangzhong Park, covering several dozen li and housing tiger enclosures. To the north, there was a vast pool, within which a terrace gradually ascended to over twenty zhang, named the Taiye Pool. Inside the pool were replicas of Mount Penglai, Mount Fangzhang, Mount Yingzhou, and Mount Huliang, resembling divine mountains, islands and creatures of the sea, such as turtles and fish. To the south were the Jade Hall, Bimen (a jade wall), and statues of ostriches from Tiaozhi (Syria), among other grand structures. The Shenming Terrace and Jinggan Tower were also erected, each standing fifty zhang tall, interconnected by promenades for royal carriages.
The Grandee of the Palace, Gongsun Qing, Hu Sui, and the Grand Astronomer, Sima Qian, expressed concerns that the calendar and chronology were in disarray and suggested the rectification of the lunar calendar. In response, the Emperor issued a decree, summoning Ni Kuan and scholars, including Erudite Ci, to deliberate. They collectively proposed the adoption of the Xia calendar, in place of the Qin calendar (Zhuxu Calendar), where the new year began in October.
In May of the summer, a decree was issued for Gongsun Qing, Hu Sui, Sima Qian, and others to create the Taichu calendar of the Han. It fixed the beginning of the year to January, honored yellow color, and designated the number five as the radix. The calendar also formalized government official title names, coordinated musical scales, and standardized rituals for ancestral temples, all codified with the intent to be chartered for future generations.
Meanwhile, the XiongnuEr Chanyu, inclined towards violence, caused unrest among his people. Additionally, there were natural disasters that led to the widespread death of animals. The Grand Commandant of the Left (Xiongnu) sent a message to the Han, expressing their desire to kill the Chanyu and surrender to the Han. However, because the Han were far away, they expressed their intent to rebel once Han forces arrived to offer assistance. In response, the Emperor dispatched Yinyu[a place in Xiongnu] General Gongsun Ao to construct a city named “Defector Home” outside the border, to serve as a place for receiving defectors.
In August of autumn, the Emperor embarked on a tour to visit Anding.
The Han envoys who entered the Western Regions reported, “Dayuan possesses excellent horses in the city of Ershi[Osh, now in Kyrgyzstan]. However, they refuse to show these horses to the Han ambassadors.” In response, the Emperor sent officers, including Strongman Che Ling, bearing a thousand gold coins and a golden horse statue as an entreaty.
The King of Dayuan, in consultation with his advisors, remarked, “The Han is distant from us, and there are frequent setbacks in the Salt Marshes. To the north, we face attacks from barbarians, and to the south, there is a scarcity of water and grass. Furthermore, the land is barren, lacking in food, and when Han envoys, sometimes numbering in the hundreds, arrive, they often starve, with more than half perishing. How, then, can they mobilize a large army? What threat can they pose to us? The horses in Ershi are precious to Dayuan.” As a result, they refused to grant Che Ling’s request.
The Han diplomat, Che Ling, enraged and swearing in foul language, smashed the golden horse statue and departed. This act of disrespect angered the nobles of Dayuan, who proclaimed, “The Han envoys have insulted us!” They saw the Han envoys fleeing and ordered their eastern border, the King of Yucheng, to intercept and attack them, killing the envoys and seizing their possessions.
This greatly enraged the Emperor. Yao Dinghan, who had previously been to Dayuan, remarked, “Dayuan‘s military is weak. With only about three thousand Han troops armed with strong crossbows, they can be completely subdued.” In the past, the Emperor had dispatched the Marquis of Zhuoye Zhao Ponu with seven hundred riders, and they captured the King of Loulan. Therefore, the Emperor trusted Yao Dinghan’s assessment. Additionally, desiring to honor his favored concubine, Madame Li, he appointed her older brother, Li Guangli, as Ershi General, commanding six thousand riders from principalities and tens of thousands of delinquent youths from commanderies and principalities to attack Dayuan. His task was to capture the excellent horses in Ershi(Osh) city, thus he was given the title of Ershi General. Zhao Shicheng was appointed as the military judge, and former Marquis of Hao, Wang Hui, was appointed as the guide leading the troops. Li Duo was made the colonel to oversee military affairs.
Sima Guang’s commentary: Emperor Wu sought to ennoble the family member of his favored concubine, Madame Li, and dispatched her brother, Li Guangli, to lead troops against Dayuan. His intent seemed to be that ennoblement should be earned through military merit, not by preferential treatment. This was in keeping with the covenant established by Emperor Gaozu. Military campaigns are of great importance, as they are directly tied to the safety of the nation and the lives of its people. If leadership is assigned recklessly, based on superficial accomplishments to gain personal favor, it would be better to forgo the covenant and ennoble someone without merit. Thus, while Emperor Wu was skilled in handling rebellious kingdoms, he faltered in selecting the right leader. If he is praised for upholding the covenant of the former Emperor, I would say such praise is unmerited.
Commandant of the Capital Guard, Wang Wenshu was found guilty of treasonous activities and was sentenced to be exterminated. He chose to take his own life. At the same time, his two brothers, along with their wives’ families, were implicated in various crimes and were also exterminated. Chamberlain Xu Ziwei, remarked, “How tragic! In ancient times, there was the punishment of exterminating three clans, yet Wang Wenshu‘s crimes have led to the extermination of five clans at the same time!”
There was a massive locust infestation in the eastern part of the empire, and the locusts flew as far west as Dunhuang.
The 2nd year of Emperor Wu’s Taichu Era (103 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Marquis Tian of Muqiu, Shi Qing, passed away.
In the intercalary month, Gongsun He, the Grand Coachman, was appointed as the Chancellor and bestowed the title Marquis of Geyi. During this period, the court was filled with numerous issues, and there was strict scrutiny over ministers. The Chancellors succeeded Gongsun Hong were held accountable and died consecutively because of the accusation. Although Shi Qing, the deceased, managed to conclude his service with caution, he was frequently reprimanded. When Gongsun He was nominated as the Chancellor, he declined to accept the seal and ribbon of the office, kneeling with tears and refusing to rise. The Emperor stood up and left the court, Gongsun He, feeling compelled, accepted the appointment, saying, “I am a dead man!” when he left the court.
In March, the Emperor traveled to Hedong to pay a sacrifice to Mother Earth.
During May of summer, there was a census conducted to register the horses owned by officials and plebeians to replenish the cavalry’s horses.
In autumn, there was a locust infestation.
As the Ershi General Li Guangli moved westward, passing through the Salt Marshes, the small kingdoms along the way refused to provide provisions, defending their cities. Despite attempts to besiege them, they couldn’t be conquered. Some surrendering cities replenished food supply, but those that resisted were abandoned after several days’ siege. By the time they reached Yucheng, the troops numbered no more than several thousand, all exhausted and hungry. The attack on Yucheng ended in a major defeat, causing heavy casualties among the troops. Ershi General, along with Li Duo, Zhao Shicheng, and others, discussed, “If we couldn’t capture Yucheng, how could we take their capital?” They then retreated.
Upon reaching Dunhuang, the troop numbers had dwindled to just around a tenth of the initial force. They sent a message pleading, “The road was long, and there was a great shortage of food. Moreover, the soldiers were more concerned about hunger than about fighting. The troops were few in number, insufficient to capture Dayuan. We request that the campaign be temporarily halted, additional forces be raised, and then we continue the march.”
When the Emperor heard this, he was greatly angered and sent an envoy to block Yumen Pass with an order, “Any troops attempting to enter the Yumen Pass are to be immediately executed!” Fearing the Emperor’s wrath, Ershi General chose to remain stationed at Dunhuang.
The Emperor, still worrying about the long distance between the City of Defector Home from the Xiongnu, dispatched Junji General Zhao Ponu, commanding over 20,000 cavalry, to travel more than 2,000 li northwest from Shuofang with the aim to reach the Junji Mountains and return. When the Marquis of Zhuoye, Zhao Ponu, arrived at the appointed time, the Left Grand Commandant of Xiongnu intended to collaborate with the Han but his intent was uncovered. The Chanyu executed him, deployed the Left Wing troops, and attacked the Marquis of Zhuoye. As the Marquis of Zhuoye led a counter-offensive, capturing several thousand POWs, he was en route back and was around 400 li away from the City of Defector Home when an enemy force of 80,000 Xiongnu cavalry besieged them.
The Marquis of Zhuoye ventured out at night to seek water and was captured by the Xiongnu while trying to escape. Seizing the opportunity, Xiongnu launched a sudden assault on his troops. Dreading the consequences of the loss of their commander, the officers in the army feared execution upon return, and with no one to encourage fighting back, the army surrendered to the Xiongnu.
The Chanyu was greatly pleased with this victory and then sent a special force to attack the City of Defector Home. However, they couldn’t conquer the cities, so they pillaged the borderlands before departing.
In December of the winter, Ni Kuan, Grand Master of Censorate, passed away.
The 4th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanfeng Era (107 B.C.)
In October of winter, the Emperor embarked on a journey to Yong, where he performed rituals at the Five Deity Altars. He traveled along the newly opened Huizhong road, proceeding north and exiting through Xiao Pass. He passed through Mount Dulu and Mingze Marsh, journeying back from Dai and reaching Hedong.
In January of spring, the Emperor worshiped at the Earth Deity Shrine and granted amnesty to those sentenced to lesser punishments from Fenyin, Xiayang, and Zhongdu.
During the summer, a severe drought occurred.
Since Wei Qing and Huo Qubing had roamed across the Gobi Desert, the Xiongnu had rarely engaged in hostilities. They had moved far north, allowing their soldiers and horses to rest while training them in archery and hunting. They frequently sent emissaries to the Han court, using eloquent language and sweet words to seek reconciliation and a marriage alliance.
The Emperor sent Wang Wu of Beidi and others to reconnoiter the Xiongnu. Wang Wu assimilated into their customs, putting down his ambassador scepter and entering their yurts. The Chanyu liked him, promising with sweet words to send his crown prince to the Han as a hostage.
The court then dispatched Yang Xin to the Xiongnu. However, Yang Xin refused to comply with their customs. The Chanyu remarked, “We had an agreement with the Han when they sent the Princesses to us, providing silk, fabric, and quality food to establish a marriage connection and peace, ensuring the Xiongnu would not disturb the borders. But now, you seek to revert to old ways, demanding our crown prince as a hostage. What does that leave for us?”
After Yang Xin returned, the court sent Wang Wu again. The Chanyu once more deceived with sweet promises, aiming to acquire more wealth from the Han. He said to Wang Wu, “I desire to pay visits to the Han and meet the Emperor face-to-face, swearing to be brothers.” Wang Wu returned to report to the Han, and the Emperor subsequently constructed a palace in Chang’an for the Chanyu.
Xiongnu officials claimed, “We won’t hold sincere talks without a distinguished Han envoy.” They sent a nobleman to the Han, who fell ill. The Han court provided medicine in hopes of his recovery, but unfortunately, he passed away. The Han then sent Lu Chongguo, with the insignia and ribbons of 2,000-piculs official and silk as gifts, and escorting the deceased nobleman back to the Xiongnu, offering lavish burial fees of several thousand catties of gold, claiming, “This was a distinguished Han envoy.” However, the Chanyu believed that the Han had killed their esteemed envoy, and thus detained Lu Chongguo, preventing his return. All the prior discussions the Chanyu had with Wang Wu were merely empty deceptions, with no intention to enter the Han court or send their crown prince as hostage. Subsequently, the Xiongnu frequently sent raiding parties to invade the Han borders.
Therefore, Guo Chang was appointed as General Bahu[Defeating the Xiongnu], stationed east of Shuofang with the Marquis of Zhuoye, Zhao Ponu, to guard against the Xiongnu.
The 5th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanfeng Era (106 B.C.)
In the winter, the Emperor embarked on a southern inspection and hunting tour. He arrived at Shengtang and paid homage to Emperor Shun at Mount Jiuyi. He ascended Mount Tianzhu in Qian County and sailed the Yangtze River from Xunyang. There, he personally shot and captured a jiao (a mythical creature resembling a crocodile) in the river. His fleet stretched a thousand li, landing at Zongyang before proceeding north to Langya, traveling along the coastline. Along the way, he honored and offered sacrifices at renowned mountains and great rivers.
In March of spring, the Emperor returned to Mount Tai and expanded the altar for the Heavenly Deity. On March 21, he commenced the worship of the Supreme Deity in the Bright Hall, alongside the worship of Emperor Gaozu, the founder of the Han Dynasty. He also held court for the princes, marquises, and received tax and finance reports from the commanderies and kingdoms.
In April of summer, a general amnesty was granted to the entire nation. The regions previously visited were exempted from that year’s taxes and levies. Upon his return, the Emperor visited Ganquan and held the suburban sacrifice at the Taiyi Altar.
The Marquis of Chángpíng, Wèi Qīng, passed away. His tomb was erected, shaped like Mount Lushan, a mountain in Xiongnu‘s territory.
As outstanding ministers and military figures were passing away, the Emperor issued an edict: “Extraordinary achievements are often accomplished by exceptional individuals. Sometimes unruly horses traverse thousands of miles swiftly, and individuals, despite being non-conformist and unconventional, achieve greatness. The capabilities of these exceptional horses and extraordinary individuals are realized through their utilization under proper guidance. Therefore, all provinces and commanderies are instructed to seek out officials and people of outstanding talent, exceptional abilities, and unique qualities, suitable for positions as generals, ministers, or diplomats for missions to faraway countries.”
The 6th year of Emperor Wu’s Yuanfeng Era (105 B.C.)
In winter, the Emperor embarked upon a tour of the Huizhong road.
In the spring, Shoushan Palace was constructed.
In March, the Emperor journeyed to Hedong, where he offered sacrifices to the Earth Deity and pardoned those condemned to death in Fenyin.
After the Han established contact with the southwestern tribes, five commanderies were formed to link the newly acquired lands with the previous routes leading to Daxia. For years, more than ten missions were dispatched from these initial commanderies, all of which were intercepted at Kunming, resulting in the slaughter of the envoys and the plunder of their possessions.
The Emperor, in his mercy, granted amnesty to the fugitives within the capital, ordering them to enlist in the military. He dispatched General of Bahu[eradicating Xiongnu] Guo Chang to lead them in an assault on the kingdom of Dian, resulting in the decapitation of tens of thousands. Despite the victory, communication through subsequent emissaries still could not be re-established.
In autumn, a severe drought plagued the land, followed by a locust infestation.
The envoy from the Wusun tribe, upon witnessing the vastness of the Han Empire, returned and reported its grandeur to his country, raising the esteem in which they held the Han. Upon learning of the Wusun‘s communication with the Han, the Xiongnu were filled with anger and resolved to attack the Wusun. Additionally, the nearby Dayuan and Yuezhi, who also had relations with the Han, further unsettled the Wusun. In response, they sent envoys, seeking to establish kinship through a marriage with a Han princess. After deliberation, the Emperor and his council agreed.
The Wusun presented a thousand horses as a betrothal gift for the Han princess. In return, the Han court bestowed upon Liu Xijun, daughter of Liu Jian, Prince of Jiangdu, the title of princess and sent her to marry Kunmo, King of the Wusun. She was provided with lavish dowry upon her departure. The Xiongnu, not to be outdone, also sent a woman to Kunmo as his secondary wife. Princess Liu Xijun resided in a palace of her own within the Wusun kingdom, meeting Kunmo periodically for feasts and gatherings. As Kunmo grew old and his health failed, he could no longer communicate well with the princess, who, in her isolation, began to long for her homeland. Upon hearing of her sorrow, the Emperor sympathized and dispatched envoys every other year, bearing embroidered silk curtains as gifts to console her.
In time, Kunmo, feeling the weight of his age, wished for his grandson, Cenzou(a title name), to marry the princess. However, the princess, distressed, petitioned the Emperor. The Emperor replied, “Live according to their customs; we sought this union to strengthen our ties with the Wusun and to weaken the Xiongnu.” After Kunmo‘s death, Cenzou married the princess and succeeded him as King Kunmi.
At that time, the envoys of the Han crossed beyond the Onion Ranges (the Pamir Mountains) and arrived in the land of Anxi (Parthia Empire). The Anxi sent emissaries, bearing ostrich eggs and various skilled magic performers from Lixuan (Egypt or Roman Empire) as gifts to the Han. Additionally, smaller kingdoms such as Huanqian(Khorazm), Dayi (Dahae), Jushi (Gushi), Hanmi, and Suxie (Sagdia), among others, followed suit, sending their envoys to present themselves before the Emperor. The Emperor, greatly delighted, welcomed these visitors.
Envoys from the western regions continued to come and go. When the Emperor embarked on hunting expeditions by the sea, he ensured the inclusion of foreign guests, personally guiding them through the great and bustling cities. He scattered wealth and silk as rewards, generously providing abundant supplies to showcase the vast riches and prosperity of the Han.
Particular highlights of these events included wrestling matches, exhibitions of marvels and magic, and displays of strange creatures, all watched by vast crowds of spectators. Generous rewards were bestowed, and the fields were filled with pools of wine and forests of meat. Foreign guests were granted the privilege of touring and observing the famous warehouses and treasuries of the Han, where they beheld the Empire’s immense wealth, leaving them in awe and astonishment.
The Dayuan kingdom, abundant in grapes suitable for wine production, and rich in alfalfa, favored by the Heavenly Horses, became a notable source of tribute. The Han envoys gathered samples of these resources and brought them back to the Empire. The Emperor, in turn, planted them in gardens near his detached palace, in vast fields stretching far beyond the horizon.
However, the western regions, being in proximity to the Xiongnu, harbored a deep fear of the Xiongnu envoys and thus treated them with greater deference than those from the Han.
In that year, XiongnuChanyuWuwei passed away, and his young son, Wushilu, succeeded him, taking the title of “Er Chanyu” (Son of Heavenly Son). Subsequently, the new Chanyu moved further northwest, stationing the left-wing troops near Yunzhong and the right-wing troops near the commanderies of Jiuquan and Dunhuang.
Reflection by Rio Grande 