In winter, the Emperor led an attack on the remaining forces of Xin, King of Hán, at Dongyuan county, passing through Boren county. Guan Gao and other officials had assassins hide in the double wall of a latrine. The Emperor planned to stay overnight but suddenly asked, “What is the name of this county?” The reply was “Boren.” The Emperor said, “Boren sounds like po’ren, which refers to people under duress.” He then decided to leave without staying overnight. In December, the Emperor returned to the capital from Dongyuan county.
In Spring of that March, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang. He decreed that merchants were prohibited from wearing clothing made of silk, embroidery, fine brocade, thick silk, fine cotton, coarse cotton, or hempen fabrics. They were also forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses as well as carriages.
The Xiongnu leader Modu Chanyu frequently harassed the northern border of the Han dynasty. Concerned, the Emperor sought advice from Liu Jing. Liu Jing responded, “The soldiers and officers are weary from battle, and it is unwise to resort to force now. Modu gained power by killing his father and seizing his wives and consorts. He relies on brute strength, and it’s difficult to sway him with principles of kindness and righteousness. However, we can adopt a long-term strategy, allowing his descendants to become our vassals. But I fear your majesty may not be able to convince yourself to do it.”
The Emperor asked, “What should I do, then?”
Liu Jing replied, “If your majesty offers your eldest princess in marriage to him and provides generous gifts, he will admire you and view himself as your son-in-law. If a son is born by the princess, he will become the crown prince. You can gift items that the Han dynasty has in abundance but that the Xiongnu lacks, in each season year-round. You may use these opportunities to send lobbyists to educate them on Han cultural etiquette. Modu will be your son-in-law during his lifetime, and after his death, your grandson will become the new Xiongnu leader. Have you ever known a grandson daring to disrespect and contend with his grandfather? You can gradually subjugate them without warfare. If Your Majesty cannot send the Eldest Princess, but instead has members of the imperial clan or the harem falsely claim to be the princess, once they find out, they will not be willing to honor or maintain close relationships, and it will be of no benefit.”
The Emperor found the idea appealing and considered sending his eldest princess to Modu. However, Empress Lü wept day and night, saying, “I only bore the crown prince and one daughter. How can we ditch her to the Xiongnu?” The Emperor ultimately could not bear to send his daughter, and the plan fell through.
The 9th year of the Emperor Gaozu (198 B.C.)
In winter, the Emperor selected a young girl from a plebeian family, bestowed upon her the title of ‘Eldest Princess,’ and sent her to marry the Xiongnu leader. He also dispatched Liu Jing to negotiate and finalize the marriage alliance.
Sima Guang’s commentary: Marquis Jianxin’s proposal to marry off a young woman to a vallian, Modu, who cannot be swayed by benevolence and righteousness is inherently self-contradictory. The bonds of kinship and distinctions of rank can only be appreciated by those who follow the principles of benevolence and righteousness. How, then, can we expect to win over the Xiongnu through marriage?
In the past, emperors dealt with barbarian tribes either by showing them kindness or by demonstrating their might. There is no record of marriage being used as a diplomatic tool. Moreover, since the Xiongnu leader treated his own father as prey, how could he be trusted to show respect to his wife’s family? The strategy of the Marquis of Jianxin was fundamentally flawed, and how could he even consider taking away Princess Yuan of Lu, who had already been Queen of Zhao?
Liu Jing returned from the Xiongnu and reported, “The Xiongnu‘s Baiyang and Loufan kings are only 700 li from Chang’an. A light cavalry could reach Qinzhong(a.k.a. Guanzhong) in a single day and night. Qinzhong has just been pacified, with a small population and fertile land. Increasing the population would help consolidate the region. When the monarchs established in the past, only the families of Tian in Qi, and the Shao, Jing and Qu clans in Chu prospered first. Although Your Majesty now rules Guanzhong, the population is sparse. In the east, the powerful clans of the former six states remain strong. If sudden unrest occurs, Your Majesty cannot be at ease.
I recommend moving the influential clans of the former six states, along with other prominent families, to Guanzhong. Their presence will act as a deterrent to the Xiongnu, and they can be mobilized to vanquish the east if the monarchs revolt. This is the strategy of strengthening the core and weakening the periphery.”
The Emperor agreed: “A good idea!” In November, he relocated the major clans of the Shao, Qu, Jing, Huai, and Tian families, along with other powerful households, to Guanzhong. A population of over 100,000 were given fertile fields and houses there.
Yongzuo Temple, Taiyuan(a.k.a. Jinyang), Shanxi Province. Photo by Roland Longbow
The 7th year of the Emperor Gaozu (200 B.C.)
In October, during the winter, the Changle Palace was completed, and the monarchs and ministers gathered to pay their respects. Early in the morning, the internuncios arranged the ceremony and led the guests into the palace in proper order, standing in rows facing east or west. Guards stood with halberds in hand on the steps or in the courtyard, while flags and banners were raised. When the alert was announced, the Emperor’s carriage emerged from the chamber. The princes followed, down to the officials with a salary of 600 picul, all coming to congratulate the Emperor, trembling in awe and respect.
After the ceremony, a banquet was held. The attendants sat in the palace hall, all prostrating in salute and bowing their heads in reverence, and toasts were raised according to rank. After nine rounds, the internuncios announced, “The wine is being served,” and the officials in charge of discipline escorted out anyone who did not follow the proper etiquette. The banquet lasted all day, and no one behaved improperly. The Emperor then said, “Today, I truly understand the esteem of being an emperor!” He appointed Shusun Tong as the Minister of Ceremony and rewarded him with five hundred pounds of gold.
In earlier times, the empire of Qin ruled the realm and incorporated the ceremonial practices of the six states it had conquered, selecting and preserving those that emphasized respect for the ruler and the subordination of officials. When Shusun Tong re-established the imperial ritual system, some additions and omissions were made, but it largely followed the Qin model. The system retained the imperial titles, as well as the names of officials and palace buildings, with few modifications. Written records of the system were later compiled with the legal code and stored in the archives of the judicial officials. However, the judicial officials did not transmit the ritual system to people outside the court, and no commoners or administrators spoke of it.
Sima Guang’s commentary: The importance of rituals is enormous! When applied to oneself, they regulate one’s actions and behavior, ensuring all is done properly; when applied to the family, they establish distinctions between internal and external relations, fostering harmony among the nine kinship groups; when applied to the village, they create proper relationships between elders and youth, cultivating refined and graceful customs; when applied to the state, they ensure proper order between the ruler and ministers, leading to successful governance; when applied to the world, they bring submission from the monarchs and uphold justice. How can rituals be confined to seating arrangements in gathering or household management for the neighborhood order? Even with the wisdom of Emperor Gaozu, he praised Lu Jia’s words about ‘not governing on horseback despite winning the realm on horseback,’ and he admired Shusun Tong’s etiquette with great appreciation. Yet, the reason Gaozu couldn’t compare with the kings of the Three Dynasties was his failure in learning.
Had he sought the assistance of great scholars and governed the world through rituals, his achievements would have surpassed what we now see. It is a pity that Shusun Tong’s capacity was so limited! He merely took the scraps and remnants of ancient rituals, following popular customs, catering to public taste, and seeking favor for himself, allowing the rituals of the former kings to decline into obscurity. Isn’t that a painful loss? This is why Yang Xiong ridiculed him, saying: ‘In ancient times, there were great scholars in Lu, but their names were lost. Someone asked: “Why were they great?” The answer was: “Shusun Tong wanted to regulate etiquette between ruler and ministers and called for scholars from Lu, but two great scholars refused to comply.” Someone asked: “Did Confucius not travel among the monarchs and serve them?” The answer was: “Confucius paved the way for his own ideals. Had he compromised his principle to fit others, wouldn’t he have implemented his own rules and standards?”
What an excellent remark from Yang Xiong! How could a great scholar demolish his principles and abandon rules and standards, for the sake of temporary honor and reward?”
The Emperor personally led the campaign against King of Hán, Xin, defeating his army at Tongdi and beheading General Wang Xi. Xin fled and sought refuge with the Xiongnu. Wanqiu Chen and Wang Huang, from Baitu county, enthroned Zhao Li, a descendant of the Zhao clan, as king. They gathered the remnants of Xin‘s scattered forces and planned a joint attack on the Han Dynasty with Xin and the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu dispatched the Left and Right Tuqi Kings, leading over ten thousand cavalry, who stationed themselves south of Guangwu county and reached Jinyang city. The Han army attacked, defeating the Xiongnu, who fled and then regrouped, the Han army pursued them, riding on their recent victories. However, a severe cold spell with rain and snow caused two or three out of every ten soldiers to lose fingers to frostbite.
While the Emperor was in Jinyang, he received news that Modu Chanyu had stationed troops at Daigu and was preparing to attack. He sent scouts to assess the Xiongnu. Modu Chanyu had concealed his strongest warriors and horses, leaving only the old, weak, and thin livestock visible. Ten messengers were sent, all reporting that the Xiongnu were vulnerable. The Emperor then dispatched Liu Jing as an envoy to Xiongnu, but before his return, the Han army advanced north with 320,000 soldiers, crossing Gouzhu Pass. When Liu Jing returned, he reported, “When two countries go to war, they exaggerate their strengths and hide their weaknesses. However, I saw only the weak, thin, and old, suggesting they intentionally suggesting they intentionally showed their weakness to lure us into an ambush. In my opinion, the Xiongnu cannot be attacked at this moment.”
By this point, the Han army was already on the move, and the Emperor, angered by Liu Jing‘s report, cursed him, “You, a mere prisoner from Qi, gained your position through eloquence, and now you spout nonsense to lower our army’s morale!” Liu Jing was then arrested and shackled in Guangwu.
The Emperor arrived at Pingcheng, but not all his troops had assembled. Modu Chanyu mobilized 400,000 elite cavalry and besieged the Emperor at Baideng Terrace for seven days. The Han forces were unable to provide mutual aid or receive supplies. The Emperor used Chen Ping‘s secret strategy, sending a messenger to bribe Yanzhi, the Xiongnu queen, with a generous reward. Yanzhi advised Modu Chanyu, “The two rulers should not pounce on each other like this. Even if you seize Han territory, you cannot hold it permanently. Moreover, the Han ruler is also protected by divine spirits. The Chanyu should be very cautious.”
Modu Chanyu had arranged to meet Wang Huang and Zhao Li, but their troops never arrived, making him suspect they had conspired with the Han. As a result, he released part of the siege. A thick fog shrouded the area, allowing Han messengers to move back and forth unnoticed by the Xiongnu. Chen Ping advised loading strong crossbows with two arrows each, and sending them out with arrows pointing to enemies, from the side where the siege had been lifted. The Emperor escaped the siege but wanted to move forward quickly. However, Grand Coachman–Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, insisted on proceeding slowly. Upon reaching Pingcheng, the rest of the Han army had arrived, and the Xiongnu cavalry retreated. The Han forces then withdrew, assigning Fan Kuai to stabilize the Dai commandery.
The Emperor arrived at Guangwu and pardoned Liu Jing, saying, “I failed to heed your advice, which led to the siege at Pingcheng. I have already executed the previous ten envoys who misinformed me.” He then granted Liu Jing the title of Marquis of Jianxin, along with two thousand households. Continuing south to Quni county, the Emperor remarked, “What a magnificent county! I have traveled throughout the empire, but only Luoyang and this place impress me.” He granted Chen Ping the title of Marquis of Quni and bestowed the entire county as his fiefdom. Chen Ping had accompanied the Emperor on campaigns and devised six original strategies, each of which led to an expansion of his fief.
In December, the Emperor returned and passed through the kingdom of Zhao. The King of Zhao, Zhang Ao, who was the Emperor’s son-in-law, humbled himself and treated the Emperor with utmost esteem, while the Emperor sat with his legs wide open, openly insulting Zhang Ao. This enraged the prime minister of Zhao, Guan Gao, along with Zhao Wu and others, who said, “Our king is a coward!” They approached Zhang Ao with fury, “The empire is up for grabs. Only those with courage seize power. Your Excellency humbles before the Emperor deferentially, but he shows you no respect. We want to kill him on your behalf!”
Zhang Ao bit his finger until it bled and replied, “You are wrong! Our ancestors lost their kingdom, but it was through the Emperor’s help that we regained it. His virtue has benefited our descendants, and all we have is thanks to his power. I hope you never speak like that again!”
Guan Gao, Zhao Wu, and the others conferred among themselves, “We should not have spoken to the king that way. Our king is a man of integrity and will not betray his loyalty. Even if we wish to kill the Emperor for insulting our king, why should we implicate the king? If we succeed, the credit will go to him; if we fail, we alone will face the consequences!”
The Xiongnu attacked the kingdom Dai, and the King of Dai, Liu Xi (the Emperor’s older brother), abandoned his kingdom without a fight. He returned to the capital, was pardoned, and demoted to the Marquis of He’yang. On January 17, the Emperor’s son, Prince Liu Ruyi, was installed as the new King of Dai.
In February, the Emperor arrived at Chang’an. Xiao He oversaw the construction of the Weiyang Palace, which greatly impressed the Emperor. However, the Emperor was furious, saying to Xiao He, “The world is in chaos, and we have been at war for years with the outcome still uncertain. Why are you focused on building such an extravagant palace?”
Xiao He responded, “Precisely because the world is still unstable, we should seize this opportunity to build. Moreover, the Emperor considers the four seas as his home, and without grandeur, he cannot command respect. It is also important to leave a legacy that future generations cannot surpass.” The Emperor was pleased with this explanation.
Sima Guang‘s commentary: A king should make benevolence and righteousness his grandeur, and moral integrity his source of awe. I have never heard that filling the world with palaces and halls is a way to demonstrate dominance. When the world is unsettled, one must practice restraint and fiscal responsibility to meet the needs of the people. To prioritize palaces and halls—how can this reflect an understanding of what is truly important? In the past, Emperor Yǔ lived in humbled palace, while Xia Jíe built extravagant ones and lost his empire. A founding lord should practice frugality and set an example for his descendants. Even the last ruler of a dynasty, despite the example of frugality, eventually succumbed to exorbitance—how much more will they be corrupted by being shown the example of indulgence? Moreover, to say “do not let future generations surpass it”—is this not a grave mistake? Emperor Wu, after all, ultimately ruined the country by overspending on palaces and halls, a trend perhaps initiated by Marquis Zan.
The Emperor moved the capital from Yueyang to Chang’an. The Ministry of the Imperial Clan was first established to rank the genealogical records of the imperial family. In April, during the summer, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang.
The emperor granted his father the title Emperor Emeritus on May 23 of the summer.
The Xiongnu empire feared the Empire of Qin and moved to the north for more than ten years. As the empire of Qin collapsed, the Xiongnus gradually moved southward and crossed the Yellow River.
The chief of Xiongnu, whose name was Touman Chanyu, had a crown prince called Modu. Then Touman’s other favorite wife bore him a younger son. He wanted to crown his young son. Nomad tribes Donghu was strong and Yuezhi was prosperous at the time. Touman sent Modu to be a hostage in Yuezhi and then launched a sneak attack on Yuezhi. Yuezhi would have killed Modu, except Modu stole a stallion and ran home. Touman thought he was tough and let Modu command ten thousand cavalry.
Modu invented the kabura-ya, or whistling arrows, and trained his cavalry to use them in archery. He issued a strict command: “Anyone who fails to shoot at the same target immediately after seeing a kabura-ya hit the mark must be beheaded.” To enforce discipline, Modu shot his prized horse with a kabura-ya, followed by his beloved wife. Those who hesitated to follow his lead were executed. Eventually, he shot the best horse of the Chanyu with a whistling arrow, and everyone else shot as well. Satisfied with their readiness, Modu embarked on a hunting trip, where he shot Touman with a whistling arrow. His attendants, following his lead, killed Touman Chanyu. Then he executed his stepmother, younger brother, and ministers who opposed him. Modu then declared himself Chanyu.
When the Donghu tribe heard that Modu had become the Chanyu, they sent a messenger with a demand: “We want Touman Chanyu’s fast horse, the one that can run a thousand li in a day.” Modu consulted his ministers, who all advised, “This is a treasure of the Xiongnu, do not give it away!” But Modu replied, “How can we value a horse more than maintaining good relations with a neighboring state?” and so he gave them the horse.
Soon after, the Donghu sent another messenger: “We would like one of the Chanyu’s wives.” Modu again asked his followers, who were outraged: “The Donghu are unreasonable, asking for Chanyu’s wife! Let’s attack them!” Modu responded, “How can we value a woman more than a neighboring state?” and hand out his beloved wife.
Emboldened, the Donghu king became even more arrogant. There was a stretch of deserted land over a thousand miles wide between the Donghu and Xiongnu, each occupying their own side of the border, known as the “Ou-Tuo” (buffer zone). The Donghu then demanded this land. Modu asked his ministers for their advice; some said, “It is just deserted land, it doesn’t matter if we give it away or not.” Enraged, Modu declared, “The land is the foundation of the country, how can we give it away?” He beheaded those who had suggested giving it up.
Modu mounted his horse and commanded, “Anyone who retreats during battle will be beheaded!” He attacked the Donghu, who had underestimated him and were unprepared, leading to their destruction.
On returning home, Modu launched a westward attack and defeated the Yuezhi tribe. He then annexed the territories ruled by the King of Loufan and the King of Baiyang, the tribes living in the south of the Yellow River, before advancing into the states of Yan and Dai. He reclaimed the lands that had previously been taken from the Xiongnu by Meng Tian, extending the southern frontier to Chaona and Fushi counties. At the time, the Han army was preoccupied with their conflict against Xiang Yu, and the central plains were exhausted by war. This allowed Modu Chanyu to consolidate his power, amassing an army of more than 300,000 archers and inducing trepidation and submission to other nations.
In the autumn, the Xiongnu besieged the Han vassal King of Hán, Xin at Mayi. Xin repeatedly sent messengers to the Xiongnu seeking a truce, and the empire dispatched troops to rescue him. However, the Han court grew suspicious of Xin’s loyalty, as he had sent envoys back and forth multiple times. Accused of dual loyalty and fearing punishment, in September, Xin surrendered Mayi to the Xiongnu. Seizing this opportunity, Modu Chanyu led his troops south, crossed the Gozhu Pass, raided Taiyuan commandery, and eventually reached Jinyang city.
The emperor abolished the harsh and complicated laws of the Qin Dynasty and implemented a simpler system. However, officials began competing for recognition, and during drinking sessions, some became drunk and made reckless remarks, even drawing their swords and hacking at pillars. The emperor grew increasingly disgusted with their behavior.
Shusun Tong advised the emperor, “Scholars may not be suited to ambitious plans, but they are capable of maintaining stability. I would like to invite scholars from Lu to establish court ceremonies, along with my own disciples.” The emperor asked, “Won’t this be difficult?” Shusun Tong replied, “The Five Emperors in history had different music, and the Three Kings had different rituals. Ceremonies should reflect the times and the people’s sentiments, so the rituals must be adjusted accordingly. I will draw on ancient rituals and blend them with Qin customs.” The emperor agreed, saying, “Let’s give it a try. Make it simple to understand, and only implement what I can manage.”
Shusun Tong summoned over thirty scholars from the state of Lu. However, two scholars refused, saying, “You have served ten lords and flattered them all to gain favor. Now that the world has only just been pacified, the dead are not yet buried, and the wounded have not yet recovered, yet you want to start with ceremonies and music. Ceremonies and music should only be established after accumulating virtue for a hundred years. I cannot bear to follow your example. You may do as you wish, but do not tarnish my reputation!” Shusun Tong laughed and said, “You are dogmatic and shallow scholars who fail to grasp the changes of the times.”
He then led the scholars he had recruited, along with those close to the emperor and his own disciples—a group of over a hundred people—to practice rituals and music outdoors, using ropes and thatch as mock-ups, for over a month. He reported to the emperor, “You can now observe and assess them.” The emperor ordered the court to rehearse the rituals and remarked, “I can do this.” He then instructed the officials to study and practice the rituals.
The 6th year of the Emperor Gaozu(201 B.C. continued)
The emperor believed the country was finally at peace. His sons were still young, and he had few brothers. Learning from the downfall of the Qin dynasty, which lacked external support, he decided to grant kingly titles to members of his extended family—those who shared the same family name—to safeguard and manage different regions.
On January 21, in the spring, the emperor divided Han Xin’s territory into two states: 53 counties east of the Huai River were awarded to General Liu Jia, the emperor’s elder cousin, as King of Jing; 36 counties, including the commanderies of Xuejun, Donghai, and Pengcheng, were awarded to his younger brother, Lord Wenxin Liu Jiao, as King of Chu.
On January 27, the emperor awarded 53 counties under the commanderies of Yunzhong, Yanmen, and Daijun to his elder brother, Marquis Yixin Liu Xi, as King of Dai. He also granted 73 counties, including the commanderies of Jiaodong, Jiaoxi, Linzi, Jibei, Boyang, and Chengyang, to his illegitimate son Liu Fei who was born out of wedlock when the emperor was a commoner, as King of Qi. All people who spoke the Qi dialect became subjects of the kingdom of Qi.
The emperor thought the king of Hán, Xin, was a military talent. His princedom was bordered with Gong county and Luoyang to the north, Wancheng and Ye county to the south, Huaiyang to the east. These were all military strongholds. The emperor set aside 31 counties under commandery Taiyuan to the state of Hán. He moved the king of Hán to the north of Taiyuan and made Jinyang the capital of the state to defend the borders against the nomads. Xin wrote to the emperor: “The Xiongnu invaded my state border several times. Jinyang is too far away from the border. I request moving the capital to the town of Mayi.” The emperor approved the request.
The emperor had already awarded more than twenty top achievers, The rest of them bogged down into dispute and the title awarding process ground to a halt. One day the emperor saw the generals were talking together on the sandy beach of Luo River when he watched them from an overpass in the South Palace of Luoyang.
“What are they talking about?” The emperor asked.
“Does your majesty know this? They are plotting a mutiny.” Marquis Liu, Zhang Liang replied.
“The country just reconciled in peace. Why do they want to revolt again?” The emperor was puzzled.
“Your majesty was a commoner yourself and relied on these generals to conquer the country. Now your majesty is the son of Heaven. Those awarded are the family members and old friends of your majesty’s; Those killed are whom your majesty had grudge on. Now the officials who counted the merits of the generals indicated that there were not enough fief lands in the country to go around for rewarding. These generals feared that they were not going to be all rewarded with fiefs. They also feared they would be killed if they got the wrong side and offended your majesty in the past. That’s the reason they got together and plotted mutiny.”
“What should I do about it?” The emperor started worrying.
“Among all your generals, who is the one, that everyone knows, that is hated the most by your majesty?” Marquis Liu asked.
“Yong Chi is the one. He and I held a grudge for years. He humiliated me on many occasions. I want to kill him. But he had rendered many meritorious services and I could not bear to do it.”
“Then you reward Yong Chi first. Everyone else will feel confident that they will be treated fairly.”
The emperor held a banquet to honor Yong Chi and awarded him as Marquis Shifang. He also pushed the prime minister and censor-in-chief to accelerate the award granting process. The generals were happy after the wine-and-dine. They said to each other: “We don’t need to worry if even Yong Chi can be a marquis.”
Sima Guang’s comments: Zhang Liang was the most trusted adviser of the emperor. He won’t hold back if he has something to say. How come he only spoke out when the emperor saw something unusual accidentally had he known that the generals were plotting a mutiny? The reason was that the emperor dealt out rewards or punishments based on whether he liked or hated a person in the early days on the throne. His judgment was unfair at times. His ministers felt either bitter or terrorized. Zhang Liang took the opportunity to rectify the emperor’s behavior, such that the emperor would not harm public interest with personal tastes and subjects would not watch over their shoulders. The state will be free of distress and benefits the upcoming generations. Advisors like Zhang Liang are good at remonstration.
The awarding process of titled classes that were above Marquis had come to a close. The emperor promulgated the names of eighteen first class marquis with their rankings. Public opinion said: “Marquis Pingyang, Cao Shen, who conquered many cities and land and wounded in seventy places of his body, should rank the first because of his highest merit score.”
Marquis Within Passes E Qianqiu, an internuncio, disagreed: “The comments you guys made are off the mark. Cao Shen earned his hundreds of merits in the battlefields, but those were just one time heroic acts. His majesty had standoffs with the king of Chu for five years. Many times his majesty had lost his troops and taken a flight for his life. Xiao He often replenished his majesty’s troops, tens of thousands at times when his majesty had not even requested for; Many times his majesty ran out of food and other supplies. It was Xiao He who transported goods from Guanzhong and kept the supply chain of food moving; Many times his majesty lost footings to the east of Xiao Mountains. It was Xiao He who maintained a home base for his majesty to return. These are the achievements impacting thousands of generations. The kingdom of Han would not have missed a great deal without the service of hundreds of Cao Shen; Why do we value a heroic achievement of a time over an achievement that impacts thousands of generations! Xiao He should rank the first; Cao Shen the second!” The emperor agreed: “Well said!” He granted Xiao He the privilege to go to court with his sword and shoes, and exempted him from trotting when coming to meet the emperor.
The emperor said: “I heard that those who promoted winners should be rewarded amply. Xiao He’s achievements are the greatest. Mr. E has made us see more clearly.” He promoted E Qianqiu to Marquis Anping, increasing his fiefdom. He also awarded the father, son and brothers of Xiao He, more than ten people with fief. He increased the fiefdom of Xiao He by two thousand households.
The Remnant of Ancient Yunmeng Lake–Hong Lake in Hubei Province
The 6th year of the Emperor Gaozu(201 B.C.)
In October, during the winter, someone reported to the emperor that Han Xin, the king of Chu, was plotting a rebellion. The emperor consulted his generals, and they all said, “Send out troops immediately and bury that brat!” The emperor remained silent.
He then consulted Chen Ping. Chen Ping asked, “Does Han Xin know that someone has informed on him about this plot?”
The emperor replied, “He does not.”
Chen Ping continued, “Is Your Majesty’s army superior to that of the king of Chu?”
The emperor admitted, “Mine is not as good as his.”
“Among Your Majesty’s generals, is there anyone who is a better commander than Han Xin?”
“None of them is as good as Han Xin,” the emperor conceded.
“Now, an inferior commander leading an inferior army to attack the army of Chu will only force them to strike back. I am deeply concerned for Your Majesty.”
“What should we do?”
Chen Ping proposed his plan: “In the past, emperors would go on hunting trips and summon the monarchs along the way. Your Majesty could go out under the pretense of touring the hunting grounds of Yunmeng lake and summon the kings to meet in Chen county. Chen is on the western border of the kingdom of Chu. When Han Xin hears that Your Majesty is simply touring, he won’t be on guard and will come out to greet you. At that meeting, Your Majesty can arrest him. It would only take a strongman to capture him then.”
The emperor thought it was a good idea. He sent out messengers to invite the monarchs to meet in Chen County: “We are going south to tour Yunmeng.” After the messengers left, the emperor began his journey.
The King of Chu, Han Xin, heard of the emperor’s arrival. Suspicious and frightened, he was unsure what to do. One of his advisors suggested: “Behead Zhongli Mo and present his head to the emperor. The emperor will be pleased, and you will be safe.” Han Xin followed this advice.
In December, the emperor met the monarchs in Chen county. Han Xin arrived, carrying Zhongli Mo’s head. The emperor ordered his guards to seize Han Xin and threw him into a caged cart. Han Xin lamented: “It is just as people say, ‘Hounds are cooked when all the foxes and rabbits are killed. Good bows are stored away when all the flying birds are shot down. Strategists are dead when enemy states are destroyed.’ I will surely be boiled to death now that the world is pacified.” The emperor replied, “Someone revealed that you were plotting a mutiny.” Han Xin was shackled as the emperor returned home, announcing another amnesty.
Tian Ken congratulated the emperor: “Your Majesty has captured Han Xin and brought the entire Qin kingdom under control. Qin enjoys a geographical advantage, surrounded by mountains and rivers, making its position strategically favorable. Launching a military campaign against other monarchs would be like pouring water from a high building. Now, let’s consider the kingdom of Qi. To the east, it has the fertile lands of Langya and Jimo; to the south, the solid shield of Mount Tai; to the west, the natural barrier of the Yellow River; and to the north, the resources of the Bohai Sea. It spans two thousand miles and commands an army of one million soldiers. The kingdom of Qi in the east is the strategic equivalent to Qin in the west. No one should rule Qi except for one of your brothers or sons.”
The emperor agreed: “A good point!” and awarded him five hundred pounds of gold.
The emperor pardoned Han Xin upon his return to Luoyang and demoted him to Marquis of Huaiyin. Han Xin understood that the emperor feared his military prowess and personal abilities, so he rarely attended court, often claiming illness. He felt indolent and ashamed to be ranked alongside Marquis Jiang, Zhou Bo, and Marquis Yi, Guan Ying. Once, he visited the home of General Fan Kuai. Fan Kuai, referring to himself as a servant, gave kneeling salutes when welcoming or sending him off. He said, “I deeply appreciate that Sire is willing to visit this servant.” After leaving, Han Xin laughed at himself, saying, “I’ve fallen so low as to keep company with the likes of Fan Kuai.”
The emperor casually asked Han Xin how many soldiers each of the generals could command.
The emperor said, “How many soldiers could I command?”
Han Xin replied, “Your Majesty could command no more than one hundred thousand.”
“And how many could you command, General Han?”
“For me, the more, the better.”
The emperor laughed, “The more, the better? Then how did I capture you?”
“Your Majesty may not be the best at commanding soldiers, but you are the best at commanding generals. That’s why Han Xin is your captive. Your ability is granted by Heaven, beyond what human effort can achieve.”
On December 22, the emperor began distributing tallies and awarding Marquis titles. Xiao He was granted the title of Marquis of Zan, a fiefdom with many households. Other high achievers complained, “We earned our merits on the battlefield. Some of us have fought in hundreds of battles, while the least experienced have fought in at least tens of them. Xiao He hasn’t fought in any; he only handled bookkeeping and administration. Why does his fiefdom have more households than ours?”
The emperor replied, “Do you know how hunting works? Chasing and killing the prey is the job of the hound dogs. Giving instructions on where the prey lives is the job of the hunter. You who fought on the battlefield are meritorious hounds. Xiao He, who gave the instructions, is a meritorious hunter.” These words silenced the generals.
Zhang Liang, a strategist with no battlefield feats, was also honored. The emperor asked him to choose a fiefdom of thirty thousand households anywhere in the kingdom of Qi. Zhang Liang declined the offer, saying, “I came from Xia’pi and met Your Majesty at Liu county. It was Heaven’s will that I serve you. Your Majesty heeded my advice, and things worked out. It would be more than enough to grant me Liu county. I dare not accept thirty thousand households.” The emperor then made Zhang Liang the Marquis of Liu.
Chen Ping was granted the title of Marquis Huyou. Chen Ping also demurred, “It does not match my merits.”
The emperor insisted, “I followed your ideas and won many battles. If that doesn’t count as achievement, what does?”
One of the Temples Worshiping Chisongzi, Hong Kong
The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)
Lou Jing, from the kingdom of Qi, was sent to a garrison in Longxi Commandery. While passing through Luoyang, he visited his fellow townsman, General Yu of Qi, wearing a sheepskin coat and pulling a cart. He asked General Yu to introduce him to the Emperor. General Yu wanted to provide him with better attire for the meeting, but Lou Jing refused, saying, “If I come in silk, I will meet his majesty in silk. If I come in plain cloth, I will meet his majesty in plain cloth. I dare not dress differently.” General Yu mentioned Lou Jing to the Emperor, who agreed to meet him.
When the Emperor sought his advice, Lou Jing asked, “Does your majesty intend to compete with the Zhou dynasty in terms of prosperity by choosing Luoyang as the capital?”
The Emperor replied, “Yes.”
Lou Jing continued, “Your majesty took over the country in a way very different from the Zhou dynasty. The ancestor of Zhou, Hou Ji, was awarded the fiefdom Tai State. From that time, the family followed a virtuous path, accumulating merit and charity over several generations. Then came King Tai, King Ji, King Wen, and King Wu of Zhou, whom other monarchs admired and supported. King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty and became emperor. When King Cheng of Zhou ascended the throne and the Duke of Zhou served as prime minister, they chose Luoyang as the capital because it was centrally located, making it equally accessible for all the monarchs to pay tributes and report to the Emperor.”
“A virtuous king easily becomes emperor, while an unethical king is easily destroyed. During the prime of the Zhou dynasty, the country was at peace and harmony, with all the monarchs and neighboring foreigners compliant and paying tribute. But as the Zhou dynasty declined, no one paid homage anymore, and the emperor lost control over the country. He not only lost his moral authority but was also in a weaker position. Now, your majesty began the uprising in the town of Feng in Pei county, prevailed over Shu and Hanzhong commandery, and then conquered the three kingdoms of Qin. Your majesty fought Xiang Yu between Xingyang and Chenggao, enduring more than seventy major battles and forty minor ones. The people of this country have suffered extreme cruelty. Countless bodies of fathers and sons lie scattered in the fields, the cries of the bereaved have not ceased, and the wounded have not yet risen from their beds. We are not in a position comparable to the time of King Cheng or King Kang of Zhou.”
“The former kingdom of Qin has mountains at its back and is encircled by rivers. Fortresses have been built at strategic mountain passes on all four sides. In an emergency, a million soldiers could be mobilized instantly. With Qin’s infrastructure and fertile land, it is a god-blessed stronghold. If your majesty chooses to establish the capital within the Hangu Pass, the land of Qin will be secure, even if there are rebellions east of Xiao Mountain. In hand-to-hand combat, it is not a total victory unless you can grab your opponent by the throat and strike from his back. By securing the former kingdom of Qin as the capital, your majesty essentially grabs the country by its throat and slaps its back.”
The Emperor consulted other ministers, all of whom were from east of the Xiao Mountains. They tripped over each other to offer their opinions: “The Zhou dynasty lasted for centuries, while the Qin dynasty perished within only two generations. Luoyang has Chenggao to the east, Xiao Mountain and Mianchi Lake to the west. It is backed by the Yellow River and faces the Yi River and Luo River, making its defensive position reliable.”
The Emperor then sought advice from Zhang Liang. Zhang Liang said, “Luoyang is defensible, but its core area is too small, and the farming soil is poor. It is vulnerable to attacks from all directions and not an ideal place to engage in a long battle. Guanzhong, on the other hand, is different. It has Xiao Mountain and Hangu Pass to its east, Long Mountain and the Shu commandery to its west, with thousands of miles of fertile land. It is enriched by the wealth of Ba and Shu commanderies to the south and benefits from the nomads’ pastures to the north. It is protected on three sides, leaving only the eastern monarchs to deal with. If these monarchs are peaceful, the Yellow and Wei rivers can serve as conduits to transport resources westward to the capital. If they rebel, troops can swiftly move downstream, and supply lines won’t be a problem. That is why Guanzhong is known as the ‘Thousand Miles of Metal City’ or ‘God-blessed Home Base.’ Lou Jing knows what he is talking about.”
The Emperor immediately set out westward and established Chang’an as the capital. He appointed Lou Jing as a court guard and granted him the title of Lord Fengchun. Additionally, he honored Lou Jing by bestowing his own surname, Liu, upon him.
Zhang Liang had been in poor health and practiced a therapeutic Daoist art since following the Emperor into the west of Hangu Pass. He adopted a strict diet, avoiding grain, and rarely left his house. He declared, “My family served as prime ministers of Hán for generations. I spent ten thousand caddies of gold to avenge the brutal Qin when the kingdom of Hán was annihilated, and I made an impact on the country. I was fortunate enough to become the emperor’s advisor and was granted a fief of ten thousand households just by moving my three-inch tongue and sharing my counsel. This is the highest position a commoner could ever achieve—far beyond what I desired. Now, I wish to follow Chisongzi, a Daoist immortal, to wander freely and leave behind the troubles of the human world.”
Sima Guang’s commentary: Death after life is as natural as night following day. From ancient times to the present, no one has escaped fate to achieve immortality. Zhang Zifang was a rational man and must have known that immortality was a fantasy. His wisdom was evident in his talk of following Chisongzi’s path. Fame and success are the hardest trials a minister faces. The Emperor praised none more than the three standouts—yet Marquis Huaiyin and his clan were extirpated, and Xiao He was imprisoned. Isn’t it because they did not stop when their lives reached their peaks? Zhang Zifang wisely turned his life over to the gods, discarding wealth and fame, and leaving the secular world. He is an example of someone who saved himself and his philosophy.
The Emperor announced a nationwide amnesty on June 9th.
In July of the fall, Zang Tu, the king of Yan, rebelled, prompting the Emperor to personally lead the campaign to suppress the mutiny.
Zang Tu was captured in September, and Marquis Chang’an, Lu Wan, who served as the grand commandant, was appointed the king of Yan. Lu Wan had grown up in the same neighborhood as the Emperor and was born on the same day, a bond unmatched by anyone else. His appointment as king was a unique honor.
Li Ji, a general under Xiang Yu, also mounted an insurrection, which the emperor personally quelled, bringing Li Ji into custody.
The construction of Changle Palace began in late September.
Zhongli Mo, a general under Xiang Yu, was a close friend of Han Xin, the king of Chu. He joined Han Xin‘s command. The Emperor, harboring a grudge against Zhongli Mo, issued a decree for his arrest upon learning of his escape to the kingdom of Chu.
When Han Xin traveled to Chu for his inauguration, his large entourage was heavily armed as they passed through the towns and counties of his fiefdom state.
The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)
After Peng Yue accepted his titles from the Empire of Han, Tian Heng of Qi, who had taken refuge under Peng Yue, feared for his life. He, along with 500 followers, fled to an island in the ocean. The emperor saw Tian Heng and his brothers as potential rebel threats, given their previous control over the Kingdom of Qi. He sent an envoy to offer amnesty to Tian Heng and his followers, summoning him to the capital.
Tian Heng thanked the envoy but declined the invitation, saying, “I boiled His Majesty’s envoy, Mr. Li Yiji, to death, whose brother is a general of Han. I am too afraid to answer His Majesty’s call. I prefer to defend this island as a commoner.”
When the envoy reported back, the emperor issued a decree to General Li Shang, commander of the capital security forces: “Tian Heng is coming. Anyone who dares harm Tian Heng or any of his followers will be executed along with their entire clan.” The emperor then sent the envoy back with his royal insignia and the decree, summoning Tian Heng again. He promised, “Tian Heng will be awarded the title of king at best, or marquis at worst, if he comes voluntarily. If he does not, an armed force will be sent to capture him.”
Tian Heng and two of his attendants traveled toward the capital, Luoyang, in a government vehicle. They stopped for the night at a lodge about thirty miles from the capital, in a town called Shixiang. Tian Heng insisted on staying overnight, telling the envoy, “I need to take a bath before I meet the emperor.” Then, speaking privately to his attendants, he said, “The King of Han and I were both kings in our own right. We both sat facing south and referred to ourselves as ‘we.’ Now, the King of Han is emperor, and Tian Heng is a fugitive. I must face north and serve as his subject. The humiliation is unbearable. Moreover, I boiled the brother of Li Shang alive, and now I am expected to serve the same lord alongside him. Even if Li Shang spares me out of respect for the emperor’s decree, don’t I feel guilt in my own heart? As for the emperor wanting to see me, he likely just wants to see what I look like. If you sever my head and rush it to him, my face won’t change much in thirty miles, and His Majesty will still see me.”
With that, Tian Heng slit his own throat. His attendants severed his head and, along with the envoy, rushed to present it to the emperor. Upon seeing it, the emperor was moved and said, “Ah! Though lowborn, Tian Heng and his three brothers each became Kings of Qi, one after another. Are they not remarkable men?” The emperor shed tears and appointed Tian Heng’s two attendants as commanders, assigning them two thousand soldiers to conduct a funeral with the rites of a king.
After the burial, the two attendants dug their own graves beside Tian Heng‘s tomb. They slit their throats and followed their lord in death. Upon hearing the news, the emperor was astonished and declared that all of Tian Heng‘s attendants were honorable and worthy men. He sent the emissary back to the island to summon Tian Heng’s five hundred remaining followers. However, upon learning of Tian Heng’s death, all of his followers committed suicide en masse.
Ji Bu, a native of the Kingdom of Chu, had served as a general under Xiang Ji. Over the course of his career, he had cornered the emperor several times, causing him significant distress. After Xiang Ji‘s downfall, the emperor placed a bounty of a thousand ounces of gold on Ji Bu’s head, declaring that anyone harboring him would face the extermination of their entire family.
To escape this fate, Ji Bu shaved his head, donned an iron neck collar, and sold himself into slavery to a nobleman named Zhu Jia, who knowingly purchased him despite recognizing who he was. Zhu Jia hid Ji Bu in his country estate and traveled to Luoyang, where he sought the assistance of Duke Teng, Xiahou Ying. Zhu Jia argued, “What crime has Ji Bu committed? He was simply loyal to his lord and did his duty. Are you going to execute every subject of Xiang Yu? His Majesty has just unified the country—how magnanimous would it be to settle old grudges against a single man? Ji Bu is talented, and if pushed too far, he may flee north to join the nomads or south to join the Yue tribes. Forcing a warrior into the arms of your enemies out of personal resentment would be as senseless as driving Wu Zixu away, who led troops of Wu back, dug up the tomb of King Jingping of Chu and whipped his corpse. Why not speak to His Majesty on Ji Bu’s behalf?”
Duke Teng relayed Zhu Jia’s words to the emperor when the opportunity arose. The emperor, moved by the argument, granted Ji Bu a pardon and appointed him as a guard of the royal court. Zhu Jia, having secured Ji Bu‘s safety, would never see him again.
Ji Bu’s half-brother, Ding Gong, also served as a general under Xiang Yu. He had cornered the emperor west of Pengcheng, and they were about to engage in a duel when the emperor made eye contact and desperately pleaded, “Why should two good men fight each other?” Moved by this, Ding Gong withdrew with his soldiers back to camp. After Xiang Yu‘s defeat, Ding Gong requested an audience with the emperor. However, the emperor publicly humiliated him, having him dragged through the camp, declaring, “Ding Gong did not show loyalty while serving King Xiang Yu. It was officers like him who caused King Xiang Yu’s failure to conquer the country.” He then ordered Ding Gong’s execution, warning, “New officers must not follow Ding Gong’s example.”
Sima Guang’s commentary: Emperor Gaozu had been recruiting talent and accepting many deserters and defectors since he rose from Feng town in Pei County. Why did he execute only Ding Gong for disloyalty after becoming the emperor? Because conquest and preservation are different situations. When multiple strongmen were competing for supremacy, no one knew who would prevail, so it was wise to gather anyone who came your way. Once he became the supreme sovereign, however, everyone in the country became his subject. If people are not educated in propriety and righteousness, and if they all pursue their own interests, could the country remain peaceful? That is why the emperor judged Ding Gong based on higher principles. He made it clear to the people that disloyalty was unacceptable. Even though Ding Gong had done him a personal favor by sparing his life, it was not a righteous act. The emperor considered the long-term impact: by executing one man to warn millions, didn’t he think profoundly? It is not difficult to see his descendants ruled the country for four hundred years.
The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)
The King of Han returned from the front and stopped by the city of Dingtao. He rushed into the camp of the King of Qi, Han Xin, and forcefully stripped him of his commander’s seal.
The King of Linjiang, Gong Wei, refused to surrender, so the King of Han sent General Lu Wan and Liu Jia to attack his kingdom, eventually capturing him.
In January of that spring, Han Xin’s title was changed from King of Qi to King of Chu. He was given reign of the area to the north Huai river, with his capital in the city of Xia’pi. Marquis Jiancheng and the prime minister of Wei, Peng Yue, was granted the title of King of Liang. He ruled mostly over the former kingdom of Wei, with his capital in the city of Dingtao.
The King of Han issued an edict: “The incessant wars have lasted for eight years, and the soldiers have had no respite. The people are also suffering and exhausted. Now that the war is over, all convicts, except those sentenced to death, are granted amnesty.”
The kings all submitted requests to honor the King of Han as the emperor. On February 3, the King of Han was inaugurated as the emperor on the north bank of the Si River. The Queen of Han became the empress, and their eldest son was made the crown prince. The emperor’s late mother was posthumously honored with the title Lady Zhaoling.
The emperor issued a proclamation: “The former King of Hengshan, Wu Rui, led troops from Baiyue to join the coalition against the brutal Qin Empire. He made great contributions, and the allied forces honored him as a king. Xiang Yu seized his land and insultingly called him ‘Lord of Aliens.’ We now restore his title as King of Changsha.”
Another proclamation followed: “The former King of Yue, Wuzhu, maintained the ancestral shrine of the Yue people for generations. The Qin Empire invaded their land and deprived their state deity of sacrifices. When the allied forces fought against Qin, Wuzhu led troops from Minzhong to help overthrow Qin rule. Xiang Yu abolished the Qin government but did not establish a new one. We now honor Wuzhu as King of Minyue, ruling the land of Minzhong.”
The emperor moved the capital westward to the city of Luoyang.
In May, during the summer, a massive disarmament took place, and a large number of soldiers returned home.
The emperor’s decree stated: “During the war, many people fled to mountains and lakes, living in hiding and were not properly registered. Now that the country is at peace, you are ordered to return to the county where you lived before the war. Your previous ranks and properties, as recorded in the registry, will be restored to you. Government officials are instructed to educate discharged servicemen with laws and reason, avoiding corporal punishment or insults. Veterans of the seventh rank and above will receive government stipends for food, while veterans below the seventh rank and their households will be exempted from taxes and mandatory public service.”
The emperor hosted a banquet with wine in the south palace of Luoyang. He began a conversation with the guests, saying, “Gentlemen and generals, speak freely and do not avoid the question! Why do I rule the country, and why did Mr. Xiang lose it?”
Gao Qi and Wang Ling responded, “When Your Majesty sent someone to seize a city or conquer land, the one who succeeded was rewarded with that city or land. Your Majesty shared the spoils of victory with everyone. Xiang Yu did the opposite—he was jealous of those who achieved great things and suspicious of those with exceptional talents. That’s why he lost the country.”
The emperor replied, “You have identified one reason, but you missed a more important one. In the art of strategizing from the headquarters and predicting the outcome of battles fought thousands of miles away, I was not as skilled as Zifang (Zhang Liang’s courtesy name). In the task of managing government affairs and maintaining a supply chain to support the war, I was not as capable as Xiao He. In commanding a million soldiers, winning every battle, and breaking through every stronghold, I was not as talented as Han Xin. These three are extraordinary masters, and I employed them—that’s why I won the realm. Xiang Yu had Fan Zeng, but he did not heed his advice, which is why I was able to entrap him.”
All the attendants were captivated by his remark.
Han Xin returned to his homeland of Chu as king. He summoned the old laundry woman who had once helped him and rewarded her with a thousand caddies of gold. He also called for the young man who had humiliated him by forcing him to crawl between his legs and promoted him to the position of captain of the court guards. Addressing his officers, Han Xin said, “This man has guts. I could have killed him when he insulted me, but there was no point in taking the life of someone insignificant at the time, so I endured it.”
In October of that winter, the King of Han pursued King Xiang Yu to Guling. He arranged a meeting with Han Xin, the King of Qi, and Peng Yue, the Prime Minister of Wei, to plan an assault on the army of Chu. However, Han Xin and Peng Yue did not attend. King Xiang Yu struck back at the Han forces and dealt them a severe blow. The Han troops retreated to their camps and refused to engage further.
The King of Han asked Zhang Liang, “What should we do now that our allies haven’t come to our aid?”
Zhang Liang replied, “The Kingdom of Chu is on the verge of collapse, but these two generals haven’t yet secured their territories. Their absence was to be expected. If Your Majesty is willing to share the land, they will come at once. The enthronement of Han Xin as King of Qi was not your original intent, and he is aware of that and not convinced of your trust. Peng Yue conquered the lands of Wei, yet Your Majesty only appointed him Prime Minister due to the presence of Wei Bao. Now that Wei Bao is dead, Peng Yue expects to be enthroned, but Your Majesty has hesitated.”
“If Your Majesty grants the land from Suiyang county to the north, up to Gucheng, as Peng Yue‘s kingdom, and makes him king; and if you give the land from ancient State of Chen to the east, all the way to the East Ocean, to Han Xin, the King of Qi, they will join us immediately. Han Xin‘s home is in the Kingdom of Chu, and his intention would be to reclaim it. If Your Majesty cedes these lands and gives them authority to manage their battles, the downfall of Chu will not be difficult.”
The King of Han followed Zhang Liang’s advice, and Han Xin and Peng Yue soon led their troops to join him, as expected.
In November, General Liu Jia crossed the Huai River to the south and laid siege to the city of Shouchun. He sent an emissary to persuade King Xiang Yu’s Grand Marshal, Zhou Yin, to defect. Zhou Yin betrayed the Kingdom of Chu and led troops from Shu county in a massacre in Lu county. He then organized the soldiers of Jiujiang to welcome their former king, Qingbu. Afterward, he moved to Chengfu county, where he carried out another massacre before joining forces with General Liu Jia.
In December, King Xiang Yu reached Gaixia. His army had dwindled, and they were running out of food. All his battles against the Han forces had ended in failure, and they were now trapped in bastions. The Han army, along with allied forces, surrounded his camps in multiple layers. One night, King Xiang Yu heard folk songs of Chu being sung by the Han soldiers from all sides. Astonished, he exclaimed, “Has the Han army taken over all of Chu? Why are so many Chu folks here?” He rose, drank liquor in his tent, and, overcome with emotion, began singing sorrowful songs, tears streaming down his face. Those around him sobbed, not daring to look at him.
That night, King Xiang Yu mounted his favorite steed, named Zhui, and led 800 elite cavalrymen to break through the encirclement. They rode south at high speed, and it was not until dawn that the Han army realized they had fled. General Guan Ying was ordered to pursue them with 5,000 cavalrymen. King Xiang Yu managed to cross the Huai River, but by then, only about a hundred cavalrymen remained with him. They became lost near Yinling town and asked a farmer for directions. The farmer said, “Turn left.” They followed his advice and were soon trapped in a large swamp, where the Han cavalry caught up with them.
King Xiang Yu fled east again and reached Dongcheng county with only 28 cavalrymen remaining. Several thousand Han cavalry were in pursuit. Realizing he could not escape, Xiang Yu spoke to his followers: “It has been eight years since I took up arms. I have fought more than seventy battles and never been defeated. That is why I am the hegemon of the land. Yet, now we are besieged. This is the will of Heaven, not my failure as a warrior. In this final duel of life and death, I want to fight for sport and claim at least three victories: breaking the encirclement, beheading an enemy commander, and cutting down their banner. I want to prove to you that it is Heaven’s will, not my own shortcomings, that has doomed us.”
He divided his riders into four groups, each facing a different direction, as the Han cavalry encircled them in multiple layers. Xiang Yu told his followers, “I will take out one of their commanders for you.” He then ordered them to charge in all four directions and regroup at three points over the mountain to the east. Xiang Yu roared as he charged into the Han formation, causing their soldiers to panic and flee. He beheaded a Han commander in the chaos.
A Han cavalry court guard named Yang Xi pursued Xiang Yu, but when Xiang Yu turned and stared at him with a thunderous shout, both Yang Xi and his horse were so terrified that they retreated several miles before recovering their nerve.
Xiang Yu met his followers at the three rendezvous points. The Han pursuers, unsure where he was, split their forces into three groups to surround each location. Xiang Yu charged the Han troops once more, beheading another commander and killing dozens of Han soldiers. When the group regrouped again, only two horsemen were missing.
His men, filled with admiration, dismounted and said, “Exactly as Your Majesty said!”
King Xiang Yu planned to cross the Yangtze River at the town of Wujiang, where the post chief of Wujiang ford had prepared a boat for him. The chief urged him, “Jiangdong region may not be large, but it covers thousands of miles and has a population in the hundreds of thousands. It is enough for Your Majesty to reclaim power. Please cross quickly—only I have boats, and the Han soldiers won’t be able to follow.”
Xiang Yu laughed and reconsidered: “Why should I cross the river if Heaven has already doomed me? I, Xiang Ji, crossed this river with 8,000 sons of Jiangdong and launched my western campaign. Today, not one of them returned with me. Even if the people of Jiangdong still love me and make me their king, I don’t have the heart to face them again! They may not say a word, but how could I not feel ashamed?”
He gave his horse, Zhui, as a gift to the post chief and ordered his guards to dismount for one final battle. Xiang Yu fought hand-to-hand with a sword, killing hundreds of Han soldiers on his own, though he was wounded in more than ten places.
During the fight, Xiang Yu saw a cavalry major, Lü Matong, and asked, “Aren’t you an old friend of mine?” Lü Matong dared not face Xiang Yu, turned to calvary court guard Wang Yi, and pointed to the king, “This is King Xiang Yu!”
Xiang Yu responded, “I’ve heard the Kingdom of Han has offered 1,000 ounces of gold and a fief of 10,000 households for my head. I’ll repay you a favor for your kindness.” With that, he slashed his own throat.
Wang Yi took Xiang Yu’s head, but chaos erupted as Han cavalrymen trampled each other, each trying to claim a piece of Xiang Yu’s body. In the mayhem, dozens of soldiers died. Ultimately, five men—Yang Xi, Lü Matong, Lü Sheng, Yang Wu, and Wang Yi—each claimed a piece of Xiang Yu. Together, they confirmed the remains and received the reward. Each was given a fief of 2,000 households and the title of marquis.
All the cities of the Kingdom of Chu had surrendered to Han rule, except for the county of Lu. The King of Han led the army of the entire country to attack the city. As they approached the city walls, they heard chanting and music from within. The King of Han realized that this was Xiang Yu’s fiefdom, and the people of Lu remained defiant because of their loyalty to him and adherence to the rites.
The King of Han then showed Xiang Yu‘s severed head to the people of Lu, and the city capitulated. He ordered that Xiang Yu‘s funeral be conducted in the name of the Duke of Lu and had him buried in Gucheng county. The King of Han attended the ceremony himself and wept at the altar. He pardoned all members of the Xiang family, granting Xiang Bo and three others the title of marquis and the surname Liu. Additionally, he allowed those who had been forcibly relocated to Chu to return to their original homes.
The great historian Sima Qian once commented: Xiang Yu rose from obscurity and dismantled the Qin Empire with the help of five allied monarchs in just three years. He divided the land and granted his followers the titles of king and marquis, becoming the de facto ruler of the country. Although his reign ended poorly, his achievements were nonetheless remarkable in history. Yearning for his home state of Chu, he abandoned the strategic region of Guanzhong. He exiled the honorary emperor and usurped power. Given this, it is difficult to fault the kings and marquises he elevated, who later turned against him. Xiang Yu was overly confident in his military prowess and trusted his own judgment, often deviating from established norms. He sought hegemony and ambitious control but relied solely on brute force to govern. He ultimately perished in the east, and his kingdom was destroyed. Even in defeat, he refused to acknowledge his faults, blaming his downfall on fate, claiming, “It was Heaven that doomed me, not my military failure.” How absurd!
In his Exemplary Sayings, Yang Xiong commented: Someone asked, “The King of Chu failed at Gaixia. Before his death, he claimed it was Heaven’s will. Does that make sense?” The answer was: “The King of Han sought advice from many, and more ideas overcame more brute force. The King of Chu, on the other hand, discouraged counsel and weakened his own position. Victory goes to those who triumph through wisdom. Defeat comes to those who undermine themselves. What does Heaven have to do with it?”
A Sword believed to belong to the King of Yue, Gou Jian. Photo by Siyuwj
The 4th year of the Emperor Gaozu(203 B.C. continued)
Scholar Kuai Che, seeing that Han Xin held the key to the outcome of the war, approached Han Xin with an elaborate analogy disguised as physiognomy: “When I observe your face, I see the fortune of a marquis, which is insecure and perilous. But when I look at your back, I see a great destiny indescribable.”
Han Xin, puzzled, asked, “What are you talking about?”
Kuai Che explained, “At the outset of the rebellion the goal was to overthrow the Qin Empire. Now, the conflict between Chu and Han has devastated the central region of the country. The dead litter the land, and the bones of fathers and sons lie exposed in the fields. The people of Chu, from their uprising in Pengcheng, battled as they pursued the retreating enemy, took advantage of their victories to sweep forward, and shook the world with their might. But now, the Chu army is stuck between Jing County and Suocheng town, pressing against the western mountains but unable to advance for three years. While the King of Han, commanding hundreds of thousands, holds the defensive positions of Gong County and the Luo River, protected by natural barriers of mountains and rivers, fights multiple battles daily but gains not an inch of land, retreating to the north barely saving themself. The courageous and the shrewd are caught in a stalemate.”
“The common people are exhausted and resentful, with no one to rely on. In my estimation, under such circumstances, it is not possible for anyone but a truly wise and holy person to bring an end to the calamities of the world. The fate of both rulers now hangs on your decision: if you support Han, Han will win; if you side with Chu, Chu will win. If you heed my advice, it would be best to ensure mutual benefit and preserve both. By dividing the world into three, standing like the legs of a tripod, no one will dare to make the first move. With your wisdom and virtue, the armed forces under your command, the stronghold of Qi, and alliances with Zhao and Yan, you could advance through the vulnerable regions and control the rear, responding to the people’s desires by marching west to demand justice for them. The entire world would rally behind you—who would dare not listen?”
“By weakening the strong and strengthening the weak, you could establish vassal lords. Once the vassal lords are established, the world will submit, and Qi will receive their loyalty. Given Qi‘s historical influence over the lands of Jiao River and Si River, if you humbly bow and yield to other lords, the kings of the world will follow suit and come to pay tribute to Qi.”
“Remember the saying: ‘Heaven offers but is not taken, one will instead incur its blame; the time arrives but action is not taken, one will instead suffer its misfortune.’ The time has come, and if you don’t act now, you might regret it forever.”
However, Han Xin remained unmoved and replied, “The King of Han has treated me with immense kindness. How could I betray him for my own gain?”
Kuai Che pressed further: “Look at the King of Changshan (Zhang Er) and Lord Cheng’an (Chen Yu). They were once close friends, but after the incident involving Zhan Yan and Chen Ze, they fell out. In the end, Zhang Er killed Chen Yu near the Zhi River and severed his head. Their friendship was once the best in the world, yet they became enemies. Why? Human nature and ambition are unpredictable. You may think your loyalty to the King of Han will protect you, but it might not.”
“Consider the case of Wen Zhong, the minister who saved the Kingdom of Yue and helped King Gou Jian become a hegemon. After his achievements, Wen Zhong was put to death. As the saying goes, ‘The hunting dogs are cooked when all the prey are caught.’ In terms of trust, your relationship with the King of Han is not as deep as the friendship between Zhang Er and Chen Yu. In terms of loyalty, you are not as close to the King of Han as Wen Zhong was to King Gou Jian. These are clear signs.”
“I urge you to think carefully. There’s another saying: ‘A man’s power becomes dangerous when it overshadows his lord’s, and his merits bring no reward when they surpass all others.’ You are now so powerful that you make your lord feel small, and your achievements are unmatched. The people of Chu won’t trust you if you go to Chu, and the people of Han will fear you if you stay with Han. With so much at stake, where will you go?”
Han Xin thanked Kuai Che, “Professor, there’s no need to say more. I will think about it.”
Kuai Che returned a few days later and said: “Listening to advice shows you what comes next; making a plan tells you when to act. It’s rare for someone who refuses to listen or plan to last long. Understanding leads to swift decisions; hesitation brings mishaps. Being caught up in minor pros and cons while missing the bigger picture, or delaying action when you already foresee the future, are common pitfalls. Execution is difficult and prone to failure; opportunities are rare and easily missed. A chance is here, it won’t come again!”
Han Xin was still indecisive. He couldn’t bear to turn his back on the King of Han. He believed his merits were so significant that the king would not take the Kingdom of Qi from him. Ultimately, he ignored Kuai Che‘s advice. After that, Kuai Che left Han Xin. He pretended to be insane and made a living as a shaman.
In July of that autumn, the King of Han granted the title of King of Huainan to Ying Bu.
In August, the northern tribe of Beihe and the Kingdom of Yan sent cavalry to support the King of Han.
The King of Han issued an edict requiring local officials to inter the remains of fallen soldiers and ensure their coffins return home. This edict received widespread accolades throughout the country.
The King of Han promoted Zhou Chang from his position as court security chief to the role of grand master of censorate. Zhou Chang was a cousin of Zhou Ke.
Xiang Yu sensed his isolation. His troops were facing food shortages and attacks from Han Xin, and he was deeply concerned. The King of Han sent his envoy, Hou Gong, to Xiang Yu, requesting the return of his father. Xiang Yu agreed to a treaty with the King of Han, dividing the country into two: the land west of Honggou (Great Gulch, a canal dug in the Qin dynasty) would belong to the Kingdom of Han, while the land to the east would belong to the Kingdom of Chu.In September, Xiang Yu sent back King of Han‘s father and Queen Lü. He withdrew his troops and retreated to the east. The King of Han was preparing to return to the west when Zhang Liang and Chen Ping advised against it: “The Kingdom of Han controls more than half of the country and has the support of other monarchs. The Chu troops are exhausted and starving. This is a rare opportunity. If we don’t strike now, it will be like feeding a tiger back to full strength and leaving a threat for the future.” The King of Han followed their advice.
Reflection by Rio Grande 