Baiyun Temple in Minquan (Waihuang) county, Henan Province
The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C. continued)
Xiang Liang defeated Zhang Han in Dong’e county. His troops advanced westward and crushed the Qin army at Dingtao. Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei then engaged the Qin forces at Yongqiu county, delivered another severe beating, and beheaded Li You, Li Si’s eldest son. Buoyed by these victories, Xiang Liang grew arrogant and began to underestimate the Qin army. Song Yi, the former Prime Minister of Chu, warned him, “Commanders become cocky and soldiers become sloppy after many victories, which often lead to defeat. Our soldiers are slackening while the Qin army is gaining strength. I worry for you.” Xiang Liang dismissed his advice and sent Song Yi to the Kingdom of Qi as his envoy.
On the road, Song Yi encountered the ambassador of Qi, Lord Gaoling, whose name was Xian. He asked Lord Gaoling, “Are you going to meet Lord Wuxin?” Lord Gaoling affirmed. Song Yi replied, “In my opinion, Lord Wuxin‘s troops will soon suffer a major loss. You would avoid death if you proceed slowly, by rushing in you’ll plunge into a disaster.”
There were continuous rainfalls from July to September.
Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei laid siege to Waihuang county but failed to break in. They withdrew and attacked Chenliu county instead. Then came the news that Lord Wuxin was dead, which shook the rank and file. They led their troops eastward and joined forces with General Lü Chen. Together, they moved King Huai II of Chu from the capital Xuyi to the new capital, Pengcheng. Lü Chen‘s troops camped to the east of Pengcheng, while Xiang Yu‘s forces camped to the west. The Duke of Pei and his followers took a rest at Dang county.
Wei Bao had taken control of over twenty cities of Wei, and King Huai II of Chu awarded him the title of King of Wei.
In late September, King Huai II of Chu reorganized the troops under Lü Chen and Xiang Yu, bringing them directly under his command. He appointed the Duke of Pei as the prefect of Dang Commandery, granting him the title of Marquis Wu’an and command of the forces there. He also granted Xiang Yu the title of Marquis Chang’an with the moniker Duke of Lu. Lü Chen was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs, and his father, Lü Qing, became the Prime Minister.
Zhang Han, believing that the armed forces of Chu were no longer a serious threat after the death of Xiang Liang, crossed the Yellow River and launched a raid on the Kingdom of Zhao. He crushed the Zhao army, conquered the city of Handan, relocated its residents to the south of the Yellow River, and dismantled the city’s fortifications. Zhang Er and the King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, fled to Julu county. General Wang Li of Qin then laid siege to Julu. Chen Yu regrouped tens of thousands of soldiers around Changshan commandery and camped to the north of Julu, while Zhang Han stationed his army in a town Jiyuan, to the south of Julu. The King of Zhao repeatedly appealed to the Kingdom of Chu for reinforcements.
Lord Gaoling, whose name is Xian, met with King Huai II of Chu and shared his conversation with Song Yi: “Song Yi predicted Lord Wuxin‘s demise. I stayed put for a few days, and indeed, the news came that the army of Chu had collapsed. He must be well-versed in warfare if he could foresee the outcome of a battle before it even began.” Impressed, King Huai II summoned Song Yi to discuss upcoming battles and was greatly impressed with his strategic plans. As a result, he appointed Song Yi as Commander-in-Chief, Xiang Yu as his lieutenant, and Fan Zeng as a General. He ordered them to come to the aid of Zhao, placing all other generals under Song Yi‘s command and granting him the title of Generalissimo.
King Huai II of Chu had made a pact among his commanders: “Whoever breaks into the Passes of Qin first will be made the King of Qin.” At this time, the army of Qin remained strong and often chased the allies troops northward through the momentum of victories. All commanders, except Xiang Yu, believed it was disadvantageous to assault the interior of the Kingdom of Qin. Xiang Yu, however, held a deep grudge against the army of Qin for killing Xiang Liang and volunteered to go west, entering Qin territory with the Duke of Pei. A few senior generals who had served alongside him advised King Huai II of Chu, “Xiang Yu has a brutal and devious personality. He obliterated the city and buried all its people alive when he conquered Xiangcheng. He leaves total devastation in his path. Previous expeditions against Qin by the Kingdom of Chu, such as those led by Chen Sheng and Xiang Liang, ended in failure. Our next Western Campaign should be led by a mature leader, with a righteous cause and calling for the support of the people of Qin. The people of Qin have suffered under their rulers for a long time. If a more experienced leader comes along who does not ransack their properties, he may be able to take down Qin‘s defenses. Please do not send Xiang Yu westward. Only the Duke of Pei, who is magnanimous and mature, should lead the Western Campaign.”
The Duke of Pei‘s army marched out of Dang county and attacked the Qin camps at Yangcheng county and Gangli county, successfully trampling down both camps.
Zhang Liang advised Xiang Liang, “Now that you have installed the King of Chu, Lord Hengyang—whose name is Cheng—was the most capable among the princes of the Kingdom of Han. You should install him as the King of Han to strengthen our ranks.” Following this suggestion, Xiang Liang sent Zhang Liang to find Han Cheng and installed him as the King of Han. He appointed Zhang Liang as the defense minister. Zhang Liang, along with the new King of Han, led a force of around a thousand soldiers to reclaim territories of the former Kingdom of Han to the west. They managed to capture a few cities, but these were soon retaken by the Qin army. Zhang Liang and his king then resorted to guerrilla warfare tactics in the Yingchuan Commandery.
General Zhang Han of Qin had crushed Chen Sheng’s regime and led his army to attack the King of Wei in Linji county. The King of Wei sent Zhou Fu as his envoy to seek aid from the kingdoms of Qi and Chu. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, and General Xiang Ta of Chu led their troops with Zhou Fu to assist the Kingdom of Wei. Zhang Han launched a surprise night attack, keeping his soldiers silent by ordering them to hold sticks in their mouths. The Qin army defeated the joint forces of Qi and Chu in Linji county. The King of Qi and Zhou Fu were killed in the battle. The King of Wei, Wei Jiu, attempted to placate Zhang Han by surrendering on behalf of his people. After the settlement was signed, the King of Wei committed suicide by self-immolation. His brother, Wei Bao, escaped to the Kingdom of Chu. King Huai II of Chu assigned several thousand soldiers to Wei Bao and ordered him to retake the lost territory of Wei.
Tian Rong, a younger brother of Tian Dan, gathered the remaining troops of Tian Dan and fled eastward to the city of Dong’e. General Zhang Han relentlessly pursued them and laid siege to Dong’e. When the people of Qi learned that their king had died, they installed Tian Jia, a younger brother of the late King of Qi, Tian Jian4, as their new king. Tian Jiao became the prime minister, and his younger brother, Tian Jian1, was made commander-in-chief. They formed a new government to defend against the aggression of other kingdoms.
In July, there was non-stop rainfall. Lord Wuxin led a campaign to seize Kangfu county. Upon hearing of Tian Rong‘s crisis, he shifted his attack to Zhang Han at Dong’e county and overran the Qin troops. General Zhang Han retreated westward, while Tian Rong and his forces moved back eastward to the Kingdom of Qi. Lord Wuxin pursued the Qin army to the north and ordered Xiang Yu and the Duke of Pei to capture Chengyang county. They breached the city and slaughtered its inhabitants. The army of Chu then moved east of the city of Puyang, where they engaged Zhang Han’s troops in another battle and secured another victory. Zhang Han received reinforcements from the Kingdom of Qin and strengthened the defense of Puyang by surrounding the city with water drawn from a nearby river. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu withdrew their forces and attacked the town of Dingtao.
In August, Tian Rong’s troops attacked the King of Qi, Tian Jia, who fled to the Kingdom of Chu. The Prime Minister of Qi, Tian Jiao, escaped to the Kingdom of Zhao. Commander Tian Jian, who had led an army to aid the Kingdom of Zhao, dared not return upon hearing the news. Tian Rong installed Tian Shi, the son of Tian Dan, as the King of Qi and assumed the position of prime minister himself. Tian Heng took command of the military. Together, they laid claim to the Kingdom of Qi. Meanwhile, Zhang Han‘s forces became emboldened. Xiang Liang sent several envoys to the Kingdoms of Qi and Zhao, pleading with them to join forces to counter Zhang Han‘s offensive. Tian Rong’s response was: “The Kingdom of Chu should kill Tian Jia. The Kingdom of Zhao must kill Tian Jue and Tian Jian. We will join forces with you once you have done that.” The Kingdoms of Chu and Zhao did not comply. Offended, Tian Rong refused to send his troops.
Zhao Gao, the Grand Chamberlain of Qin, had free rein over the court of Qin, relying on the trust of the Second Emperor, whose favorite eunuch he was. He murdered many people out of personal spite and feared that court officials might report him. He spoke to the Emperor, saying: “The Son of Heaven is far above everyone else if all his subjects can only hear from him but cannot see him face to face. Your Majesty is still young and may not yet be skilled in all matters. The flaws in your judgment on punishments and rewards will be fully exposed to court officials if Your Majesty attends court regularly. This is not a way to demonstrate your divine wisdom to the world. It would be better for Your Majesty to stay in the seraglio and allow me and other attendants who are well-versed in the laws to handle daily governance. Your Majesty would only need to address escalated issues. Thus, the officials would not dare to bring difficult problems before you, and the people of the world would praise Your Majesty as a saint.”
The Second Emperor approved Zhao Gao’s advice. He stopped attending court to face the officials and spent his days idling in the inner court. Zhao Gao and the eunuchs served as intermediaries between the Emperor and the court, with Zhao Gao making all the decisions on governance.
Zhao Gao learned that Chancellor Li Si wanted to speak out, so he visited Li Si and said, “The bandits outside the Hangu Pass are becoming uncontrollable, yet the Emperor demands more corvée labor to build the E’fang Palace and collects rare breeds of dogs and horses that are useless. I would like to raise objections, but I am just a lowly servant. These matters are for lords and marquis like you to discuss. Why don’t you offer your advice?” Li Si replied, “That is indeed my duty. The Emperor avoids court and won’t come to hear matters of state these days. The advice I want to give cannot be conveyed indirectly. I need to meet with the Emperor, but he has no time for me.” Zhao Gao promised, “If you truly wish to speak to the Emperor, I will arrange for you to see him when he has time.”
Zhao Gao would then summon Li Si when the Second Emperor had just indulged in female companionship, saying, “Please come in; the Emperor has time to meet.” Chancellor Li Si would request an audience, interrupting the Emperor’s leisure. This happened three times, and the Emperor became enraged: “The Chancellor never comes when I am free, but always seeks to discuss state affairs as soon as I relax and enjoy myself! Does the Chancellor think I am too young? Does he want to discipline me?” Zhao Gao seized the opportunity and said, “The Chancellor played a major role in the Shaqiu scheme. Now that Your Majesty has become Emperor, he remains in his position and might want to divide the land and declare himself king. I would not speak of this if Your Majesty did not ask. The Chancellor’s eldest son, Li You, is the governor of Sanchuan Commandery. The bandits from Chu, like Chen Sheng, hail from counties near the Chancellor’s hometown. When they wreaked havoc in Chu and passed by Sanchuan, the governor did not attack them. I have heard that the governor exchanged letters with the bandits. I have not investigated this fully, so I did not report it to Your Majesty. As you know, the Chancellor wields great power outside the court.”
The Second Emperor believed Zhao Gao. He wanted to prosecute the Chancellor but was concerned about the lack of evidence. He sent investigators to look into the alleged communications between the governor of Sanchuan and the bandits.
Li Si sensed a plot against him and wrote to the Emperor to denounce Zhao Gao: “Zhao Gao arrogates to himself the power to mete out benefits and punishments, behaving as if he were no different from Your Majesty. When Tian Heng was the prime minister under Duke Jian of Qi, he expropriated the grace and authority of his lord. He forged alliances with the officers and gained popularity among the common people. Eventually, he murdered Duke Jian and usurped the Kingdom of Qi. This is a well-known historical fact. Zhao Gao‘s devious motives, treacherous activities, and personal wealth rival Tian Heng‘s influence over the Kingdom of Qi. He is even more aggressive and greedy. Now, his standing is second only to Your Majesty, yet his avarice knows no bounds. He will strip you of your prestige and supremacy. His ambition is to be like Han Qi, the last prime minister of King Han An. If Your Majesty does not take proactive measures, I fear he will overthrow you.”
The Second Emperor rebuked Li Si, saying, “What are you talking about? Zhao Gao is just an old eunuch. He does not indulge himself in times of peace, nor does he waver in times of peril. His exemplary conduct and charity have earned him his position. He has risen through his loyalty and holds his office through his truthfulness. We greatly value him, and yet you accuse him. Why? Moreover, whom would I rely on if I didn’t trust Mr. Zhao? Mr. Zhao is a scrupulous and capable person. He understands the common people and makes We feel good. You should not slander him.”
The Second Emperor liked Zhao Gao personally and trusted him. Fearing that Li Si might try to kill Zhao Gao, he informed Zhao Gao of Li Si’s memorandum. Zhao Gao countered, “I am the only one the Chancellor is worried about. If he manages to get rid of me, he will do what Tian Heng did to your Majesty.”
More “bandits” emerged everywhere, prompting more soldiers to be drafted within the Hangu Pass and sent eastward incessantly to quash them. Vice Chancellor Feng Quji, Chancellor Li Si, and General Feng Jie went to speak to the Emperor, saying, “There are many brigands rising to the east of Hangu Pass. The army of Qin has struck these brigands and killed many, but their spread has not been contained. These brigands are numerous because the people’s lives have been made miserable by the heavy burdens of garrison duties, transportation of goods, logistical services for war, and excessive taxation. We plead for a temporary halt to the construction of the E’fang Palace and a reduction in garrison duties and logistical costs.”
The Second Emperor was outraged and responded, “The majesty of being the lord of the empire is to do whatever he pleases. The lord promulgates laws, and the subjects dare not infringe upon them, ensuring the world is under his complete control. Lords in the legendary Yu dynasty and the Xia dynasty, exalted as the sons of heaven, had to lead poor and arduous lives to set examples for the people. Then what is the purpose of laws? My father, the late Emperor, began as the lord of a single state and unified the realm. He brought peace to the empire and kept the barbarians at bay. Building palaces was to relish his joy and let you witness his series of achievements. During my reign over the last two years, so many bandits have emerged from the woods. You have failed to suppress their lawlessness, yet you dare to propose suspending the project of the late Emperor. First, you are not honoring the late Emperor’s wishes; second, you are not serving me loyally. Why are you still holding your posts?”
The Second Emperor ordered the three ministers to be put on trial for various charges. Feng Quji and Feng Jie committed suicide, but Li Si reported to prison. The Second Emperor appointed Zhao Gao as the judge, charging Li Si and his son Li You with seditious acts. The entire Li Si clan and their attendants were arrested. Zhao Gao had Li Si whipped thousands of strokes. Unable to withstand the pain, Li Si confessed to the false charges of sedition.
Li Si chose to live because he believed in his power of persuasion, his past accomplishments, and his innocence regarding the charge of sedition. He hoped to defend himself in writing, believing that the Second Emperor might come to his senses and pardon him. From his jail cell, he wrote to the Emperor:
“I have been the Chancellor and governed the people of Qin for more than thirty years. In the earlier years, the territory of the Kingdom of Qin was narrow, only about a thousand li across, with armed forces of merely a few hundred thousand soldiers. I made an all-out effort to recruit strategists in secret and financed them with gold and treasures to lobby other monarchs. I also covertly trained armored warriors and educated them in ethics and religion. I selected these elite fighters to be officers and awarded those who provided extraordinary service. Eventually, we terrorized the Kingdom of Han, weakened the Kingdom of Wei, conquered the Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao, and dismantled the Kingdoms of Qi and Chu. Finally, we annexed the six kingdoms and captured their kings. I enthroned the King of Qin as the Son of Heaven.”
“I demonstrated the strength of the Qin Empire by driving out the nomadic tribes like the Hu and the He in the north and subduing the hundreds of tribes in the land of Yue in the south. I established the institutions of the Qin Empire by unifying the writing, measuring, and weighing systems and promulgating them throughout the world. These are my crimes, and I should have died long ago! Thanks to Your Majesty’s wishing me to serve with all my ability, I have managed to last until this day. I hope Your Majesty will look into my case!”
The letter was submitted. However, Zhao Gao instructed the jail warden to suppress it, saying, “A criminal does not get to write to the authorities!”
Zhao Gao instructed his minions to interrogate Li Si in turns, pretending to be inspectors, court heralds, and palace attendants. At first, Li Si rescinded his guilty plea, but he was beaten more severely. After several rounds of interrogation and torture, Li Si gave up on retracting his confession. Later, when the Second Emperor sent his personal inquirer to see him, Li Si, unable to distinguish between them and Zhao Gao’s men, stuck to his false statements. The inquirer reported back to the Emperor, who was gleeful: “I would have been betrayed by the Chancellor were it not for Mr. Zhao!”
By the time the investigator sent by the Second Emperor reached the Commandery of Sanchuan, Li Si‘s eldest son, Li You, who was the governor, had already been killed by soldiers of Chu. The investigator returned to the capital just as the Chancellor was charged with crimes. Although the investigator submitted his findings, Zhao Gao relayed the opposite to the Second Emperor. The verdict against Li Si included the five cruel punishments, culminating in being chopped in half in Xianyang’s public market.
Li Si was taken out of prison, shackled alongside his second son. He spoke to his son: “I wish I could go with you and our yellow dog to hunt rabbits outside the East Gate of Shangcai, as we did in the past. Couldn’t we do it?” Father and son faced each other and wailed. The three clans of Li Si—his father’s, mother’s, and wife’s—were all exterminated. The Second Emperor then appointed Zhao Gao as the Chancellor. Zhao Gao monopolized all decision-making, whether crucial or trivial.
The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C. continued)
The left-wing colonel and right-wing colonel of the Qin army launched a counterattack and broke into Chen county. General Lü Chen fled with his Black-Head Army, seeking out his subordinates and reassembling his dispersed soldiers. They joined forces with a rebel group led by a bandit named Qing Bu from Fanyang county. Together, they turned around and confronted the Qin army, commanded by the left and right wing colonels. They routed the Qin forces at Qingbo Lake and successfully reoccupied Chen county.
Qing Bu hailed from Lu county, though his actual surname was Ying. He had been labeled a criminal and punished with “Qing”—black branding on his face. According to the laws of Qin, he was sent to Lishan as a convict laborer, where the number of laborers amounted to several hundred thousand. Ying Bu befriended the leaders among the laborers and eventually fled with his followers to the Yangtze River basin, where he became the leader of outlaws.
The magistrate of Poyang county, Wu Rui, was very popular with the people, even in the underworld, and was widely known as Lord Po. Ying Bu led his men to meet Lord Po, and his followers had grown into a force of several thousand. Lord Po married his daughter to Ying Bu and directed him to lead his forces in fighting the Qin army.
King of Chu, Jing Ju, stayed in Liu county, where the Duke of Pei went to join him. Zhang Liang, who led a group of around a hundred youths, also responded to Jing Ju’s call. He encountered the Duke of Pei and decided to follow him. The Duke of Pei appointed Zhang Liang as his logistic officer. Zhang Liang discussed “The Art of Warfare” by Jiang Ziya (also known as Great-Grandpa Jiang) and offered his strategic advice. The Duke of Pei valued his teachings and often adopted his ideas, though other leaders typically didn’t understand Zhang Liang’s insights. Zhang Liang sighed, “The Duke of Pei is godsent,” and was determined to follow him from then on.
They both met King Jing Ju and requested reinforcements to attack Feng county. At the time, a staff officer of General Zhang Han, whose name was Yi, led troops to suppress the insurgents in northern Chu, slaughtering the people of Xiang county before advancing to Dang county. Ning Jun of Dongyang and the Duke of Pei led their troops west of Xiao County, where a battle broke out, but they suffered a setback and withdrew to Liu County to regroup. In February, the Duke of Pei launched another attack on Dang county. After a three-day battle, they overcame the resistance and captured Dang county. The Duke of Pei took command of six thousand fighters from Dang county, adding to his original three thousand followers, bringing his force to nine thousand soldiers. In March, they attacked Xiayi county and seized it, then moved on to attack Feng county again but failed to break through.
Zhao Ping, originally from Guangling county, attempted to seize Guangling for Chen Sheng but failed. When he learned that Chen Sheng was fleeing and Zhang Han was pursuing him, Zhao Ping crossed the Yangtze River and forged a decree in Chen Sheng‘s name, appointing Xiang Liang as the Chief Commander of Chu. The decree stated: “The battles east of the Yangtze River are over. Lead your troops westward to attack the Qin army immediately!” Xiang Liang then led eight thousand soldiers across the Yangtze River, heading west. Upon hearing that Chen Ying had already occupied Dongyang county, he sent an envoy to Chen Ying, urging him to join the western expedition.
Chen Ying, a former staffer of the Dongyang county magistrate, lived in the county center and was known as a cautious and trustworthy elder. When the youths of Dongyang county rioted and killed the county’s magistrate, twenty thousand insurgents gathered and pushed Chen Ying forward to become king. However, Chen Ying‘s mother warned him against it: “Since I married into this family, I have never heard of your ancestors being highborn. It does not bode well to suddenly take on a lofty title. It would be better to be a follower than a leader. If the insurrection succeeds, you will be rewarded with a marquisate. If it fails, you can escape more easily because you are not so recognized by the world.” Taking his mother’s advice, Chen Ying refused to become king. He explained to his followers, “Xiang Liang‘s family has served as generals for the kingdom of Chu for generations and is well-known in Chu. To succeed in our uprising, we must have him as our commander. We can bring down the kingdom of Qin if we rely on this renowned clan.” Chen Ying‘s subordinates agreed, and they went under Xiang Liang‘s command.
Ying Bu’s troops defeated the Qin army and moved eastward until they heard that Xiang Liang’s forces had crossed the Huai River and were marching westward. The armed forces of Ying Bu and General Pu then accepted Xiang Liang as their commander. With these new additions, Xiang Liang’s forces grew to between sixty and seventy thousand soldiers. They set up camp in the city of Xiapi. Meanwhile, the King of Chu, Jing Ju, and his top general, Qin Jia, camped their forces to the east of Pengcheng, appearing to challenge Xiang Liang‘s leadership.
Addressing his soldiers, Xiang Liang declared: “King Chen Sheng was the first to rise against Qin. He suffered setbacks, and we do not know his current whereabouts. Qin Jia betrayed King Chen Sheng and installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu. That is an act of treachery!” With that, Xiang Liang led his troops to attack Qin Jia‘s camp. Qin Jia‘s forces were overwhelmed, and Xiang Liang‘s army pursued them to Huling. Qin Jia attempted a counter-attack, but after a full day of battle, he was killed, and his troops surrendered. Jing Ju fled but later died in the Kingdom of Wei.
Xiang Liang merged his forces with those of Qin Jia and established their camps at Huling, planning to continue his westward campaign. A detachment under the command of General Zhang Han approached Li county, prompting Xiang Liang to order his lieutenants, Zhu Jishi and Yu Fanjun, to attack. The battle ended disastrously: Yu Fanjun was killed, and Zhu Jishi fled back to Huling, where their troops were defeated. In response, Xiang Liang led his forces to occupy Xuecheng and executed Zhu Jishi for his failure.
The Duke of Pei, accompanied by about a hundred cavalry, came to meet Xiang Liang. Impressed by his commitment, Xiang Liang assigned five thousand soldiers and ten high-ranking military officers to support the Duke of Pei. The Duke of Pei led these reinforcements back to Feng County, launching another assault. This time, he successfully captured the city, forcing Yong Chi to flee to the Kingdom of Wei.
Xiang Liang then ordered Xiang Ji (whose courtesy name was Xiang Yu) to capture Xiangcheng county. Despite fierce resistance, Xiang Yu‘s troops eventually broke through after a prolonged battle. In a brutal move, Xiang Yu commanded that all the city’s residents be buried alive. He reported his actions back to Xiang Liang.
Xiang Liang finally confirmed that King Chen Sheng was dead. He summoned all his commanders to Xuecheng to strategize for the future, and the Duke of Pei also attended the meeting. Among the advisors was Fan Zeng, a seventy-year-old hermit from Juchao known for his original ideas. Fan Zeng offered his counsel to Xiang Liang:
“King Chen Sheng‘s downfall was inevitable. Of the six kingdoms annexed by Qin, the Kingdom of Chu was the most innocent. Ever since King Huai of Chu was tricked into visiting Qin and never returned, the people of Chu have mourned for him and kept his memory alive. That is why an old man from southern Chu predicted: ‘The Kingdom of Qin will ultimately be destroyed by the people of Chu, even if only three families of Chu remain.’ Chen Sheng was the first to rise against Qin, but he made the mistake of declaring himself king instead of restoring a descendant of King Huai of Chu. That is why he quickly lost support. Now, you have risen from east of the Yangtze River, and all the warriors follow you and obey your commands. They do so because your family has produced top generals for Chu for generations. Only you can lead the restoration of the Chu royal lineage.”
Xiang Liang applauded this advice. He sought out Xiong Xin, the grandson of King Huai of Chu, who had been living in obscurity and herding sheep. In June, Xiang Liang installed Xiong Xin as King Huai II of Chu to align with the people’s wish. He also granted Chen Ying the title of Generalissimo and the fiefdom of five counties. Chen Ying and the new King Huai II set up their headquarters in the capital city of Xuyi. Xiang Liang took the title of Lord Wuxin for himself.
In October of that winter, the inspector general of the Sichuan commandery, named Ping, led an armed force to surround the Duke of Pei in Feng county. The Duke of Pei emerged from the city and defeated Ping’s troops. He then assigned Yong Chi to defend Feng county. In November, the Duke of Pei led his forces toward Xue county. The governor of the Sichuan commandery, named Zhuang, came out to engage the Duke of Pei in a battle but was routed. Zhuang fled to Qi County, where he was captured and killed by the Left Major of the Duke of Pei’s forces.
General Zhou Wen fled from the Hangu Pass and halted at Caoyang post. About two months later, General Zhang Han pursued him and defeated his troops again. Zhou Wen retreated to Mianchi county, where Zhang Han attacked him again after a dozen days. This time, Zhou Wen’s troops were decisively crushed. Zhou Wen slit his throat, and his troops ceased fighting.
The Deputy King of Zhang-Chu, Wu Guang, led the siege of Xingyang. Li You, the governor of the Sanchuan commandery, commanded the defense of the city, successfully thwarting Wu Guang’s efforts. A general of Zhang-Chu named Tian Zang conspired with his confidants: “The army of Zhou Wen has collapsed, and the Qin army could arrive any day now. We cannot breach Xingyang, and we will be defeated when the Qin forces come. It would be better to leave a small contingent to continue the siege of Xingyang and concentrate our finest troops to face the incoming Qin army head-on. However, the Deputy King Wu Guang is arrogant and ignorant of military strategy. Discussing this plan with him would be pointless and could make matters worse.” They plotted to forge a decree from Chen Sheng, ordering Wu Guang‘s execution. They beheaded Wu Guang and delivered his head to Chen Sheng. In response, Chen Sheng sent an envoy to Tian Zang, granting him the seal of Prime Minister of Zhang-Chu and appointing him as the top general.
Tian Zang left General Li Gui and several other generals to maintain the siege of Xingyang. He then led his core forces westward to confront the Qin army at the town of Aocang. In the ensuing battle, Tian Zang was killed, and his troops were slaughtered. General Zhang Han advanced to Xingyang and broke the siege. General Li Gui and the other generals were killed.
General Deng Shui of Zhang-Chu from Yangcheng County had his troops camped at Jia county, but a lieutenant under Zhang Han routed them. General Wu Feng from Zhi County led his troops to the town Xu, where Zhang Han‘s army crushed them. Both Zhang-Chu forces collapsed, and their commanders fled back to their king. Enraged, Chen Sheng had Deng Shui executed.
The Second Emperor lampooned Chancellor Li Si several times: “You hold the highest ministerial position in the court; why do you allow bandits and thieves to be so rampant?” Li Si was frightened. He greatly valued his high rank and rewards but did not know how to address the issue.
Seeking to please the emperor, he drafted a proposal: “A wise ruler must master the art of surveillance and supervision. When Mr. Shen Buhai said, ‘When one owns the world and does not do whatever he wants, it can be said that he lets the world be a shackle on himself,’ he meant that a ruler who fails to surveil and supervise properly, like Emperors Yao and Yu who served all the people with their own labor, effectively shackles himself. If a ruler does not practice the wise arts developed by Mr. Shen Buhai and Mr. Han Fei, and instead burdens himself with the distress of ordinary people, making himself haggard, he is merely devoting himself to serving the people. This is the labor of a commoner, not the duty of a lord of the world. What is noble about that? Therefore, a wise monarch should enhance the surveillance of his subordinates and make all decisions himself to prevent power from falling into the hands of his subjects. Furthermore, he should stop the practice of benevolence and block all counsel and debate. The lord should do whatever he pleases, and no one would dare to resist. This way, officials and the people will be too busy correcting their own mistakes to plot any insurgency.”
The Second Emperor was pleased with this proposal. He began scrutinizing officials more strictly, equating the brightest officers with those who taxed the people most severely and the loyalists with those who killed the most. Half of the people on the streets had criminal records, and dead bodies piled up in public squares daily. The people of Qin were terrified and yearned for insurgence.
General Li Liang of Zhao had just subdued the chaos in Changshan commandery and reported back to the King of Zhao. The king then sent him to capture the city of Taiyuan. However, Li Liang‘s troops were halted at the town of Shiyi when the Qin army blocked the Jingjing Pass. The Qin commander forged a letter from the Second Emperor, attempting to persuade General Li Liang to change his allegiance. After reading the letter, Li Liang was not convinced and returned to Handan to request reinforcements. His request had not yet been answered when the king’s older sister went out on a drinking spree. Seeing her entourage of about a hundred people, Li Liang mistakenly thought it was the king himself and prostrated himself by the roadside to pay homage. The king’s sister, drunk and unaware of who was there, merely sent a cavalier to acknowledge him.
General Li Liang, from an aristocratic background, felt humiliated in front of his troops. One of his officers stepped forward and said, “The people across the empire are revolting against Qin. Whoever has the might will come out on top. The King of Zhao used to rank below you, General. Yet this woman did not even get off her carriage to greet you. Allow me to catch and kill her.” Having received the letter from Qin, Li Liang was already wavering about his loyalty to the King of Zhao. Infuriated by the insult, he sent his man to catch up with the king’s sister and kill her. Li Liang then led his troops to attack the capital, Handan. The city was caught off guard. Li Liang killed the King of Zhao and Vice Prime Minister Shao Sao. Zhang Er and Chen Yu managed to escape, as they had many informants throughout the state.
Qin Jia from Ling and Zhu Jishi from Fuli county raised an armed force and surrounded the governor of Donghai commandery in Tan county. When King Chen Sheng heard about it, he sent General Xin, titled Lord Wuping, to oversee the troops besieging Tan. Qin Jia, unwilling to accept Lord Wuping’s authority, declared himself Grand Marshal. He hated being under General Xin’s command. He told his fellow officers, “Lord Wuping is too young and knows nothing about military matters. Do not listen to him!” Claiming he had received an order from Chen Sheng, Qin Jia then killed Lord Wuping(General Xin).
The Second Emperor sent the court chief of staff, Sima Xin, and commandant Dong Yi to assist General Zhang Han in suppressing the “bandits and burglars.” Zhang Han had already defeated Wu Feng and proceeded to attack the top general of Zhang-Chu, Lord Fang, killing him. He then moved on to attack the troops of Zhang He, located west of Chen county. Chen Sheng himself came out to oversee the battle, but Zhang He was killed.
In December, while returning from Ruyin county, Chen Sheng was assassinated by his chauffeur, Zhuang Jia, in a village called Xiachengfu. Zhuang Jia subsequently defected to Qin.
In the early days when Chen Sheng became king, his fellow countrymen came to visit him, including his father-in-law. Chen Sheng treated him like any other visitor—he saluted him but did not kneel. His father-in-law was furious, saying, “You are a rioter and a title-grabber. You disrespect your elders; you won’t last long!” He turned around and left. Chen Sheng knelt and apologized, but his father-in-law did not look back. Encouraged by this, Chen Sheng‘s childhood friends began recounting old stories from their youth. Someone advised Chen Sheng, “These guests of yours are uneducated and boorish. Their talk is careless and out of control; it will bring dishonor to your name.” In response, Chen Sheng beheaded a few of the loose talkers. His chums deserted him afterward.
Chen Sheng appointed Zhu Fang as chief examiner and Hu Wu as inquisitor. These two supervised all his officers and generals. When generals returned from conquering cities, they were often punished as criminals if their actions were deemed inappropriate. Zhu Fang and Hu Wu equated harshness with loyalty; if they found any mistakes, they either issued punishments themselves or handed them over to prosecutors. Because of this, the generals distanced themselves from King Chen Sheng. This alienation contributed to Chen Sheng’s downfall.
General Lü Chen, a former housekeeper of King Chen Sheng, formed an armed force in Xinyang County, known as the Black-Head Army, as all the soldiers wore black headscarves. They broke into Chen county and killed Zhuang Jia, reinstating the Kingdom of Chu there. They buried King Chen Sheng in Dang county and gave him the posthumous title of King Yin of Chu.
Zhou Fu of Wei led troops to seize lands in Feng county and Pei county. He sent envoys to persuade Yong Chi to change allegiances. Yong Chi, who had previously been aloof and reluctant to report to the Duke of Pei, surrendered Feng county to the Kingdom of Wei. The Duke of Pei launched an attack on Feng county but was thwarted.
Zhang Er and Chen Yu of Zhao reassembled an armed force from the remnants of their collapsed troops. They led tens of thousands of soldiers to attack Li Liang, defeating him. As a result, Li Liang fled to surrender to General Zhang Han of Qin. An attendant of Zhang Er and Chen Yu advised them, “You are not natives of the Kingdom of Zhao, just mere travelers here, so you cannot claim kingship on your own. You need to find a descendant of the King of Zhao and help him become king. Then you may achieve your goals.” Following this advice, Zhang Er and Chen Yu found Zhao Xie. In January, during the spring, they installed Zhao Xie as the new King of Zhao and established Xindu county as its capital.
The rebels in Dongyang county, led by Ning Jun and Qin Jia, learned that Chen Sheng’s troops had been defeated. They installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu and led their troops to Fangyu county, planning an attack on the Qin army at Dingtao. They sent Gongsun Qing as an envoy to the Kingdom of Qi, requesting that the Qi army join forces with them to confront the Qin army. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, rebuked the envoy: “King Chen Sheng was defeated. We do not know if he is dead or alive. Why did you install a new king without consulting us?” Gongsun Qing retorted, “The Kingdom of Qi installed its king without consulting the Kingdom of Chu. Why should the Kingdom of Chu consult with the Kingdom of Qi before installing its king?” In response, Tian Dan had Gongsun Qing executed.
Liu Bang, whose courtesy name was Liu Ji, had a prominent nasal bridge and a noble face, with seventy-two ink spots on his left thigh. He was known for his bold personality, generosity, and extroversion, often expressing his feelings openly. Ambitious and disinclined to engage in farming or handicrafts like his family members, he eventually became the head of Sishang Post. Mr. Lü from Shanfu county, a skilled physiognomist, was fascinated by Liu Ji’s extraordinary appearance and married his daughter to him despite Liu Ji’s low rank.
Liu Ji was once tasked with escorting a group of convicts to Lishan on behalf of the county magistrate. As they traveled, many convicts escaped along the way, and Liu Ji realized that by the time they reached their destination, all would likely have fled. When the group stopped at a post in a swamp in Feng county, Liu Ji drank wine with the convicts. He then released them, saying, “Go your own ways; I am escaping myself.” About a dozen strong men among the convicts volunteered to join him.
As the legend has it, Liu Ji, in a drunken state, wandered along a trail in the swamp when a large snake rose up in his path. Drawing his sword, Liu Ji swiftly hacked the snake in half. Suddenly, an old woman appeared, wailing: “My son, the son of the White Emperor, transformed into a snake on this trail and was killed by the son of the Red Emperor!” She then vanished. Liu Ji hid in the swamps between Mang County and Dangshan County, where several eerie phenomena were reported, attracting many young men from Pei County who were eager to join his growing band.
When Chen Sheng’s uprising erupted, the magistrate of Pei County considered joining the rebellion. However, his chief operating officer, Xiao He, and his chief correction officer, Cao Shen, cautioned him: “As an officer of the Qin Empire, the people of Pei may not follow you in betraying your duty. It would be wiser to summon those in exile and gather a mob of a few hundred. With pressure from the mob, no one in Pei would dare oppose you.” The magistrate then sent Fan Kuai to summon Liu Ji, who had already assembled nearly a hundred followers. Fearing a mutiny, the magistrate reconsidered, ordering the city gates shut and defensive positions established. He also intended to execute Xiao He and Cao Shen. Alarmed, they escaped, clearing the city walls and sought refuge with Liu Ji.
Liu Ji wrote a proclamation on a piece of silk and delivered it to the city elders by tying it to an arrow and shooting it over the ramparts. The message outlined the benefits and consequences of the uprising, urging the elders of Pei to take action. Persuaded, the elders led their sons and brothers to kill the magistrate and opened the gates for Liu Ji. The people gathered around Liu Ji, proclaiming him the Duke of Pei. With the help of Xiao He and Cao Shen, Liu Ji recruited young men from Pei, amassing a force of two to three thousand. They soon joined forces with other rebels from neighboring counties.
Xiang Liang, the son of General Xiang Yan of the Kingdom of Chu, was hiding with his nephew Xiang Ji in the Wuzhong region due to a murder charge. The scholars and elites of Wuzhong admired Xiang Liang and often sought his friendship and counsel. Xiang Ji, however, struggled with reading and writing as a child and eventually abandoned his studies. He then turned to fencing but did not excel in it either, prompting Xiang Liang‘s disapproval. Xiang Ji retorted, “Reading and writing are only useful for recording names, and fencing is for fighting a single person. These are not worthy of my time. I want to learn how to fight ten thousand people.” Impressed by his ambition, Xiang Liang began teaching him the art of war, which Xiang Ji eagerly learned. However, once he grasped the basics, he lost interest in deeper studies. Xiang Ji grew to over six feet tall, had the strength to lift sacrificial tripods, and was known for his extraordinary talent and character.
The governor of Kuaiji Commandery, Yin Tong, heard of Chen Sheng’s rebellion and decided to send troops to support the uprising, appointing Xiang Liang and Huan Chu as co-captains. However, Huan Chu was still hiding in the swamps as an outlaw. Xiang Liang told the governor, “Only Xiang Ji knows where Huan Chu is hiding.” Xiang Liang stationed Xiang Ji outside the governor’s residence, sword in hand, while he entered to speak with Yin Tong. He proposed, “Please call Xiang Ji in and have him bring Huan Chu.” The governor agreed. Xiang Liang then brought Xiang Ji inside, and after a few moments, he signaled him with a wink: “It is time to do it!” Xiang Ji drew his sword and decapitated Yin Tong. Xiang Liang held up the governor’s severed head and donned his official seal. The governor’s attendants were thrown into panic, and chaos erupted throughout the residence. Xiang Ji killed dozens, possibly over a hundred people. Terrified, everyone in the residence laid flat on the ground, not daring to move.
Xiang Liang summoned the local leaders and former officials he knew, announcing his plans to rebel against the Qin Empire. He recruited young men from Wuzhong and dispatched deputies to draft fighters from the counties under Kuaiji Commandery. Xiang Liang assembled an elite force of eight thousand warriors and declared himself the governor of Kuaiji, appointing Xiang Ji as his lieutenant general. Together, they governed all the counties of the commandery. Xiang Ji was only twenty-four years old at the time.
Tian Dan was a member of the royal clan of Qi, with cousins named Tian Rong and Tian Heng. The Tian brothers were wealthy, influential, and highly regarded. When General Zhou Fu of Zhang-Chu arrived to seize Di County for Chen Sheng, the county magistrate closed the gates and fortified his defenses. To gain access, Tian Dan staged a scene by tying up his house slave and dragging him to the county court, accompanied by a crowd of young men. Pretending to seek permission from the magistrate to execute the slave for wrongdoing, Tian Dan waited until the magistrate appeared in court. Seizing the opportunity, he killed the magistrate on the spot. He then gathered the wealthy and powerful figures of Di County and declared, “All the kingdoms are rising against the Qin Empire and restoring their kings. The Kingdom of Qi has a long history, and as a member of the Tian family, I, Tian Dan, shall be the king of Qi.” Proclaiming himself king, he led his forces against Zhou Fu’s troops, driving them back. Tian Dan then marched east and reclaimed the former lands of the Kingdom of Qi.
Meanwhile, General Han Guang led an expedition north to the former Kingdom of Yan. The local elites urged him to become the King of Yan, but Han Guang hesitated, saying, “My mother still lives in the Kingdom of Zhao. I cannot be king.” The leaders of Yan persisted, arguing, “Zhao is preoccupied with the Qin Empire to the west and wary of the Zhang-Chu Kingdom to the south. It lacks the strength to challenge us. Even the powerful Zhang-Chu Kingdom does not harm the relatives of the King of Zhao. Why would Zhao target your family, General?” Convinced, Han Guang proclaimed himself King of Yan. A few months later, Zhao handed over Han Guang’s mother and her retinue to the Kingdom of Yan.
The King of Zhao, accompanied by Zhang Er and Chen Yu, ventured to the northern border with the Kingdom of Yan in pursuit of land. During an excursion, he was captured by Yan soldiers and imprisoned. Yan demanded territorial concessions for his release, and envoys sent to negotiate were executed. A cook of the Zhao army approached the Yan camp and spoke with the commander, asking, “Do you know what Zhang Er and Chen Yu want most right now?” The commander replied, “They probably want their king back.” The cook laughed and said, “You have no idea what those two truly desire. Wu Chen, Zhang Er, and Chen Yu conquered dozens of Zhao cities with little effort. Each of them aspires to be a king, not merely commanders or prime ministers. Initially, they didn’t divide Zhao into three kingdoms because the situation was still unstable, and they supported Wu Chen’s claim to the throne due to seniority while they secured the loyalty of the Zhao people. Now that Zhao is stable under their rule, they’re waiting for the right moment to split the kingdom and crown themselves kings. With your capture of the King of Zhao, Zhang Er and Chen Yu publicly advocate for his release but secretly hope the people of Yan kill him, allowing them to claim their own kingdoms. One Zhao kingdom would tolerate Yan, but two Zhao kingdoms, each led by wise and ambitious leaders, would surely push each other to avenge their fallen king, making Yan’s downfall inevitable.” Alarmed, the Yan commander released the King of Zhao, and the cook safely escorted him back.
General Zhou Fu, having withdrawn from Di County, marched toward the former Kingdom of Wei with the intention of reinstating a Wei prince named Jiu, titled Lord Ningling, as king. However, Jiu was stranded in Chen County and could not reach Wei. Zhou Fu already controlled the land of Wei, and local dignitaries proposed that he became the king. Zhou Fu refused, saying, “A loyal servant must prove himself in turbulent times. The world is rebelling against Qin, and we must restore a descendant of the former king.” Despite the people’s insistence, Zhou Fu remained firm in his refusal and sent envoys to Chen County five times before Chen Sheng finally approved Prince Jiu’s return. The people of Wei then installed Jiu as King of Wei, appointing Zhou Fu as prime minister.
Meanwhile, the Second Emperor stripped Jiao, the Lord of Wey, of his title and banished him to a commoner, effectively ending the lineage of the state of Wey.
A Temple in Zhoukou, Henan Province (f.m.a. Chen County)
The 1st year of the Second Emperor(209 B.C. continued)
Two friends from Daliang, the capital of the Kingdom of Wei, named Zhang Er and Chen Yu, shared a bond akin to that of Damon and Pythius. When the Kingdom of Wei was annexed, the King of Qin sought to hire them, offering monetary rewards for their good reputation. However, the two friends changed their names and fled to Chen County, where they took jobs as guards at a neighborhood gate to survive. On one occasion, the community officer paddled Chen Yu for a minor offense. Chen Yu was ready to fight back, but Zhang Er discreetly signaled him with a foot tap to accept the punishment. After the officer left, Zhang Er took Chen Yu aside under a mulberry tree and rebuked him: “What did I tell you? Were you really going to fight to the death over such a trivial insult from a lackey?” Chen Yu apologized for his reaction.
When Chen Sheng entered Chen county, Zhang Er and Chen Yu visited him at his residence. Chen Sheng was delighted, as he was aware of their good reputation. The local elites in Chen county advocated for installing Chen Sheng as the King of Chu. Chen Sheng consulted Zhang Er and Chen Yu, who advised: “The Kingdom of Qin has been evil, annexing other kingdoms and oppressing the people. You rose against Qin at the risk of certain death, bringing relief to those across the empire. However, if you claim the title of king immediately after taking Chen county, it will appear as if you seek personal gain. We suggest postponing the proclamation and leading your forces westward instead. You should send envoys to install the descendants of the six former kingdoms as kings. These new monarchs would become your allies and enemies of Qin. Qin’s military would then be divided, facing many foes, while your forces would grow stronger with more allies. In doing so, you won’t need to battle Qin’s army in the battlefields or defend the ramparts within the city. You can bring down the wicked Qin empire, capture Xianyang, and call upon all the monarchs to follow your lead. Having regained their lost reigns, they would gladly answer your call. This would allow you to achieve your imperial ambitions through virtue. Claiming kingship in Chen county now would only cause the movement to lose momentum.” Despite their counsel, Chen Sheng did not heed their advice. He proclaimed himself King of Zhang-Chu.
At that time, the people could no longer bear the draconian laws of Qin. They eagerly rose up to kill their local commandery or county officers in response to Chen Sheng‘s call. A messenger returning from a mission in the east reported on the rebellions to the Qin court. The Second Emperor, enraged by the news, had the messenger referred to prosecutors. After that, whenever envoys returned from their missions, the Emperor would ask about the rebels. They all gave the same response: “They are merely petty thieves and bandits. The local officers have dealt with them thoroughly. There is nothing to worry about.” The Emperor was pleased with these assurances.
Chen Sheng appointed Wu Guang as deputy king, tasking him with supervising the generals in their campaign to attack the county of Xingyang in the west.
Zhang Er and Chen Yu went to see Chen Sheng again, requesting a detachment for a surprise attack on the territory of the Kingdom of Zhao. Chen Sheng appointed his close associate, Wu Chen from Chen County, as the commander, and Shao Sao as the supervisor. Zhang Er was made the left-wing colonel, and Chen Yu the right-wing colonel. The detachment, consisting of three thousand soldiers, then marched toward the Kingdom of Zhao.
Chen Sheng also directed Deng Zong from Ruyin county to lead a campaign to capture the Jiujiang Commandery. By this time, the number of rebel mobs throughout the Kingdom of Chu, each with several thousand members, had become innumerable.
Ge Ying took control of Dongcheng county and installed Xiang Qiang, a descendant of the King of Chu, as the new King of Chu. However, upon learning that Chen Sheng had already declared himself King of Chu, Ge Ying quickly killed Xiang Qiang and reported back to Chen Sheng. Despite Ge Ying’s quick reversal, Chen Sheng still had him executed.
Chen Sheng then ordered Zhou Fu from the Kingdom of Wei to take over the lands of Wei in the north, appointing Cai Ci from Shangcai county, known by the title Lord Fang, as the grand general of this force.
Chen Sheng also heard that Zhou Wen, a local celebrity from Chen county, was knowledgeable in warfare. He granted Zhou Wen the commander’s seal and sent him to lead the attack on the Kingdom of Qin to the west.
Wu Chen and his cohorts crossed the Yellow River at the town of Baima. They reached the counties belonging to the Kingdom of Zhao and rallied the local gentry, who responded favorably to their call. As they began enrolling local conscripts, their ranks swelled to tens of thousands. They proclaimed Wu Chen as Lord Wuxin and seized more than ten counties. However, other cities resisted them. Wu Chen then led an attack on Fanyang County.
A resident of Fanyang, Kuai Che, approached Wu Chen and said, “You believe you must defeat resistance on the battlefield to take land and break through fortifications to capture cities. In my opinion, that’s a misconception. If you follow my plan, you can take a city without besieging it, seize land without fighting for it, and quash resistance across thousands of miles by merely sending out proclamations. What do you think?”
Kuai Che explained, “The Magistrate of Fanyang, Mr. Xu, is a greedy coward who wants to be the first in the country to surrender. If you kill him, as you did with the Qin-appointed officers in the other ten cities, the rest of the cities in the land of Zhao would become impregnable citadels. But if you allow me to bestow the Marquis’ seal upon this county chief, along with pompous wagons for him to parade around the lands of Yan and Zhao, all the cities would capitulate without a fight.”
Lord Wuxin replied, “A great idea!” He provided Kuai Che with a hundred wagons and two hundred cavalry guards of honor to court the Magistrate of Fanyang, Mr. Xu. More than thirty cities across the Kingdoms of Yan and Zhao surrendered without a battle after receiving the leaflets and witnessing the horse parade.
After Chen Sheng sent out Zhou Wen, he became complacent and underestimated the Qin Empire. He neglected to prepare for defense. The renowned scholar Kong Fu pleaded with him, saying, “I have learned from the books on the art of war: ‘Do not rely on the enemy not attacking; rely on your own defenses.’ Currently, you are counting on the enemy’s inability to attack us rather than strengthening our own defenses. If we stumble and fail to recover, it will be too late to regret it!” Chen Sheng dismissed the warning, saying, “Warfare is my concern. Don’t trouble yourself, Professor.”
Meanwhile, Zhou Wen recruited followers along his march. By the time he reached Hangu Pass, his forces had grown into an enormous army with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and thousands of chariots. They set up camp at the town of Xi. The Second Emperor was terrified and summoned his ministers, asking, “What are we going to do?” Privy Treasurer, Zhang Han, proposed, “The bandits are already at our door. It is too late to mobilize all the commanderies and counties. The forced laborers at Lishan Mausoleum are numerous. Please issue an amnesty to these laborers and arm them to fight off the bandits.”
The Second Emperor declared a national amnesty, allowing Zhang Han to conscript from the forced laborers at Lishan as well as from the sons of house slaves and maids who had previously been disqualified from military service. Zhang Han led his newly assembled army against the forces of Zhang-Chu, delivering them a crushing defeat. Zhou Wen fled.
Zhang Er and Chen Yu arrived in Handan, the capital of the Kingdom of Zhao. Upon hearing of Zhou Wen‘s downfall and the fates of Chen Sheng’s generals—who had been executed on trumped-up charges after conquering lands for him—they persuaded Wu Chen to proclaim himself king of Zhao. In August, Wu Chen declared himself king and appointed Chen Yu as Grand General, Zhang Er as Prime Minister, and Shao Sao as Vice Prime Minister. He sent a messenger to inform Chen Sheng of the news. Enraged, Chen Sheng planned to kill Wu Chen’s kith and kin and sent troops to attack Zhao. However, his Prime Minister, Lord Fang, intervened: “When the Qin Empire was still alive, you killed Lord Wuxin’s clan and others’ families, effectively creating another Qin Empire. It would be wiser to congratulate him on his self-promotion and urge him to attack the Qin to the west immediately.” Chen Sheng heeded his advice, moving Wu Chen’s family and followers into palace house arrest. He granted the title of Lord Chengdu to Zhang Er’s son, Zhang Ao, and sent an envoy to Zhao to congratulate Wu Chen, urging him to march westward and invade the Hangu Pass.
Zhang Er and Chen Yu then advised Wu Chen: “The King of Zhang-Chu’s congratulations are insincere and merely political expediency. Once Zhang-Chu defeats Qin, they will likely turn against Zhao. We suggest you refrain from sending troops westward; instead, direct your forces north to capture lands from Yan and Dai, then move south to take Henei, expanding Zhao’s territory. With the Yellow River as a natural defense and Yan and Dai as your backing, Zhang-Chu will not dare challenge Zhao even if they defeat Qin. Should Zhang-Chu fail against Qin, they will rely on Zhao even more, placing Zhao in a powerful position to exploit both the exhausted Qin and Zhang-Chu.” The King of Zhao agreed and did not send his army westward. He dispatched General Han Guang to invade Yan, General Li Liang to Changshan commandery, and General Zhao Yan to Shangdang commandery.
On October 10, during the winter, a national amnesty was declared.
In the spring, the Second Emperor embarked on a journey to the eastern provinces, accompanied by Chancellor Li Si. They traveled eastward to Mount Jieshi on the coast and southward to the commandery Kuaiji before returning. The Second Emperor inscribed his name on all the monuments previously erected by the First Emperor, adding the names of his entourage alongside. These inscriptions reiterated the achievements and virtues of the late emperor.
Around April, nearing summer, the Second Emperor returned to Xianyang. He said to Zhao Gao, “The time of a person in this world passes as swiftly as driving a six-horse chariot over a crack in the road. Now that I am the lord of the empire, I should indulge my senses with as much pleasure as possible and fill my heart with as much joy as I desire. Can I live this way until my time is up?” Zhao Gao replied, “That is exactly what a wise lord would do, but a foolish one would not. However, we are not there yet. Let me advise Your Majesty: The princes and ministers are suspicious of what happened at Shaqiu. These princes are your elder brothers, and these ministers were appointed by the late emperor. Your Majesty has just ascended to the throne, and these princes and ministers, harboring doubts and fears, may incite rebellion. I fear for my life every day. How can Your Majesty enjoy yourself under these circumstances?”
The Second Emperor asked, “What should we do?” Zhao Gao responded, “Your Majesty must strengthen the law and intensify punishments. Encourage criminals to inform on others, and eliminate all royalties and ministers by guilt of association. Then, elevate the oppressed, enrich the poor, and promote the low-born to high positions. Replace the ministers from the late emperor’s reign with people who are close to and trusted by Your Majesty. These new appointees will be grateful to Your Majesty. By purging the discontented and conspirators, leaving only your loyal supporters, Your Majesty will finally enjoy peaceful nights and as much pleasure as you wish. This is the best advice I can offer.” The Second Emperor agreed to the plan. He made criminal laws more draconian and cruel. Once an official or royal was accused of an offense, he immediately handed them over to Zhao Gao for interrogation and prosecution. Twelve princes were executed in Xianyang, and ten princesses were quartered in Du County. Their properties were confiscated, and countless others implicated by them were arrested.
Prince Jiang Lü and his two brothers, born of the same mother, were confined in the inner palace. They were the latest to be accused. A messenger from the Second Emperor informed Jiang Lü, “Your conduct toward the emperor was improper for a subject. This crime is punishable by death. Justice will be served by law officers.” Jiang Lü responded, “I have never violated court protocol, never misbehaved during ceremonies, and never been disrespectful when speaking to the Emperor. What inappropriate behavior have I committed? I wish to know my crime before I die!” The messenger replied, “The sentencing is beyond my authority. I am merely delivering the verdict.” Prince Jiang Lü cried out “Heaven” three times and wailed, “I am innocent!” His brothers wept with him before they took their own lives with their swords. The entire royal family was horrified.
Prince Gao, another half-brother of the Second Emperor, considered fleeing but feared that his kin would suffer. He wrote to the Second Emperor, saying, “When the late Emperor was alive, I was granted fine food every time I attended court; I was provided with chariots whenever I needed to travel. His Majesty gifted me robes made for the emperor and horses from the royal stables. I should have accompanied His Majesty, but I did not. I am unfilial as his son and disloyal as his servant. A person lacking both filial piety and loyalty has no place in this world. I wish to die and be buried at the foot of Lishan Mausoleum. I beg Your Majesty to grant me this mercy!” The Second Emperor read the letter with delight and showed it to Zhao Gao, saying, “He is truly desperate, isn’t he?” Zhao Gao replied, “Subjects won’t contemplate rebellion when they are preoccupied with how to die.” The Second Emperor approved the request and granted burial money of one hundred thousand coins.
The Second Emperor resumed the construction of the E’fang Palace. Fifty thousand gladiators were conscripted to Xianyang to form the royal guard, where they were trained in archery. The court raised a large number of dogs, horses, birds, and other wild animals. Fearing a shortage of fodder, the Second Emperor ordered all commanderies and counties to supply soybeans, grains, straw, and hay. Those transporting fodder to Xianyang had to provide their own food. Grain produced within a three-hundred-mile radius of Xianyang was prohibited for private consumption, and must proffer the grain to the court.
In July of that autumn, Chen Sheng from Yangcheng county and Wu Guang from Yangxia county led an insurgency in Qi County. They had been drafted in the fourth round to secure the border near Yuyang commandery, along with nine hundred other conscripts stranded in a village called Daze[Big Marsh]. Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, both team leaders, found themselves delayed due to heavy rain, which caused road closures and made them miss the rendezvous. According to the law, this delinquency was punishable by beheading. Recognizing the people’s grievances and resentment, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang killed their commanders. They then addressed their comrades: “We’re doomed to be beheaded for being late. Even if pardoned, life on the frontier is so harsh that six or seven out of ten of us would surely die. A man doesn’t want to die; if he must die, he would rather die making a name for himself. Do the kings and nobles truly have blue blood in their veins?” Inspired, everyone followed their lead.
They built an altar and made pledges in the name of Prince Fusu and General Xiang Yan, claiming to restore the fallen kingdoms and calling their state Great Chu. Chen Sheng declared himself general, and Wu Guang became his lieutenant. They took control of Daze Village, then raided Qi County, overcoming the resistance there. They sent Ge Ying, a man from the town Fuli, to lead troops to the east of Qi County, where they attacked and conquered Zhi county, Cuo county, Ku county, Zhe county, and Qiao county. By the time they approached Chen county, their forces had grown to six or seven hundred chariots, more than a thousand cavalry, and tens of thousands of foot soldiers. With the county chief and sheriff absent, only the administrator was left to defend the gate rampart. The defenders could not hold off the attackers and were killed. Chen Sheng then occupied Chen county.
Terracotta Warriors in Mausoleum of the First Emperor
The 36th year of the First Emperor(211 B.C.)
A meteor fell in Dongjun Commandery, and someone engraved on the meteor rock: “The First Emperor dies and his land is divided.” The First Emperor ordered his justice minister to launch an inquisition around the stone’s landing place, but no one confessed. In response, the First Emperor decreed the execution of all the people who lived in the neighborhood. The rock was then incinerated.
In response to an augury, the First Emperor relocated thirty thousand households to the regions of Yuzhong to the North of Yellow River. Each head of the household was promoted by one rank.
The 37th year of the First Emperor(210 B.C.)
The First Emperor was traveling in October of the winter. He was accompanied by the Chancellor Li Si. Vice Chancellor Feng Quji stayed behind in the capital. Among the twenty or so sons, the First Emperor favored the youngest son Huhai. Huhai pleaded to travel with the Emperor and his wish was granted.
The First Emperor arrived in Yunmeng county in November. There, he held a rite to worship Emperor Shun while looking towards Jiuyi Mountains. Then he sailed down the Yangtze River, sightseeing at the town of Jike, watching an islet in the river, passing through Danyang county, and finally reaching Qiantang county. The waves were high and treacherous at the Zhe River. They traveled two hundred and twenty li westward to cross the river at a narrow point.
The First Emperor ascended Mount Kuaiji and held a ritual in honor of Emperor Yu the Great, looking towards the South Sea. The First Emperor installed another tablet with inscriptions praising his virtue. On the way home, the First Emperor passed through the State of Wu, crossed the Yangtze River at Jiangsheng County, and sailed north on the East Ocean, reaching Mount Langya and Mount Zhifu. There, they saw a huge fish in the sea, and the First Emperor shot the fish with a crossbow. They sailed west along the coast and reached a crossing called Pingyuanjin, where the First Emperor fell ill.
The First Emperor hated the word “death,” and none of the ministers dared to mention the subject. As his illness worsened, he ordered his chief dispatcher of central command, Zhao Gao, who was in charge of the royal seal, to write a letter to his eldest son Fusu: “Come to my funeral, come to Xianyang for my entombment.” The letter was sealed and held by Zhao Gao, but had not been given to a messenger yet.
In July of the autumn, the First Emperor died at the Palace of Shaqiu in the village of Pingtai. Chancellor Li Si, fearing possible power wrangling among the princes with the Emperor dying away from the capital, kept the news of his death a secret. The Emperor’s coffin was insulated in his wagon to keep the temperature low, and the same favorite eunuchs drove and escorted the wagon. Whenever they traveled to a new place, food and local officials were brought to the wagon as usual. The eunuchs processed the reports and dealt out decrees as before. Only Huhai, Zhao Gao, and five or six of the most trusted eunuchs knew of the Emperor’s death.
The First Emperor was fond of the Meng clan and trusted them deeply. Meng Tian, the top general, was stationed on the frontier as the army commander, while Meng Yi served in the court as chief of staff, holding the title “The Faithful.” Other ministers and generals dared not challenge their dominance.
Zhao Gao was castrated at birth. The First Emperor, hearing that Zhao Gao was a capable administrator and knowledgeable about criminal laws, appointed him as the court dispatcher and asked him to teach Huhai how to judge legal cases. Huhai developed a predilection for Zhao Gao. Once, Zhao Gao committed an offense that Meng Yi deemed punishable by death. However, the First Emperor pardoned Zhao Gao because of his administrative efficiency and reinstated him to his position. Zhao Gao, having Huhai’s favor, harbored ill feelings toward the Meng family.
Zhao Gao advised Huhai to kill Prince Fusu and install himself as crown prince using a forged will of the First Emperor. Huhai approved the plot. Zhao Gao then told Huhai, “I am afraid this plot won’t work without the consent of the Chancellor.” He approached Chancellor Li Si, saying, “His Majesty had a letter for his eldest son. The letter and the royal seal are both in the possession of Huhai. Who the crown prince will be is a matter of what Your Excellency and I decide.”
Li Si was startled and responded, “Why do you talk about a topic that could jeopardize the fate of this empire? It is not a subject that servants like you and me are supposed to discuss!” Zhao Gao reasoned with him, “In terms of capability, strategic thinking, military achievements, popularity, and trust from the eldest son of the emperor, how do you compare to Meng Tian?” Li Si conceded, “I am not as good as Meng Tian in all aspects.”
Zhao Gao continued, “If the eldest son succeeded his father as emperor, he certainly would appoint Meng Tian as his Chancellor. It is obvious that Your Excellency would not retire to your hometown with the seal of Marquis Tong. Huhai is a kind and magnanimous person and a good successor to the emperor. I wish Your Excellency could think long and hard to make the decision.” Li Si yielded under pressure.
They colluded to forge an edict from the First Emperor, designating Huhai as the crown prince. They also fabricated a letter from the First Emperor to Prince Fusu. The letter reprimanded Fusu for not expanding the frontier enough, yet causing significant attrition of soldiers. It listed several instances where Fusu wrote to his father, rudely criticizing the Emperor and constantly bickering about not being able to return home and become the crown prince. The letter accused General Meng Tian of not rectifying Fusu’s behavior and being a co-conspirator. It granted the death penalty to both Fusu and Meng Tian, ordering them to pass command of the army to Meng Tian’s lieutenant, General Wang Li.
Fusu opened the letter and burst into sobs. He went into his bedroom, preparing to commit suicide. Meng Tian stopped him, saying, “His Majesty is away from home. The position of crown prince has not been designated. His Majesty entrusted me with commanding three hundred thousand troops on the frontier and appointed you as the supervisor. That is a tremendous responsibility to the country. Now a messenger arrives, and you are going to kill yourself! Do you know whether this is not trickery? Let’s submit a memorandum to the throne for verification first; then it won’t be too late to die.”
The envoy pressed Prince Fusu several times. Fusu said to Meng Tian, “A father grants his son death; what else do we have to verify!” He then killed himself. Meng Tian refused to comply. The envoy handed him over to the local wardens and imprisoned him in the town of Yangzhou. The envoy appointed a minion of Li Si as the supervisor of the army and went back to report to Zhao Gao and Li Si.
Huhai learned that Prince Fusu had died and intended to set Meng Tian free. Meng Yi happened to come to debrief the Emperor after performing sacrificial ceremonies for mountains and rivers on the First Emperor’s behalf. Zhao Gao spoke to Huhai, “The late emperor had long meant to pick the best and make you the crown prince, but Meng Yi advised against it. It would be better to get rid of Meng Yi.” Meng Yi was then incarcerated in Dai commandery.
The cortege arrived at Jiuyuan Commandery from Jingjing County during the intense heat of mid-summer. The wagon began to emit a terrible stench. To cover up the smell, they forged another edict to obtain one picul of abalone for the emperor. Eventually, they got on the thoroughfare and reached Xianyang, where they announced the funeral and Huhai usurped the throne.
In September, the First Emperor was sepulchered at the Lishan Mausoleum. Three layers of aquifers were blocked around the tomb. It was filled with treasures and rare stones transported from all over the country. Booby-trapped crossbows were installed to shoot any trespassers. Mercury was injected into the tomb to symbolize rivers and seas. The ceiling of the tomb was decorated with celestial bodies, while the base was laid with geographical models. The concubines who had not yet borne children were ordered to die with the emperor in the tomb. When someone reminded the authorities that the technicians who made the mechanisms knew the key to the treasure and could leak the secret, all the technicians were shut in the tomb when the burial was completed.
The Second emperor wanted to execute Meng Tian and his brother. The son of his elder brother, Ziying, advised against it: “King Qian of Zhao killed General Li Mu and promoted Yan Ju; King Jian of Qi killed his father’s loyal servant and replaced him with Hou Sheng. Both lost their kingdoms in the end. The Meng family has contributed elite ministers and strategists to the kingdom of Qin for generations, yet Your Majesty would discard them at once. Executing loyal ministers and replacing them with someone lacking character would cause ministers to lose faith within the court and dishearten warriors outside the court.”
The Second Emperor disregarded this advice. He ordered the execution of Meng Yi and pursued Meng Tian, who was the interior minister. Meng Tian said, “From my grandfather onward, the Meng family has served the kingdom of Qin for three generations. Though I am in jail today, my influence over the three hundred thousand soldiers under my command would be enough to incite a mutiny. I keep my faith knowing I will die for this, because I do not want to tarnish my ancestors’ reputation and I have not forgotten the trust of the late emperor.” He then committed suicide by taking poison.
Yang Xiong commented in his book Exemplary Figures: “Someone asks, ‘Meng Tian was loyal and was killed, what is the benefit of being loyal?’ The answer is: ‘From Lintao county to Liao River, he flattened mountains and filled ravines. He did not make the empire more prosperous yet left many cadavers behind. Being loyal is not good enough to be a prime minister.’”
Sima Guang‘s comments: When the First Emperor was ravaging the country, Meng Tian was his enabler. Meng Tian was not a benevolent and wise person. However, Meng Tian maintained his loyalty to his lord and would rather die than rebel despite being innocent. This act is commendable.
Officials who abused the criminal justice system by releasing criminals or wrongfully imprisoning the innocent were punished. They were either sent to build the Great Wall in the north or exiled to the state of Southern Yue.
The chancellor Li Si submitted a memorandum: “The kingdoms once recruited migrant scholars to their courts with opulent perks when they were jostling for power. Now, the country is in peacetime, and all laws and orders come from a single place. Ordinary households should work hard on farming and crafting, while intellectuals should study law and order. Today, there are Confucianists who do not study current laws and policies but reference the archaic texts to criticize the new. They baffle the public with their speeches and teach fallacies in their private schools. Whenever a new law is promulgated, they make remarks based on their own theories. They hold their dissent silently in court yet spread discord on the street. They praise the lord to elevate their own fame, dispute to show their superiority, and mislead the masses to denigrate policies. If these activities are not prohibited, it will diminish the authority of the court from above and form dissident parties from below. A ban is in the best interest of the country! I plead that the court historians burn all the history books except those from the kingdom of Qin. Unless they are court scholars who need the books for their duty, all people must turn in books in their possession—such as the ‘Book of Songs,’ the ‘Book of Documents,’ and other works authored by scholars and philosophers before our time—to the governors and military officers to be burned together. Those who speak of these books should be executed publicly. Those who disparage current policy by referencing ancient books should be punished by executing their entire clans. Government officials who do not prosecute these crimes will be treated as accomplices. After thirty days of this decree taking effect, those who do not burn their books will be branded on their faces and sent to labor on the Great Wall. Only books about medicine, divination, and horticulture can remain. Those who wish to study the law and policies can learn from government officials.”
Chen Yu, who was from Wei, spoke to Kong Fu (a direct descendant of Confucius), “The emperor of Qin wants to destroy the classic works of your ancestor. You are the owner of these books. You are in trouble.” Zi Yu (the courtesy name of Kong Fu) replied: “My study is about useless theory. Only my friends know me. I am no friend of Qin. Why am I in trouble? I stock up my books, waiting for someone to solicit them. Once there is a demand for them, I won’t have any worries.”
The 35th year of the First Emperor(212 B.C.)
The First Emperor directed Meng Tian to widen and straighten an expressway from the town of Jiuyuan to Yunyang county. The road, which was a thousand and eight hundred miles long, cut through mountains and leveled canyons along the way, taking years to complete.
The First Emperor thought the city of Xianyang was too crowded and the palaces from his predecessors were too small. He built new palaces in Shanglin Park, south of the Wei River. The first palace under construction was the front palace called E’fang. It extended five hundred paces from east to west and five hundred feet from south to north. The top level could seat ten thousand people, and the bottom level could hoist banners as high as fifty feet. Around the palace, there was a causeway that led from the palace to the South Mountain. A gateway was erected on top of the South Mountain as the entrance to the palace. An overpass was built across the Wei River, connecting E’fang Palace to downtown Xianyang, symbolizing the North Star and Cassiopeia crossing over the Milky Way to Encampment.
Seven hundred thousand criminals, punished by castration or sentenced to servitude, were poured into laboring in E’fang Palace or the Emperor’s Mausoleum at Lishan. Stone was quarried from the North Mountain, and timbers were shipped from the states of Shu and Jing (Chu). The building materials all arrived at the site. The total number of palaces within the four passes of the Qin kingdom was three hundred, with more than four hundred palaces outside the four passes. A monument had been installed within the Qu County of Donghai Commandery, serving as the east portal of the Qin Empire.
The First Emperor ordered thirty thousand families to settle in Liyi County and fifty thousand families in Yunyang County. These families were exempted from taxation and conscription for ten years.
Scholar Lu spoke to the First Emperor: “In an unholy world, Your Majesty should often travel secretly to avoid evil spirits. In the absence of evil spirits, the holy man will appear. I hope the palace where Your Majesty stays will be kept a secret, so we can obtain the immortal panaceas we have sought.” The First Emperor replied, “I wish to be the holy man.” He referred to himself as “this holy man” instead of “we.”
He ordered the two hundred palaces within two hundred miles around the city of Xianyang to be connected via causeways or porticos, with draperies, percussion instruments, and beautiful ladies furnished at designated places. The settings were to be on record and not moved. The revelation of his itinerary was punishable by death. When the First Emperor toured Liangshan palace, he was displeased by the lavish entourage of the Chancellor seen from the hilltop. One of the eunuchs informed the Chancellor, who then reduced his retinue. The First Emperor became furious, saying, “Someone divulged what I said.” He ordered a formal investigation, but nobody confessed. He arrested everyone present at the time and executed them all. From then on, no one knew where the emperor was. All ministers who needed the emperor’s approval had to wait at the palace in Xianyang.
Court scholars Lu and Hou satirized the Emperor’s behaviors and fled from the court. When the First Emperor heard this, he was livid, “This holy man gave scholars like Lu high respect and paid them well, and they turned around and disparaged this holy man! This holy man sent investigators to look into those scholars at Xianyang, and some reported that they spread heresy to instigate the people.” He directed law officers to prosecute the scholars.
The scholars snitched on each other to exonerate themselves. The emperor sentenced four hundred sixty perpetrators to be buried alive at Xianyang. The burials were widely publicized to admonish posterity. More scholars were banished to the remote frontiers. The eldest son of the emperor, Fusu, beseeched for leniency: “These scholars are the leading Confucianists of the country. Your Majesty is applying severe punishment to all of them. I am afraid it would lead to unrest in the empire.”
The First Emperor toured the region of Longxi and Beidi commandery, reaching Mount Jitou and then back home passing the Huizhong Palace.
Changxin Palace was built on the south bank of Wei River. It was renamed as the Supreme Temple once it was finished construction. A road was made from the Supreme Temple to the Lishan Mausoleum. The Front Hall of the Ganquan Palace had been built. A corridor was built leading it to Xianyang. Expressways reserved for the emperor were built from Xianyang to the other parts of the country.
The 28th year of the First Emperor(219 B.C.)
The First Emperor toured the commanderies and counties of the east. He ascended Mount Yi in Zou county and erected a monument extolling his achievements. At the foot of Mount Tai, he summoned seventy Confucianists from the state of Lu to discuss a sacrificial ceremony for heaven(Feng) and earth(Shan). Some Confucianists suggested: “In the ancient way of ceremony, the wheels of wagons must be wrapped with sedge grass to avoid squashing the dirt, rocks, trees, and grass of the mountain. Sacrificing for the earth involves sweeping the ground, then covering it with mats made of straw and stalks.” Other Confucianists proposed different, equally impractical ideas. From that moment, the First Emperor despised the Confucianists, finding their advice difficult to implement. He ordered the road to be widened for wagons. He reached the top of Mount Tai from the sunny side, erected monuments to laud his virtues, then descended from the shady side and sacrificed for the earth at a small peak named Mount Liangfu. The liturgy of the ceremonies adhered to those used by the worship ministers of Qin when they conducted ceremonies for God in progenitor temples at Yong. These rites were kept secret, and none could be recorded.
From there, the First Emperor traveled east and cruised the coastal area. He paid homage to numerous temples, famous mountains, and rivers, and honored the eight gods: Heaven, Earth, Soldier, Yin, Yang, Month, Day, and the Four Seasons. The First Emperor then journeyed south and ascended to the top of Langya Terrace. Delighted with the location, he stayed in the commandery for three months. A palace named Langya was built there, and another stone monument was erected to express his satisfaction.
Song Wuji and Xianmen Zigao from the kingdom of Yan claimed they had learned the way to immortality and sublime into celestial beings. Many gullible and eccentric scholars followed them enthusiastically, propagating their teachings. Kings, from King Wei and King Xuan of Qi to King Zhao of Yan, became believers and sent people to search for three fairy islands—Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou—in the Bohai Sea. According to myths, these islands were not far from the human world, but magical winds would blow ships away as they approached. A few fortunate people who reached the islands reported that fairies lived there and that they possessed elixirs for immortality.
When the First Emperor toured the coast, sorcerers from the kingdom of Qi, including one named Xu Fu, vied for his favor by submitting a proposal. Xu Fu petitioned to lead a group of virgin boys and girls to search for the fairy islands after a period of fasting. The First Emperor approved, and Xu Fu selected several thousand boys and girls to seek fairies in the ocean. However, their ships were blown back by inauspicious winds. They reported, “We could not reach them, yet we could see them.”
The First Emperor was on his way back to Xianyang when he passed through Pengcheng commandery. There, he held a worship ritual in a temple after a period of fasting. He sought to recover a caldron from the Zhou dynasty that had sunk in the Si River, by ordering a thousand people to dive into the river, but they found nothing.
He then headed southwest, clearing the Huai River, and reached Mount Heng and Nanjun commandery. His entourage sailed downstream on the Yangtze River and arrived at a temple on Mount Xiang. They encountered strong winds that nearly wrecked their ship. The First Emperor asked the scholar accompanying him, “What kind of goddess is Madame Xiang?” The scholar replied, “I heard she was the daughter of Emperor Yao and married Emperor Shun. She was buried here.”
In a rage, the First Emperor ordered three thousand prisoners to hack down all the trees on Mount Xiang, leaving the mountain bare and exposing its dark red soil. The First Emperor then left Nanjun and returned to Xianyang through the Wu Pass.
Zhang Liang was from the kingdom of Han. His father and grandfather, up to five generations, had been prime ministers of Han. After the kingdom of Han perished, Zhang Liang devoted all his assets, amounting to a thousand catties of gold, to avenging the fall of Han.
The 29th year of the First Emperor(218 B.C.)
The First Emperor toured the eastern regions and passed through Yangwu county. Zhang Liang hired a hitman to ambush him with an iron mallet at a place called Bolangsha. The mallet, thrown at the emperor, struck one of his escorting wagons in the cavalcade. The emperor was frightened and ordered his guards to search for the perpetrators, but they did not catch anyone. He then commanded a nationwide manhunt for ten days.
The First Emperor ascended Mount Zhifu and inscribed his achievements on the rocks there. He then traveled to Langya Commandery before returning to Xianyang via Shangdang Commandery.
The 31st year of the First Emperor(216 B.C.)
The First Emperor decreed that all plebeians in the country report their properties and acreage.
The 32nd year of the First Emperor(215 B.C.)
The First Emperor visited Mount Jieshi. He sent a Daoist named Lu to pay a visit to Xianmen Zigao from the kingdom of Yan, a hermit reputed to know the secret of becoming a celestial being. The emperor made an inscription on the gate of Jieshi. He decreed that the walls of castles be broken down, and levees, dikes, and dams be flattened or breached. The First Emperor then surveyed the northern borders and returned via Shangjun commandery.
Daoist Scholar Lu returned from his visit to Xianmen Zigao overseas and submitted a report to the emperor titled “Record Map Book.” In the book, there was an ominous prophecy: “It is Hu who causes the kingdom of Qin to perish.” Hu was the derogatory name people gave to the Xiongnu in the north. The First Emperor ordered General Meng Tian to lead a 300,000-strong army to conquer Xiongnu in the north.
The 33rd year of the First Emperor(214 B.C.)
The First Emperor decreed conscription for men who were former fugitives, son-in-laws living in their wives’ houses, and merchants to join the army. This army conquered the rolling hills of the state of Southern Yue, establishing commanderies such as Guiling, Nanhai, and Xiang. Five hundred thousand disgraced and punished individuals were relocated to the Five Hills region to guard the southern border, where they cohabitated with the local population.
General Meng Tian chased Xiongnu away and recovered a swath of land south of the Yellow River, establishing forty-four counties in this area. The Great Wall of China was built according to the geographic features, with fortresses constructed to control the strategic passes along the northern borders. Extending tens of thousands of miles from Lintao County to Liaodong Commandery, the Great Wall marked a formidable boundary. Meng Tian led his army across the Yellow River and occupied Mount Yangshan, zigzagging northwards. His troops were deployed on the frontier for more than ten years. For years, General Meng Tian stationed at Shangjun and governed the northern frontier, his fame serving as a deterrent to Xiongnu.
Reflection by Rio Grande 