Reflection by Rio Grande

Category: Comprehensive Mirror

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 96): A Narrow Escape

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11(continued)

    Yongzuo Temple, Taiyuan(a.k.a. Jinyang), Shanxi Province. Photo by Roland Longbow

    The 7th year of the Emperor Gaozu (200 B.C.)

    In October, during the winter, the Changle Palace was completed, and the monarchs and ministers gathered to pay their respects. Early in the morning, the internuncios arranged the ceremony and led the guests into the palace in proper order, standing in rows facing east or west. Guards stood with halberds in hand on the steps or in the courtyard, while flags and banners were raised. When the alert was announced, the Emperor’s carriage emerged from the chamber. The princes followed, down to the officials with a salary of 600 picul, all coming to congratulate the Emperor, trembling in awe and respect.

    After the ceremony, a banquet was held. The attendants sat in the palace hall, all prostrating in salute and bowing their heads in reverence, and toasts were raised according to rank. After nine rounds, the internuncios announced, “The wine is being served,” and the officials in charge of discipline escorted out anyone who did not follow the proper etiquette. The banquet lasted all day, and no one behaved improperly. The Emperor then said, “Today, I truly understand the esteem of being an emperor!” He appointed Shusun Tong as the Minister of Ceremony and rewarded him with five hundred pounds of gold.

    In earlier times, the empire of Qin ruled the realm and incorporated the ceremonial practices of the six states it had conquered, selecting and preserving those that emphasized respect for the ruler and the subordination of officials. When Shusun Tong re-established the imperial ritual system, some additions and omissions were made, but it largely followed the Qin model. The system retained the imperial titles, as well as the names of officials and palace buildings, with few modifications. Written records of the system were later compiled with the legal code and stored in the archives of the judicial officials. However, the judicial officials did not transmit the ritual system to people outside the court, and no commoners or administrators spoke of it.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: The importance of rituals is enormous! When applied to oneself, they regulate one’s actions and behavior, ensuring all is done properly; when applied to the family, they establish distinctions between internal and external relations, fostering harmony among the nine kinship groups; when applied to the village, they create proper relationships between elders and youth, cultivating refined and graceful customs; when applied to the state, they ensure proper order between the ruler and ministers, leading to successful governance; when applied to the world, they bring submission from the monarchs and uphold justice. How can rituals be confined to seating arrangements in gathering or household management for the neighborhood order? Even with the wisdom of Emperor Gaozu, he praised Lu Jia’s words about ‘not governing on horseback despite winning the realm on horseback,’ and he admired Shusun Tong’s etiquette with great appreciation. Yet, the reason Gaozu couldn’t compare with the kings of the Three Dynasties was his failure in learning.

    Had he sought the assistance of great scholars and governed the world through rituals, his achievements would have surpassed what we now see. It is a pity that Shusun Tong’s capacity was so limited! He merely took the scraps and remnants of ancient rituals, following popular customs, catering to public taste, and seeking favor for himself, allowing the rituals of the former kings to decline into obscurity. Isn’t that a painful loss? This is why Yang Xiong ridiculed him, saying: ‘In ancient times, there were great scholars in Lu, but their names were lost. Someone asked: “Why were they great?” The answer was: “Shusun Tong wanted to regulate etiquette between ruler and ministers and called for scholars from Lu, but two great scholars refused to comply.” Someone asked: “Did Confucius not travel among the monarchs and serve them?” The answer was: “Confucius paved the way for his own ideals. Had he compromised his principle to fit others, wouldn’t he have implemented his own rules and standards?”

    What an excellent remark from Yang Xiong! How could a great scholar demolish his principles and abandon rules and standards, for the sake of temporary honor and reward?”

    The Emperor personally led the campaign against King of Hán, Xin, defeating his army at Tongdi and beheading General Wang Xi. Xin fled and sought refuge with the Xiongnu. Wanqiu Chen and Wang Huang, from Baitu county, enthroned Zhao Li, a descendant of the Zhao clan, as king. They gathered the remnants of Xin‘s scattered forces and planned a joint attack on the Han Dynasty with Xin and the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu dispatched the Left and Right Tuqi Kings, leading over ten thousand cavalry, who stationed themselves south of Guangwu county and reached Jinyang city. The Han army attacked, defeating the Xiongnu, who fled and then regrouped, the Han army pursued them, riding on their recent victories. However, a severe cold spell with rain and snow caused two or three out of every ten soldiers to lose fingers to frostbite.

    While the Emperor was in Jinyang, he received news that Modu Chanyu had stationed troops at Daigu and was preparing to attack. He sent scouts to assess the Xiongnu. Modu Chanyu had concealed his strongest warriors and horses, leaving only the old, weak, and thin livestock visible. Ten messengers were sent, all reporting that the Xiongnu were vulnerable. The Emperor then dispatched Liu Jing as an envoy to Xiongnu, but before his return, the Han army advanced north with 320,000 soldiers, crossing Gouzhu Pass. When Liu Jing returned, he reported, “When two countries go to war, they exaggerate their strengths and hide their weaknesses. However, I saw only the weak, thin, and old, suggesting they intentionally suggesting they intentionally showed their weakness to lure us into an ambush. In my opinion, the Xiongnu cannot be attacked at this moment.”

    By this point, the Han army was already on the move, and the Emperor, angered by Liu Jing‘s report, cursed him, “You, a mere prisoner from Qi, gained your position through eloquence, and now you spout nonsense to lower our army’s morale!” Liu Jing was then arrested and shackled in Guangwu.

    The Emperor arrived at Pingcheng, but not all his troops had assembled. Modu Chanyu mobilized 400,000 elite cavalry and besieged the Emperor at Baideng Terrace for seven days. The Han forces were unable to provide mutual aid or receive supplies. The Emperor used Chen Ping‘s secret strategy, sending a messenger to bribe Yanzhi, the Xiongnu queen, with a generous reward. Yanzhi advised Modu Chanyu, “The two rulers should not pounce on each other like this. Even if you seize Han territory, you cannot hold it permanently. Moreover, the Han ruler is also protected by divine spirits. The Chanyu should be very cautious.”

    Modu Chanyu had arranged to meet Wang Huang and Zhao Li, but their troops never arrived, making him suspect they had conspired with the Han. As a result, he released part of the siege. A thick fog shrouded the area, allowing Han messengers to move back and forth unnoticed by the Xiongnu. Chen Ping advised loading strong crossbows with two arrows each, and sending them out with arrows pointing to enemies, from the side where the siege had been lifted. The Emperor escaped the siege but wanted to move forward quickly. However, Grand Coachman–Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, insisted on proceeding slowly. Upon reaching Pingcheng, the rest of the Han army had arrived, and the Xiongnu cavalry retreated. The Han forces then withdrew, assigning Fan Kuai to stabilize the Dai commandery.

    The Emperor arrived at Guangwu and pardoned Liu Jing, saying, “I failed to heed your advice, which led to the siege at Pingcheng. I have already executed the previous ten envoys who misinformed me.” He then granted Liu Jing the title of Marquis of Jianxin, along with two thousand households. Continuing south to Quni county, the Emperor remarked, “What a magnificent county! I have traveled throughout the empire, but only Luoyang and this place impress me.” He granted Chen Ping the title of Marquis of Quni and bestowed the entire county as his fiefdom. Chen Ping had accompanied the Emperor on campaigns and devised six original strategies, each of which led to an expansion of his fief.

    In December, the Emperor returned and passed through the kingdom of Zhao. The King of Zhao, Zhang Ao, who was the Emperor’s son-in-law, humbled himself and treated the Emperor with utmost esteem, while the Emperor sat with his legs wide open, openly insulting Zhang Ao. This enraged the prime minister of Zhao, Guan Gao, along with Zhao Wu and others, who said, “Our king is a coward!” They approached Zhang Ao with fury, “The empire is up for grabs. Only those with courage seize power. Your Excellency humbles before the Emperor deferentially, but he shows you no respect. We want to kill him on your behalf!”

    Zhang Ao bit his finger until it bled and replied, “You are wrong! Our ancestors lost their kingdom, but it was through the Emperor’s help that we regained it. His virtue has benefited our descendants, and all we have is thanks to his power. I hope you never speak like that again!”

    Guan Gao, Zhao Wu, and the others conferred among themselves, “We should not have spoken to the king that way. Our king is a man of integrity and will not betray his loyalty. Even if we wish to kill the Emperor for insulting our king, why should we implicate the king? If we succeed, the credit will go to him; if we fail, we alone will face the consequences!”

    The Xiongnu attacked the kingdom Dai, and the King of Dai, Liu Xi (the Emperor’s older brother), abandoned his kingdom without a fight. He returned to the capital, was pardoned, and demoted to the Marquis of He’yang. On January 17, the Emperor’s son, Prince Liu Ruyi, was installed as the new King of Dai.

    In February, the Emperor arrived at Chang’an. Xiao He oversaw the construction of the Weiyang Palace, which greatly impressed the Emperor. However, the Emperor was furious, saying to Xiao He, “The world is in chaos, and we have been at war for years with the outcome still uncertain. Why are you focused on building such an extravagant palace?”

    Xiao He responded, “Precisely because the world is still unstable, we should seize this opportunity to build. Moreover, the Emperor considers the four seas as his home, and without grandeur, he cannot command respect. It is also important to leave a legacy that future generations cannot surpass.” The Emperor was pleased with this explanation.

    Sima Guang‘s commentary: A king should make benevolence and righteousness his grandeur, and moral integrity his source of awe. I have never heard that filling the world with palaces and halls is a way to demonstrate dominance. When the world is unsettled, one must practice restraint and fiscal responsibility to meet the needs of the people. To prioritize palaces and halls—how can this reflect an understanding of what is truly important? In the past, Emperor Yǔ lived in humbled palace, while Xia Jíe built extravagant ones and lost his empire. A founding lord should practice frugality and set an example for his descendants. Even the last ruler of a dynasty, despite the example of frugality, eventually succumbed to exorbitance—how much more will they be corrupted by being shown the example of indulgence? Moreover, to say “do not let future generations surpass it”—is this not a grave mistake? Emperor Wu, after all, ultimately ruined the country by overspending on palaces and halls, a trend perhaps initiated by Marquis Zan.

    The Emperor moved the capital from Yueyang to Chang’an. The Ministry of the Imperial Clan was first established to rank the genealogical records of the imperial family. In April, during the summer, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 95): Inventor of Whistling Arrows

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

    A Bust of Modu (Metehan) Chanyu in Türkiye, Photo by Vikiçizer

    The 6th year of the Emperor Gaozu(201 B.C. continued)

    The emperor returned to Yueyang.

    The emperor granted his father the title Emperor Emeritus on May 23 of the summer.

    The Xiongnu empire feared the Empire of Qin and moved to the north for more than ten years.  As the empire of Qin collapsed, the Xiongnus gradually moved southward and crossed the Yellow River.  

    The chief of Xiongnu, whose name was Touman Chanyu, had a crown prince called Modu.  Then Touman’s other favorite wife bore him a younger son.  He wanted to crown his young son.  Nomad tribes Donghu was strong and Yuezhi was prosperous at the time.  Touman sent Modu to be a hostage in Yuezhi and then launched a sneak attack on Yuezhi.  Yuezhi would have killed Modu, except Modu stole a stallion and ran home.  Touman thought he was tough and let Modu command ten thousand cavalry. 

    Modu invented the kabura-ya, or whistling arrows, and trained his cavalry to use them in archery. He issued a strict command: “Anyone who fails to shoot at the same target immediately after seeing a kabura-ya hit the mark must be beheaded.” To enforce discipline, Modu shot his prized horse with a kabura-ya, followed by his beloved wife. Those who hesitated to follow his lead were executed. Eventually, he shot the best horse of the Chanyu with a whistling arrow, and everyone else shot as well. Satisfied with their readiness, Modu embarked on a hunting trip, where he shot Touman with a whistling arrow. His attendants, following his lead, killed Touman Chanyu.  Then he executed his stepmother, younger brother, and ministers who opposed him. Modu then declared himself Chanyu.

    When the Donghu tribe heard that Modu had become the Chanyu, they sent a messenger with a demand: “We want Touman Chanyu’s fast horse, the one that can run a thousand li in a day.” Modu consulted his ministers, who all advised, “This is a treasure of the Xiongnu, do not give it away!” But Modu replied, “How can we value a horse more than maintaining good relations with a neighboring state?” and so he gave them the horse.

    Soon after, the Donghu sent another messenger: “We would like one of the Chanyu’s wives.” Modu again asked his followers, who were outraged: “The Donghu are unreasonable, asking for Chanyu’s wife! Let’s attack them!” Modu responded, “How can we value a woman more than a neighboring state?” and hand out his beloved wife.

    Emboldened, the Donghu king became even more arrogant. There was a stretch of deserted land over a thousand miles wide between the Donghu and Xiongnu, each occupying their own side of the border, known as the “Ou-Tuo” (buffer zone). The Donghu then demanded this land. Modu asked his ministers for their advice; some said, “It is just deserted land, it doesn’t matter if we give it away or not.” Enraged, Modu declared, “The land is the foundation of the country, how can we give it away?” He beheaded those who had suggested giving it up.

    Modu mounted his horse and commanded, “Anyone who retreats during battle will be beheaded!” He attacked the Donghu, who had underestimated him and were unprepared, leading to their destruction.

    On returning home, Modu launched a westward attack and defeated the Yuezhi tribe. He then annexed the territories ruled by the King of Loufan and the King of Baiyang, the tribes living in the south of the Yellow River, before advancing into the states of Yan and Dai. He reclaimed the lands that had previously been taken from the Xiongnu by Meng Tian, extending the southern frontier to Chaona and Fushi counties. At the time, the Han army was preoccupied with their conflict against Xiang Yu, and the central plains were exhausted by war. This allowed Modu Chanyu to consolidate his power, amassing an army of more than 300,000 archers and inducing trepidation and submission to other nations.

    In the autumn, the Xiongnu besieged the Han vassal King of Hán, Xin at Mayi. Xin repeatedly sent messengers to the Xiongnu seeking a truce, and the empire dispatched troops to rescue him. However, the Han court grew suspicious of Xin’s loyalty, as he had sent envoys back and forth multiple times. Accused of dual loyalty and fearing punishment, in September, Xin surrendered Mayi to the Xiongnu. Seizing this opportunity, Modu Chanyu led his troops south, crossed the Gozhu Pass, raided Taiyuan commandery, and eventually reached Jinyang city.

    The emperor abolished the harsh and complicated laws of the Qin Dynasty and implemented a simpler system. However, officials began competing for recognition, and during drinking sessions, some became drunk and made reckless remarks, even drawing their swords and hacking at pillars. The emperor grew increasingly disgusted with their behavior.

    Shusun Tong advised the emperor, “Scholars may not be suited to ambitious plans, but they are capable of maintaining stability. I would like to invite scholars from Lu to establish court ceremonies, along with my own disciples.” The emperor asked, “Won’t this be difficult?” Shusun Tong replied, “The Five Emperors in history had different music, and the Three Kings had different rituals. Ceremonies should reflect the times and the people’s sentiments, so the rituals must be adjusted accordingly. I will draw on ancient rituals and blend them with Qin customs.” The emperor agreed, saying, “Let’s give it a try. Make it simple to understand, and only implement what I can manage.”

    Shusun Tong summoned over thirty scholars from the state of Lu. However, two scholars refused, saying, “You have served ten lords and flattered them all to gain favor. Now that the world has only just been pacified, the dead are not yet buried, and the wounded have not yet recovered, yet you want to start with ceremonies and music. Ceremonies and music should only be established after accumulating virtue for a hundred years. I cannot bear to follow your example. You may do as you wish, but do not tarnish my reputation!” Shusun Tong laughed and said, “You are dogmatic and shallow scholars who fail to grasp the changes of the times.”

    He then led the scholars he had recruited, along with those close to the emperor and his own disciples—a group of over a hundred people—to practice rituals and music outdoors, using ropes and thatch as mock-ups, for over a month. He reported to the emperor, “You can now observe and assess them.” The emperor ordered the court to rehearse the rituals and remarked, “I can do this.” He then instructed the officials to study and practice the rituals.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 92): Zhang Liang’s Fading Away

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

    One of the Temples Worshiping Chisongzi, Hong Kong

    The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)

    Lou Jing, from the kingdom of Qi, was sent to a garrison in Longxi Commandery. While passing through Luoyang, he visited his fellow townsman, General Yu of Qi, wearing a sheepskin coat and pulling a cart. He asked General Yu to introduce him to the Emperor. General Yu wanted to provide him with better attire for the meeting, but Lou Jing refused, saying, “If I come in silk, I will meet his majesty in silk. If I come in plain cloth, I will meet his majesty in plain cloth. I dare not dress differently.” General Yu mentioned Lou Jing to the Emperor, who agreed to meet him.

    When the Emperor sought his advice, Lou Jing asked, “Does your majesty intend to compete with the Zhou dynasty in terms of prosperity by choosing Luoyang as the capital?”

    The Emperor replied, “Yes.”

    Lou Jing continued, “Your majesty took over the country in a way very different from the Zhou dynasty. The ancestor of Zhou, Hou Ji, was awarded the fiefdom Tai State. From that time, the family followed a virtuous path, accumulating merit and charity over several generations. Then came King Tai, King Ji, King Wen, and King Wu of Zhou, whom other monarchs admired and supported. King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty and became emperor. When King Cheng of Zhou ascended the throne and the Duke of Zhou served as prime minister, they chose Luoyang as the capital because it was centrally located, making it equally accessible for all the monarchs to pay tributes and report to the Emperor.”

    “A virtuous king easily becomes emperor, while an unethical king is easily destroyed.  During the prime of the Zhou dynasty, the country was at peace and harmony, with all the monarchs and neighboring foreigners compliant and paying tribute. But as the Zhou dynasty declined, no one paid homage anymore, and the emperor lost control over the country. He not only lost his moral authority but was also in a weaker position. Now, your majesty began the uprising in the town of Feng in Pei county, prevailed over Shu and Hanzhong commandery, and then conquered the three kingdoms of Qin. Your majesty fought Xiang Yu between Xingyang and Chenggao, enduring more than seventy major battles and forty minor ones. The people of this country have suffered extreme cruelty. Countless bodies of fathers and sons lie scattered in the fields, the cries of the bereaved have not ceased, and the wounded have not yet risen from their beds. We are not in a position comparable to the time of King Cheng or King Kang of Zhou.”

    “The former kingdom of Qin has mountains at its back and is encircled by rivers. Fortresses have been built at strategic mountain passes on all four sides. In an emergency, a million soldiers could be mobilized instantly. With Qin’s infrastructure and fertile land, it is a god-blessed stronghold. If your majesty chooses to establish the capital within the Hangu Pass, the land of Qin will be secure, even if there are rebellions east of Xiao Mountain. In hand-to-hand combat, it is not a total victory unless you can grab your opponent by the throat and strike from his back. By securing the former kingdom of Qin as the capital, your majesty essentially grabs the country by its throat and slaps its back.”

    The Emperor consulted other ministers, all of whom were from east of the Xiao Mountains. They tripped over each other to offer their opinions: “The Zhou dynasty lasted for centuries, while the Qin dynasty perished within only two generations. Luoyang has Chenggao to the east, Xiao Mountain and Mianchi Lake to the west. It is backed by the Yellow River and faces the Yi River and Luo River, making its defensive position reliable.”

    The Emperor then sought advice from Zhang Liang. Zhang Liang said, “Luoyang is defensible, but its core area is too small, and the farming soil is poor. It is vulnerable to attacks from all directions and not an ideal place to engage in a long battle. Guanzhong, on the other hand, is different. It has Xiao Mountain and Hangu Pass to its east, Long Mountain and the Shu commandery to its west, with thousands of miles of fertile land. It is enriched by the wealth of Ba and Shu commanderies to the south and benefits from the nomads’ pastures to the north. It is protected on three sides, leaving only the eastern monarchs to deal with. If these monarchs are peaceful, the Yellow and Wei rivers can serve as conduits to transport resources westward to the capital. If they rebel, troops can swiftly move downstream, and supply lines won’t be a problem. That is why Guanzhong is known as the ‘Thousand Miles of Metal City’ or ‘God-blessed Home Base.’ Lou Jing knows what he is talking about.”

    The Emperor immediately set out westward and established Chang’an as the capital. He appointed Lou Jing as a court guard and granted him the title of Lord Fengchun. Additionally, he honored Lou Jing by bestowing his own surname, Liu, upon him.

    Zhang Liang had been in poor health and practiced a therapeutic Daoist art since following the Emperor into the west of Hangu Pass. He adopted a strict diet, avoiding grain, and rarely left his house. He declared, “My family served as prime ministers of Hán for generations. I spent ten thousand caddies of gold to avenge the brutal Qin when the kingdom of Hán was annihilated, and I made an impact on the country. I was fortunate enough to become the emperor’s advisor and was granted a fief of ten thousand households just by moving my three-inch tongue and sharing my counsel. This is the highest position a commoner could ever achieve—far beyond what I desired. Now, I wish to follow Chisongzi, a Daoist immortal, to wander freely and leave behind the troubles of the human world.”

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Death after life is as natural as night following day. From ancient times to the present, no one has escaped fate to achieve immortality. Zhang Zifang was a rational man and must have known that immortality was a fantasy. His wisdom was evident in his talk of following Chisongzi’s path. Fame and success are the hardest trials a minister faces. The Emperor praised none more than the three standouts—yet Marquis Huaiyin and his clan were extirpated, and Xiao He was imprisoned. Isn’t it because they did not stop when their lives reached their peaks? Zhang Zifang wisely turned his life over to the gods, discarding wealth and fame, and leaving the secular world. He is an example of someone who saved himself and his philosophy.

    The Emperor announced a nationwide amnesty on June 9th. 

    In July of the fall, Zang Tu, the king of Yan, rebelled, prompting the Emperor to personally lead the campaign to suppress the mutiny. 

    Both King Jing of Zhao, Zhang Er, and King Wen of Changsha, Wu Rui, passed away. 

    Zang Tu was captured in September, and Marquis Chang’an, Lu Wan, who served as the grand commandant, was appointed the king of Yan. Lu Wan had grown up in the same neighborhood as the Emperor and was born on the same day, a bond unmatched by anyone else. His appointment as king was a unique honor. 

    Li Ji, a general under Xiang Yu, also mounted an insurrection, which the emperor personally quelled, bringing Li Ji into custody.

    The construction of Changle Palace began in late September. 

    Zhongli Mo, a general under Xiang Yu, was a close friend of Han Xin, the king of Chu. He joined Han Xin‘s command. The Emperor, harboring a grudge against Zhongli Mo, issued a decree for his arrest upon learning of his escape to the kingdom of Chu.

    When Han Xin traveled to Chu for his inauguration, his large entourage was heavily armed as they passed through the towns and counties of his fiefdom state.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 89): Besieged On All Sides in Gaixia

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11

    Duration of 3 years

    Xiang Yu and his horse

    The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C.)

    In October of that winter, the King of Han pursued King Xiang Yu to Guling. He arranged a meeting with Han Xin, the King of Qi, and Peng Yue, the Prime Minister of Wei, to plan an assault on the army of Chu. However, Han Xin and Peng Yue did not attend. King Xiang Yu struck back at the Han forces and dealt them a severe blow. The Han troops retreated to their camps and refused to engage further.

    The King of Han asked Zhang Liang, “What should we do now that our allies haven’t come to our aid?”

    Zhang Liang replied, “The Kingdom of Chu is on the verge of collapse, but these two generals haven’t yet secured their territories. Their absence was to be expected. If Your Majesty is willing to share the land, they will come at once. The enthronement of Han Xin as King of Qi was not your original intent, and he is aware of that and not convinced of your trust. Peng Yue conquered the lands of Wei, yet Your Majesty only appointed him Prime Minister due to the presence of Wei Bao. Now that Wei Bao is dead, Peng Yue expects to be enthroned, but Your Majesty has hesitated.”

    “If Your Majesty grants the land from Suiyang county to the north, up to Gucheng, as Peng Yue‘s kingdom, and makes him king; and if you give the land from ancient State of Chen to the east, all the way to the East Ocean, to Han Xin, the King of Qi, they will join us immediately. Han Xin‘s home is in the Kingdom of Chu, and his intention would be to reclaim it. If Your Majesty cedes these lands and gives them authority to manage their battles, the downfall of Chu will not be difficult.”

    The King of Han followed Zhang Liang’s advice, and Han Xin and Peng Yue soon led their troops to join him, as expected.

    In November, General Liu Jia crossed the Huai River to the south and laid siege to the city of Shouchun. He sent an emissary to persuade King Xiang Yu’s Grand Marshal, Zhou Yin, to defect. Zhou Yin betrayed the Kingdom of Chu and led troops from Shu county in a massacre in Lu county. He then organized the soldiers of Jiujiang to welcome their former king, Qingbu. Afterward, he moved to Chengfu county, where he carried out another massacre before joining forces with General Liu Jia.

    In December, King Xiang Yu reached Gaixia. His army had dwindled, and they were running out of food. All his battles against the Han forces had ended in failure, and they were now trapped in bastions. The Han army, along with allied forces, surrounded his camps in multiple layers. One night, King Xiang Yu heard folk songs of Chu being sung by the Han soldiers from all sides. Astonished, he exclaimed, “Has the Han army taken over all of Chu? Why are so many Chu folks here?” He rose, drank liquor in his tent, and, overcome with emotion, began singing sorrowful songs, tears streaming down his face. Those around him sobbed, not daring to look at him.

    That night, King Xiang Yu mounted his favorite steed, named Zhui, and led 800 elite cavalrymen to break through the encirclement. They rode south at high speed, and it was not until dawn that the Han army realized they had fled. General Guan Ying was ordered to pursue them with 5,000 cavalrymen. King Xiang Yu managed to cross the Huai River, but by then, only about a hundred cavalrymen remained with him. They became lost near Yinling town and asked a farmer for directions. The farmer said, “Turn left.” They followed his advice and were soon trapped in a large swamp, where the Han cavalry caught up with them.

    King Xiang Yu fled east again and reached Dongcheng county with only 28 cavalrymen remaining. Several thousand Han cavalry were in pursuit. Realizing he could not escape, Xiang Yu spoke to his followers: “It has been eight years since I took up arms. I have fought more than seventy battles and never been defeated. That is why I am the hegemon of the land. Yet, now we are besieged. This is the will of Heaven, not my failure as a warrior. In this final duel of life and death, I want to fight for sport and claim at least three victories: breaking the encirclement, beheading an enemy commander, and cutting down their banner. I want to prove to you that it is Heaven’s will, not my own shortcomings, that has doomed us.”

    He divided his riders into four groups, each facing a different direction, as the Han cavalry encircled them in multiple layers. Xiang Yu told his followers, “I will take out one of their commanders for you.” He then ordered them to charge in all four directions and regroup at three points over the mountain to the east. Xiang Yu roared as he charged into the Han formation, causing their soldiers to panic and flee. He beheaded a Han commander in the chaos.

    A Han cavalry court guard named Yang Xi pursued Xiang Yu, but when Xiang Yu turned and stared at him with a thunderous shout, both Yang Xi and his horse were so terrified that they retreated several miles before recovering their nerve.

    Xiang Yu met his followers at the three rendezvous points. The Han pursuers, unsure where he was, split their forces into three groups to surround each location. Xiang Yu charged the Han troops once more, beheading another commander and killing dozens of Han soldiers. When the group regrouped again, only two horsemen were missing.

    Xiang Yu asked his followers, “How was that?”

    His men, filled with admiration, dismounted and said, “Exactly as Your Majesty said!”

    King Xiang Yu planned to cross the Yangtze River at the town of Wujiang, where the post chief of Wujiang ford had prepared a boat for him. The chief urged him, “Jiangdong region may not be large, but it covers thousands of miles and has a population in the hundreds of thousands. It is enough for Your Majesty to reclaim power. Please cross quickly—only I have boats, and the Han soldiers won’t be able to follow.”

    Xiang Yu laughed and reconsidered: “Why should I cross the river if Heaven has already doomed me? I, Xiang Ji, crossed this river with 8,000 sons of Jiangdong and launched my western campaign. Today, not one of them returned with me. Even if the people of Jiangdong still love me and make me their king, I don’t have the heart to face them again! They may not say a word, but how could I not feel ashamed?”

    He gave his horse, Zhui, as a gift to the post chief and ordered his guards to dismount for one final battle. Xiang Yu fought hand-to-hand with a sword, killing hundreds of Han soldiers on his own, though he was wounded in more than ten places.

    During the fight, Xiang Yu saw a cavalry major, Lü Matong, and asked, “Aren’t you an old friend of mine?” Lü Matong dared not face Xiang Yu, turned to calvary court guard Wang Yi, and pointed to the king, “This is King Xiang Yu!”

    Xiang Yu responded, “I’ve heard the Kingdom of Han has offered 1,000 ounces of gold and a fief of 10,000 households for my head. I’ll repay you a favor for your kindness.” With that, he slashed his own throat.

    Wang Yi took Xiang Yu’s head, but chaos erupted as Han cavalrymen trampled each other, each trying to claim a piece of Xiang Yu’s body. In the mayhem, dozens of soldiers died. Ultimately, five men—Yang Xi, Lü Matong, Lü Sheng, Yang Wu, and Wang Yi—each claimed a piece of Xiang Yu. Together, they confirmed the remains and received the reward. Each was given a fief of 2,000 households and the title of marquis.

    All the cities of the Kingdom of Chu had surrendered to Han rule, except for the county of Lu. The King of Han led the army of the entire country to attack the city. As they approached the city walls, they heard chanting and music from within. The King of Han realized that this was Xiang Yu’s fiefdom, and the people of Lu remained defiant because of their loyalty to him and adherence to the rites.

    The King of Han then showed Xiang Yu‘s severed head to the people of Lu, and the city capitulated. He ordered that Xiang Yu‘s funeral be conducted in the name of the Duke of Lu and had him buried in Gucheng county. The King of Han attended the ceremony himself and wept at the altar. He pardoned all members of the Xiang family, granting Xiang Bo and three others the title of marquis and the surname Liu. Additionally, he allowed those who had been forcibly relocated to Chu to return to their original homes.

    The great historian Sima Qian once commented: Xiang Yu rose from obscurity and dismantled the Qin Empire with the help of five allied monarchs in just three years. He divided the land and granted his followers the titles of king and marquis, becoming the de facto ruler of the country. Although his reign ended poorly, his achievements were nonetheless remarkable in history. Yearning for his home state of Chu, he abandoned the strategic region of Guanzhong. He exiled the honorary emperor and usurped power. Given this, it is difficult to fault the kings and marquises he elevated, who later turned against him. Xiang Yu was overly confident in his military prowess and trusted his own judgment, often deviating from established norms. He sought hegemony and ambitious control but relied solely on brute force to govern. He ultimately perished in the east, and his kingdom was destroyed. Even in defeat, he refused to acknowledge his faults, blaming his downfall on fate, claiming, “It was Heaven that doomed me, not my military failure.” How absurd!

    In his Exemplary Sayings, Yang Xiong commented: Someone asked, “The King of Chu failed at Gaixia. Before his death, he claimed it was Heaven’s will. Does that make sense?” The answer was: “The King of Han sought advice from many, and more ideas overcame more brute force. The King of Chu, on the other hand, discouraged counsel and weakened his own position. Victory goes to those who triumph through wisdom. Defeat comes to those who undermine themselves. What does Heaven have to do with it?”

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 81): The Battle of Jingxing

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 2 Scroll 10

    Duration of 2 years

    Jingxing Pass, Hebei Province

    The 3rd year of the Emperor Gaozu (204 B.C.)

    In October of that winter, Han Xin and Zhang Er led tens of thousands of troops eastward to attack the Kingdom of Zhao. The King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, and Lord Cheng’an, Chen Yu, assembled their army at Jingxing Pass, claiming to have two hundred thousand soldiers.

    Li Zuoche, known as Lord Guangwu, advised Chen Yu: “Han Xin and Zhang Er are on a long-distance expedition, advancing on the momentum of consecutive victories. Engaging them head-on is unwise. There’s a saying: ‘Soldiers go hungry when you have to procure food from a thousand miles away; the army won’t sleep with their stomach full if you chop firewood at cooking time.’ The path at Jingxing Pass is so narrow that two chariots can’t pass side by side. The cavalry can’t maintain their usual formation, and their marching train stretches for hundreds of miles, with their supply train at the rear. If you lend me thirty thousand troops, I’ll attack their baggage train from the backroads. Meanwhile, you should dig trenches and build defensive walls. Avoid direct engagement. They won’t be able to fight you from the front or retreat. Within ten days, the heads of Han Xin and Zhang Er will be displayed under your banner. Otherwise, we will be captured by them.”

    However, Lord Cheng’an, proud of his army’s reputation for an honorable style that was above trickery, rejected Lord Guangwu’s plan: “Han Xin’s army is small and weary from battle. If we hold back from fighting, other monarchs might see us as cowards and attack us without thinking in the future.”

    Han Xin sent spies to gather intelligence on the Kingdom of Zhao. Upon learning that Chen Yu had not adopted Lord Guangwu’s plan, he was overjoyed and issued the order to proceed. They set up camp ten miles from Jingxing Pass, and at midnight, Han Xin gave the signal to act. He selected two thousand light cavalry, giving each soldier a red flag, and sent them to hide on a summit reached by trails near Zhao’s camp. He instructed: “When the troops of Zhao pursue us during our retreat, you will enter their camp, take down their flags, and raise the red flags of Han.”

    He told his lieutenant generals to have a light meal, promising a grand lunch after they defeated the army of Zhao. The generals, doubtful, replied sarcastically: “Sure.” Han Xin explained: “The Zhao army holds the strategic positions and has fortified their defenses. They won’t come out to attack us unless they see my commander’s banner, fearing we might retreat when faced with danger.” He then ordered ten thousand soldiers to advance through Jingxing Pass and set up a formation with their backs to the river. The soldiers of Zhao ridiculed this maneuver.

    At dawn, Han Xin raised his commander’s banners and led his army through Jingxing Pass with a fanfare of drums and trumpets. The Zhao forces, seeing this, left their fortresses and attacked Han’s army. A fierce battle ensued for a long time. Han Xin and Zhang Er pretended to retreat, abandoning their banners and drums, and fled toward their formation by the river. Their troops let them in and fought fiercely against Zhao’s pursuing forces.

    As the Zhao soldiers poured out of their camp to seize the abandoned banners and drums, Han Xin’s two thousand cavalry swooped in and captured Zhao’s empty camp, replacing their flags with Han’s red flags. Meanwhile, Han Xin and Zhang Er led their forces by the river in a fierce counterattack. The Zhao army, distracted by looting, was startled when they saw Han’s red flags flying over their camp. Believing their king and commander had been captured, they panicked and fled in disarray. Even when generals of Zhao executed fleeing soldiers, they could not restore order. Han Xin’s forces attacked from both sides, crushing the Zhao army. Lord Cheng’an was beheaded by the Zhi River, and the King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, was captured.

    The generals of Han returned with severed heads and prisoners of war, congratulating one another. Then they asked Han Xin,  “The military manuals say: ‘A battle formation should be positioned with mountains and highlands to the right and behind, and rivers and lakes to the left and front.’ Yet you ordered us to do the opposite, placing our backs to the river. You also said, ‘We’ll have a big lunch after defeating the army of Zhao.’ We were skeptical at the time, but now we’ve won a great victory. What strategy did you use?”

    Han Xin replied: “This strategy is also in the manual—you simply overlooked it. The art of war says: ‘Place your soldiers in a position of death, and they will fight to survive; put them in a hopeless situation, and they will find a way to live.’ I didn’t have the luxury of commanding a well-trained army. I had to lead civilians onto the battlefield. In such a situation, I needed to force them into a desperate position where each soldier had to fight for his life. If I had given them an easy way out, they would have fled, and how would I have kept them under command?”

    The generals were awestruck: “Brilliant! General Han is truly beyond us!”

    Han Xin declared that whoever captured Lord Guangwu alive would be rewarded with thousands of catties of gold. Sure enough, someone soon delivered the bound Lord Guangwu to his headquarters. Han Xin, however, released him and seated him facing east, treating him as a mentor. Han Xin humbly sought advice: “I plan to raid the kingdom of Yan to the north and the kingdom of Qi to the east. How can I ensure success?”

    Lord Guangwu demurred, “I am a captive of a losing battle; should I really be consulted on such important matters?”

    Han Xin persisted: “I have heard of Baili Xi, who lived in the state of Yu. Yu was annexed, but when Baili Xi lived in the kingdom of Qin, Qin became dominant. It wasn’t because Baili Xi was foolish in Yu and suddenly became brilliant in Qin—it all depended on whether the king adopted his proposals. Had Lord Cheng’an followed your advice, I would have been captured. I can listen to your advice today because your plan was not adopted. I sincerely seek your guidance. I hope you won’t turn me down, your honor.”

    Lord Guangwu responded: “General Han, you crossed the Yellow River, captured the king of Wei, and then Xia Yue. You marched through Jingxing eastward and crushed the mighty Zhao army of 200,000 soldiers before noon, even beheading Lord Cheng’an. Your fame is widespread, and you inspire awe throughout the country. Even farmers lay down their plows and cease tilling. They now live hedonistically, consuming their finest foods and wearing their best clothes, eagerly waiting for fate’s next arrangement. That’s your strong hand. But the people are weary of war, and the soldiers are exhausted. If you drive these worn-out troops against Yan’s strongholds, they won’t engage you in battle. You might not breach their fortress, and they’ll know your troops better. You’ll lose your momentum. As the war drags on, your supplies will run out. If Yan holds firm, Qi will bolster its defenses and become more assertive. If both Yan and Qi hold out, the balance of power between Chu and Han will become unpredictable. That’s your weak hand. A good strategist uses his strong hand to cover his weak hand, not the other way around.”

    Han Xin asked, “What should I do then?”

    Lord Guangwu replied: “If I were you, I would let the troops rest and pacify the people of Zhao. The locals within a hundred miles would bring in beef and wine to cater to your staff. You should adopt an aggressive stance toward the north but send emissaries to showcase your strength to Yan. Yan won’t dare disobey. Once Yan submits, you can move on to Qi. By then, even a wise strategist will have no plan to save Qi. This way, you will be on the path to conquering the whole country. Warfare begins with bluff and bluster, followed by real actions. That’s what I mean.”

    Han Xin appreciated the advice: “A good strategy!” He followed Lord Guangwu‘s counsel and sent envoys to Yan. The king of Yan immediately conceded. Han Xin then sent messengers to report the good news to the king of Han and petitioned for Zhang Er to be made king of Zhao. The king of Han approved. There were several sneak attacks from Chu‘s army, which crossed the Yellow River to raid Zhao. Zhang Er and Han Xin busied themselves defending Zhao, bringing its towns and cities under control. They even drafted soldiers and sent them to aid the king of Han.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 74): A Land of 18 Kingdoms

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 1 Scroll 9 (continued)

    A rhesus macaque mother and her child

    The 1st year of Emperor Gaozu(206 B.C. continued)

    A few days later, Xiang Yu led his troops westward and ransacked the city of Xianyang. He ordered the execution of the king of Qin, Ziying, and commanded the burning of all the Qin palaces. The inferno lasted for more than three months. His soldiers looted all the treasures of Qin, abducted the court’s women, and took them to the east. The people of Qin were horrified by Xiang Yu’s actions.

    A scholar, Mr. Han, advised him: “The Guanzhong region (the heartland of Qin) is naturally fortified by mountains and rivers. It is a place secured by fortresses on all sides. The land here is fertile, making it an ideal capital for your empire.” However, as Xiang Yu saw the Qin palaces reduced to wreck, he intended to return to his hometown in the east. He dismissed Mr. Han’s suggestion, saying: “To become rich and famous and not return to one’s homeland is like wearing an embroidered gown in the dark. What is the point?” Disheartened, Mr. Han made the remark: “I’ve heard that the people of Chu were rhesus monkeys dressed-up as humans, with caps and gowns. Now I believe it is true.” Upon learning of this insult, Xiang Yu had Mr. Han executed by boiling.

    Xiang Yu sent messengers to King Huai II of Chu, pleading to annul their agreement that whoever first entered Xianyang would be king. King Huai II replied, “A promise is a promise.” Enraged, Xiang Yu said, “It was my family who put King Huai II on the throne. He didn’t win any battles, so why does he get to dictate promises? When chaos erupted in the land, we installed descendants of the former monarchs to rally the troops against the Qin empire. It was you and I who donned armor and fought in the wilderness for three years until we finally crushed the Qin empire. Even though King Huai II did nothing, we can give him a king’s title but divide his land among ourselves.” His generals all agreed, saying, “Well said!” In January of that spring, Xiang Yu elevated King Huai II to the position of honorary emperor, stating, “The emperors of the past ruled over lands spanning thousands of miles and always lived upstream.” He relocated the honorary emperor to the south of the Yangtze River and designated Chen county as his capital.

    In February, Xiang Yu divided the land into kingdoms and bestowed the title of king upon his generals. He declared himself the Hegemonial King of West Chu, ruling over nine commanderies in the former kingdoms of Liang (also known as Wei) and Chu, with his capital in Pengcheng. Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng were wary of the Duke of Pei but maintained a cordial relationship to avoid the appearance of breaking their pact. In private, they discussed, “The commanderies of Ba and Shu are distant, with treacherous roads, and were places where Qin exiled its convicts.” Publicly, they claimed, “The commanderies of Ba and Shu are part of Guanzhong.” Xiang Yu then conferred the title of “King of Han” upon the Duke of Pei, giving him control over the three commanderies of Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong, with his capital at Nanzheng county.

    Xiang Yu divided the real Guanzhong (the heartland of the Qin kingdom) into three parts, granting them to the three surrendered Qin generals to block access by the king of Han(Liu Bang). General Zhang Han was made the King of Yong, ruling the land west of Xianyang, with his capital in Feiqiu county. Zhang Han’s chief of staff, Sima Xin, who had earlier been a prison warden who did a favor to Xiang Liang, was named the King of Sai, controlling the area from east of Xianyang to the Yellow River, with his capital in Yueyang county. General Dong Yi, who persuaded Zhang Han to surrender, was made the King of Di(Zhai), ruling Shangjun  commandery with his capital at Gaonu county.

    Xiang Yu transferred the King of Wei, Wei Bao, to be the King of West Wei, ruling the region east of the Yellow River with his capital in Pingyang. Shen Yang of Xiaqiu county, a favorite of Zhang Er and the first to conquer the Henan commandery, was named King of Henan with his capital at Luoyang. The King of Hán, Han Cheng, returned to his old capital at Yangdi. General Sima Ang of Zhao, who conquered the Henei commandery, was made King of Yin, ruling from the Zhaoge county.

    Xiang Yu moved the King of Zhao, Zhao Xie, to be King of Dai, while Zhang Er, who had a great reputation and had accompanied Xiang Yu into the Hangu Pass, was awarded the title of King of Changshan, ruling the former land of Zhao from his office in Xiangguo county. Lord Dangyang, Qing Bu, the top general of Chu, was appointed King of Jiujiang, headquartered in Liu county. Lord Po, Wu Rui, who led the Yue tribes to support Xiang Yu, was made King of Hengshan with his government in Zhu county.

    The commander-in-chief of the honorary emperor, Gong Ao, who had achieved multiple military victories, was awarded the title of King of Linjiang, with his capital in Jiangling. Xiang Yu reassigned the King of Yan, Han Guang, to be King of Liaodong, with his office in Wuzhong county. A general of Yan, Zang Tu, who joined the campaign to save Zhao and later followed Xiang Yu into the Hangu Pass, was promoted to King of Yan, ruling from Ji county.

    Xiang Yu reassigned the King of Qi, Tian Shi, to be King of Jiaodong, with his office in Jimo. A general of Qi, Tian Du, who also took part in the rescue of Zhao and the western expedition against Qin, was made King of Qi, ruling from Linzi. Another general of Qi, Tian An, who conquered several cities in the Jibei region and joined the rescue of Zhao, was named King of Jibei, with his capital in Boyang.

    In contrast, General Tian Rong of Qi, who had repeatedly spurned Xiang Liang and refused to join Xiang Yu’s western expedition, received no title. Similarly, Lord Cheng’an, Chen Yu, who relinquished his field marshal seal and did not join Xiang Yu’s campaign, also went unrewarded. Many of Xiang Yu’s supporters pleaded, saying, “Zhang Er and Chen Yu were inseparable and both accomplished much for the kingdom of Zhao. Since you awarded Zhang Er a king’s title, you must also reward Chen Yu.” Reluctantly, Xiang Yu awarded Chen Yu three counties around Nanpi county, upon hearing that he was staying there. Mei Juan, a general under Lord Po with numerous military merits, was granted the title of Marquis and a fief of one hundred thousand households.

    The King of Han was furious and wanted to wage war against Xiang Yu. His generals, Zhou Bo, Guan Ying, and Fan Kuai, all urged him not to proceed. Xiao He cautioned him, saying, “As much as you despise being the King of Han, it is better than being dead.” The King of Han retorted, “Why would we end up dead?” Xiao He replied, “Our forces are vastly outnumbered compared to his. We have lost every time we faced him in battle. What else could the outcome be, except death? King Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou were able to defer to one man while commanding an army of ten thousand chariots. I implore Your Majesty to go to Hanzhong and establish your base there. Allow the people to recover from the ravages of war, recruit talent from across the land, and use the resources of the Ba and Shu regions to reclaim the three kingdoms of Qin—Kingdoms of Yong, Sai, and Di. Once we secure Qin, we can then strategize to take over the entire country.” The King of Han agreed, saying, “Well said!” He reported to his position in Hanzhong and appointed Xiao He as the Prime Minister. He also awarded Zhang Liang with twenty-four hundred ounces of gold and two buckets of pearls. Zhang Liang, in turn, redirected all these treasures to Xiang Bo.  

    The King of Han also asked Zhang Liang to thank Xiang Bo with lavish gifts so that Xiang Bo would advocate to Xiang Yu on his behalf to grant him all the land around Hanzhong. Xiang Yu approved the request. 

    In April of that summer, allied forces began to depart from the banner of Xiang Yu to take their positions in their respective kingdoms. Xiang Yu assigned thirty thousand soldiers to accompany the King of Han to Hanzhong, while tens of thousands more followers trailed behind him on their own will, entering Hanzhong through the plank road at Shi Valley in southern Du County.

    Zhang Liang accompanied the King of Han to Baozhong before being ordered to return to his own king (King Han Cheng) by the King of Han. Zhang Liang advised the King of Han to burn all the plank roads they had used to travel from Xianyang to Hanzhong. The first reason was to prevent surprise attacks from the three kingdoms of Qin. The second reason was to demonstrate to Xiang Yu that he had no intention of advancing eastward.

    Tian Rong was enraged when he learned that Xiang Yu had moved the King of Qi, Tian Shi, to Jiaodong and promoted Tian Du to be the King of Qi. In May, he led his troops to attack Tian Du, who fled to the Kingdom of Chu. Tian Rong detained the King of Qi and refused to allow him to go to Jiaodong. Fearing Xiang Yu’s authority, Tian Shi escaped to Jiaodong. Furious, Tian Rong pursued Tian Shi to Jimo and killed him there, proclaiming himself the King of Qi.

    Peng Yue, commanding ten thousand troops in Juye County, remained unresponsive to calls from others. Tian Rong conferred upon Peng Yue the title of general and ordered him to attack Jibei. In July, Peng Yue killed the King of Jibei, Tian An, making Tian Rong the ruler of the three kingdoms of Qi (Jiaodong, Jibei, and Qi). Tian Rong then directed Peng Yue to launch an assault on the Kingdom of Chu. In response, Xiang Yu ordered the Duke of Xiao, Jiao, to lead the defense against Peng Yue. Peng Yue decisively defeated the troops of Chu.

    When Zhang Er arrived in his kingdom, Chen Yu was furious, saying, “Zhang Er has the same achievements as I do, yet he is made a king while I am only a marquis. Xiang Yu is very unfair to me.” He secretly sent Zhang Tong and Xia Yue to lobby Tian Rong, the King of Qi, saying, “Xiang Yu is unjust as the nation’s power broker. He promoted his own generals to be kings of prosperous lands and moved the former kings to poor regions. General Chen Yu believes it was wrong to move the King of Zhao to Dai in the north. Now that Your Majesty has risen against this injustice, we hope you will support General Chen Yu‘s campaign against Changshan to restore the King of Zhao to his rightful place. The Kingdom of Zhao will then become the bulwark of the Kingdom of Qi.” Tian Rong agreed to the plan and sent troops to aid Chen Yu‘s offensive.

    Xiang Yu harbored enmity for the King Han Cheng of State of Hán, due to Zhang Liang‘s support for the King of Han, and because Han Cheng had not significantly contributed to the downfall of the Qin Empire. As a result, Xiang Yu did not allow Han Cheng to return to his kingdom, instead taking him to Pengcheng, where he stripped him of his kingly title and demoted him to Marquis of Rang. Later, Han Cheng was assassinated.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 71): A Deer or A Horse

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 3 Scroll 8 (continued)

    The Tomb of The Second Emperor of Qin

    The 3rd year of the Second Emperor(207 B.C. continued)

    Earlier, the eunuch Chancellor Zhao Gao sought to establish absolute authority over the Qin empire but feared that other court officials might not be fully obedient. To test their loyalty, he devised a scheme. He presented a deer to the Second Emperor and said, “This is a horse.” The Emperor laughed and said, “Are you mistaken, Chancellor? You call a deer a horse?” The Emperor then asked those around him for their opinion. Some remained silent, others agreed it was a horse to appease Zhao Gao, while a few said it was a deer. Zhao Gao covertly persecuted those who called it a deer. From that point on, all the court officials were terrified of him, and no one dared to disagree with him.

    Zhao Gao often dismissed the uprisings east of Hangu Pass, saying, “They are merely burglars, not a serious threat.” However, after Xiang Yu captured General Wang Li, and General Zhang Han suffered a series of defeats, Zhang Han sent repeated requests for reinforcements. Meanwhile, many towns east of Hangu Pass rebelled against Qin officials and aligned with the other kingdoms. Generals from these kingdoms began leading their armies westward toward Qin.

    In August, the Duke of Pei led tens of thousands of troops through Wu Pass, annihilating all its defenders. Fearing that his lies had angered the Second Emperor and would result in his own execution, Zhao Gao feigned illness and stopped attending court.

    The Second Emperor had a troubling dream in which a white tiger bit and killed the leftmost horse of his chariot. Feeling uneasy, he sought the interpretation of a shaman, who told him, “The deity of the Jing River is the source of this trouble.” Disturbed by the dream, the Emperor began fasting and praying at Wangyi Palace, planning to appease the Jing River deity by sacrificing four white horses. Simultaneously, he sent a message reprimanding Zhao Gao for his mishandling of the eastern rebellions. This frightened Zhao Gao, who conspired with his son-in-law, Yan Le, the mayor of Xianyang, and his brother Zhao Cheng.

    Zhao Gao lamented to them: “The Emperor no longer heeds my counsel. Now, he blames me in his time of crisis. I intend to depose him and enthrone Ziying. Ziying is kind and prudent, and everyone speaks well of him.” He then ordered the court security chief, Zhao Cheng, to act as an insider. Zhao Gao fabricated a story that gangsters had infiltrated the palace, and Yan Le was to send his troops inside under this pretext. As leverage, Zhao Gao also took Yan Le’s mother hostage.

    Yan Le led a thousand officers and soldiers to the gates of Wangyi Palace, tying up the chief guard and the court attendants. He shouted, “Gangsters have entered the palace! Why did you stop them?” The chief guard retorted, “The palace is well-guarded at all times. How could gangsters have gotten in?” In response, Yan Le ordered the chief guard’s execution. His forces stormed the palace, firing arrows. Eunuchs and servants panicked—some fled, while others were killed. Dozens died in the chaos.

    Zhao Cheng and Yan Le penetrated the inner court, where the Second Emperor was praying. An arrow struck the Emperor’s curtains, enraging him. He called for his servants, but they were too paralyzed by fear to act. Only one eunuch remained by his side. The Emperor asked, “Why didn’t you tell me the truth earlier? Now it’s come to this.” The eunuch replied, “I have survived by staying silent. Had I told you the truth, I would have been killed long ago.”

    Yan Le confronted the Second Emperor, accusing him: “You are tyrannical and reckless. You’ve killed countless people without remorse, and the entire country has risen against you. What do you intend to do now?” The Second Emperor pleaded, “May I see the Chancellor?” Yan Le refused. The Emperor then begged, “I want to be a king of a commandery.” Again, the answer was no. He lowered his request: “I want to be a marquis with a fief of ten thousand households.” Yan Le still refused. Finally, the Emperor pleaded, “Let me be a commoner, living with my wife, like the other princes.”

    Yan Le replied coldly, “I have orders from the Chancellor to kill you for the good of the realm. Say as much as your honor wants, I cannot report back.” He then ordered his soldiers to advance. Cornered, the Second Emperor took his own life.

    Yan Le reported back to Zhao Gao, who then summoned all the court officials and royals to inform them of the Second Emperor‘s death. Zhao Gao declared, “Qin was originally a kingdom, and only the First Emperor became ruler of all under heaven, claiming the title of emperor. Now, with the six kingdoms restored and Qin’s territory diminished, it is no longer fitting to call ourselves an empire. Let us return to being a kingdom.” He then enthroned Ziying as the King of Qin, and the Second Emperor was buried as a commoner in Yichun Garden, south of Du County.

    In September, Zhao Gao ordered Ziying to begin fasting and praying in preparation for a ceremony in which he would worship at the ancestral temple and receive the royal jade seal. On the fifth day of fasting, Ziying devised a plot with his two sons. He said, “Chancellor Zhao Gao murdered the Second Emperor at Wangyi Palace. Fearing retaliation from the court, he pretended to seek justice by making me king. I have heard that Zhao Gao conspired with the Kingdom of Chu to eliminate all Qin royals and divide Qin into smaller kingdoms. His plan is to kill me when I go to the temple under the guise of this ceremony. I will feign illness, and when Zhao Gao comes to force me, we shall kill him.”

    Zhao Gao sent numerous messengers to urge Ziying to attend the temple ceremony, but Ziying refused. Eventually, Zhao Gao came in person, demanding, “The ancestral temple ceremony is the most important event for the kingdom. Why, as king, are you refusing to go?” At that moment, Ziying assassinated Zhao Gao in the palace where he had been fasting. He then ordered the execution of Zhao Gao’s entire family, setting an example to others.

    Ziying dispatched additional troops to defend Yao Pass. The Duke of Pei intended to launch an attack on the pass, but Zhang Liang advised caution: “The Qin army is still strong, and we should not underestimate them. We should set up banners and flags on the mountains to create the illusion of a larger force, then send lobbyists Li Yiji and Lu Jia to negotiate with Qin’s generals, offering them incentives.” The Qin generals, as predicted, were open to negotiations. The Duke of Pei was prepared to finalize the deal when Zhang Liang suggested another approach: “Though the generals may be ready to switch sides, their soldiers may not follow. Now that their guard is down, it is better to strike.”Following this advice, the Duke of Pei led his troops around Yao Pass, cleared Mount Kuai, and routed the Qin army south of Lantian. After taking Lantian, they fought another battle north of the town, decisively defeating the Qin forces again.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 65): Ying Bu, The Convict

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 3 Scroll 8 (continued)

    Ying Bu

    The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C. continued)

    The left-wing colonel and right-wing colonel of the Qin army launched a counterattack and broke into Chen county. General Lü Chen fled with his Black-Head Army, seeking out his subordinates and reassembling his dispersed soldiers. They joined forces with a rebel group led by a bandit named Qing Bu from Fanyang county. Together, they turned around and confronted the Qin army, commanded by the left and right wing colonels. They routed the Qin forces at Qingbo Lake and successfully reoccupied Chen county.

    Qing Bu hailed from Lu county, though his actual surname was Ying. He had been labeled a criminal and punished with “Qing”—black branding on his face. According to the laws of Qin, he was sent to Lishan as a convict laborer, where the number of laborers amounted to several hundred thousand. Ying Bu befriended the leaders among the laborers and eventually fled with his followers to the Yangtze River basin, where he became the leader of outlaws.

    The magistrate of Poyang county, Wu Rui, was very popular with the people, even in the underworld, and was widely known as Lord Po. Ying Bu led his men to meet Lord Po, and his followers had grown into a force of several thousand. Lord Po married his daughter to Ying Bu and directed him to lead his forces in fighting the Qin army.

    King of Chu, Jing Ju, stayed in Liu county, where the Duke of Pei went to join him. Zhang Liang, who led a group of around a hundred youths, also responded to Jing Ju’s call. He encountered the Duke of Pei and decided to follow him. The Duke of Pei appointed Zhang Liang as his logistic officer. Zhang Liang discussed “The Art of Warfare” by Jiang Ziya (also known as Great-Grandpa Jiang) and offered his strategic advice. The Duke of Pei valued his teachings and often adopted his ideas, though other leaders typically didn’t understand Zhang Liang’s insights. Zhang Liang sighed, “The Duke of Pei is godsent,” and was determined to follow him from then on.

    They both met King Jing Ju and requested reinforcements to attack Feng county. At the time, a staff officer of General Zhang Han, whose name was Yi, led troops to suppress the insurgents in northern Chu, slaughtering the people of Xiang county before advancing to Dang county. Ning Jun of Dongyang and the Duke of Pei led their troops west of Xiao County, where a battle broke out, but they suffered a setback and withdrew to Liu County to regroup. In February, the Duke of Pei launched another attack on Dang county. After a three-day battle, they overcame the resistance and captured Dang county. The Duke of Pei took command of six thousand fighters from Dang county, adding to his original three thousand followers, bringing his force to nine thousand soldiers. In March, they attacked Xiayi county and seized it, then moved on to attack Feng county again but failed to break through.

    Zhao Ping, originally from Guangling county, attempted to seize Guangling for Chen Sheng but failed. When he learned that Chen Sheng was fleeing and Zhang Han was pursuing him, Zhao Ping crossed the Yangtze River and forged a decree in Chen Sheng‘s name, appointing Xiang Liang as the Chief Commander of Chu. The decree stated: “The battles east of the Yangtze River are over. Lead your troops westward to attack the Qin army immediately!” Xiang Liang then led eight thousand soldiers across the Yangtze River, heading west. Upon hearing that Chen Ying had already occupied Dongyang county, he sent an envoy to Chen Ying, urging him to join the western expedition.

    Chen Ying, a former staffer of the Dongyang county magistrate, lived in the county center and was known as a cautious and trustworthy elder. When the youths of Dongyang county rioted and killed the county’s magistrate, twenty thousand insurgents gathered and pushed Chen Ying forward to become king. However, Chen Ying‘s mother warned him against it: “Since I married into this family, I have never heard of your ancestors being highborn. It does not bode well to suddenly take on a lofty title. It would be better to be a follower than a leader. If the insurrection succeeds, you will be rewarded with a marquisate. If it fails, you can escape more easily because you are not so recognized by the world.” Taking his mother’s advice, Chen Ying refused to become king. He explained to his followers, “Xiang Liang‘s family has served as generals for the kingdom of Chu for generations and is well-known in Chu. To succeed in our uprising, we must have him as our commander. We can bring down the kingdom of Qin if we rely on this renowned clan.” Chen Ying‘s subordinates agreed, and they went under Xiang Liang‘s command.

    Ying Bu’s troops defeated the Qin army and moved eastward until they heard that Xiang Liang’s forces had crossed the Huai River and were marching westward. The armed forces of Ying Bu and General Pu then accepted Xiang Liang as their commander. With these new additions, Xiang Liang’s forces grew to between sixty and seventy thousand soldiers. They set up camp in the city of Xiapi. Meanwhile, the King of Chu, Jing Ju, and his top general, Qin Jia, camped their forces to the east of Pengcheng, appearing to challenge Xiang Liang‘s leadership.

    Addressing his soldiers, Xiang Liang declared: “King Chen Sheng was the first to rise against Qin. He suffered setbacks, and we do not know his current whereabouts. Qin Jia betrayed King Chen Sheng and installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu. That is an act of treachery!” With that, Xiang Liang led his troops to attack Qin Jia‘s camp. Qin Jia‘s forces were overwhelmed, and Xiang Liang‘s army pursued them to Huling. Qin Jia attempted a counter-attack, but after a full day of battle, he was killed, and his troops surrendered. Jing Ju fled but later died in the Kingdom of Wei.

    Xiang Liang merged his forces with those of Qin Jia and established their camps at Huling, planning to continue his westward campaign. A detachment under the command of General Zhang Han approached Li county, prompting Xiang Liang to order his lieutenants, Zhu Jishi and Yu Fanjun, to attack. The battle ended disastrously: Yu Fanjun was killed, and Zhu Jishi fled back to Huling, where their troops were defeated. In response, Xiang Liang led his forces to occupy Xuecheng and executed Zhu Jishi for his failure.

    The Duke of Pei, accompanied by about a hundred cavalry, came to meet Xiang Liang. Impressed by his commitment, Xiang Liang assigned five thousand soldiers and ten high-ranking military officers to support the Duke of Pei. The Duke of Pei led these reinforcements back to Feng County, launching another assault. This time, he successfully captured the city, forcing Yong Chi to flee to the Kingdom of Wei.

    Xiang Liang then ordered Xiang Ji (whose courtesy name was Xiang Yu) to capture Xiangcheng county. Despite fierce resistance, Xiang Yu‘s troops eventually broke through after a prolonged battle. In a brutal move, Xiang Yu commanded that all the city’s residents be buried alive. He reported his actions back to Xiang Liang.

    Xiang Liang finally confirmed that King Chen Sheng was dead. He summoned all his commanders to Xuecheng to strategize for the future, and the Duke of Pei also attended the meeting. Among the advisors was Fan Zeng, a seventy-year-old hermit from Juchao known for his original ideas. Fan Zeng offered his counsel to Xiang Liang:

    “King Chen Sheng‘s downfall was inevitable. Of the six kingdoms annexed by Qin, the Kingdom of Chu was the most innocent. Ever since King Huai of Chu was tricked into visiting Qin and never returned, the people of Chu have mourned for him and kept his memory alive. That is why an old man from southern Chu predicted: ‘The Kingdom of Qin will ultimately be destroyed by the people of Chu, even if only three families of Chu remain.’ Chen Sheng was the first to rise against Qin, but he made the mistake of declaring himself king instead of restoring a descendant of King Huai of Chu. That is why he quickly lost support. Now, you have risen from east of the Yangtze River, and all the warriors follow you and obey your commands. They do so because your family has produced top generals for Chu for generations. Only you can lead the restoration of the Chu royal lineage.”

    Xiang Liang applauded this advice. He sought out Xiong Xin, the grandson of King Huai of Chu, who had been living in obscurity and herding sheep. In June, Xiang Liang installed Xiong Xin as King Huai II of Chu to align with the people’s wish. He also granted Chen Ying the title of Generalissimo and the fiefdom of five counties. Chen Ying and the new King Huai II set up their headquarters in the capital city of Xuyi. Xiang Liang took the title of Lord Wuxin for himself.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 64): The Implosion of Zhang-Chu

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 3 Scroll 8

    Duration of 2 years

    The Rise of Zhang-Chu

    The 2nd year of the Second Emperor(208 B.C.)

    In October of that winter, the inspector general of the Sichuan commandery, named Ping, led an armed force to surround the Duke of Pei in Feng county. The Duke of Pei emerged from the city and defeated Ping’s troops. He then assigned Yong Chi to defend Feng county. In November, the Duke of Pei led his forces toward Xue county. The governor of the Sichuan commandery, named Zhuang, came out to engage the Duke of Pei in a battle but was routed. Zhuang fled to Qi County, where he was captured and killed by the Left Major of the Duke of Pei’s forces.

    General Zhou Wen fled from the Hangu Pass and halted at Caoyang post. About two months later, General Zhang Han pursued him and defeated his troops again. Zhou Wen retreated to Mianchi county, where Zhang Han attacked him again after a dozen days. This time, Zhou Wen’s troops were decisively crushed. Zhou Wen slit his throat, and his troops ceased fighting.

    The Deputy King of Zhang-Chu, Wu Guang, led the siege of Xingyang. Li You, the governor of the Sanchuan commandery, commanded the defense of the city, successfully thwarting Wu Guang’s efforts. A general of Zhang-Chu named Tian Zang conspired with his confidants: “The army of Zhou Wen has collapsed, and the Qin army could arrive any day now. We cannot breach Xingyang, and we will be defeated when the Qin forces come. It would be better to leave a small contingent to continue the siege of Xingyang and concentrate our finest troops to face the incoming Qin army head-on. However, the Deputy King Wu Guang is arrogant and ignorant of military strategy. Discussing this plan with him would be pointless and could make matters worse.” They plotted to forge a decree from Chen Sheng, ordering Wu Guang‘s execution. They beheaded Wu Guang and delivered his head to Chen Sheng. In response, Chen Sheng sent an envoy to Tian Zang, granting him the seal of Prime Minister of Zhang-Chu and appointing him as the top general.

    Tian Zang left General Li Gui and several other generals to maintain the siege of Xingyang. He then led his core forces westward to confront the Qin army at the town of Aocang. In the ensuing battle, Tian Zang was killed, and his troops were slaughtered. General Zhang Han advanced to Xingyang and broke the siege. General Li Gui and the other generals were killed.

    General Deng Shui of Zhang-Chu from Yangcheng County had his troops camped at Jia county, but a lieutenant under Zhang Han routed them. General Wu Feng from Zhi County led his troops to the town Xu, where Zhang Han‘s army crushed them. Both Zhang-Chu forces collapsed, and their commanders fled back to their king. Enraged, Chen Sheng had Deng Shui executed.

    The Second Emperor lampooned Chancellor Li Si several times: “You hold the highest ministerial position in the court; why do you allow bandits and thieves to be so rampant?” Li Si was frightened. He greatly valued his high rank and rewards but did not know how to address the issue. 

    Seeking to please the emperor, he drafted a proposal: “A wise ruler must master the art of surveillance and supervision. When Mr. Shen Buhai said, ‘When one owns the world and does not do whatever he wants, it can be said that he lets the world be a shackle on himself,’ he meant that a ruler who fails to surveil and supervise properly, like Emperors Yao and Yu who served all the people with their own labor, effectively shackles himself. If a ruler does not practice the wise arts developed by Mr. Shen Buhai and Mr. Han Fei, and instead burdens himself with the distress of ordinary people, making himself haggard, he is merely devoting himself to serving the people. This is the labor of a commoner, not the duty of a lord of the world. What is noble about that? Therefore, a wise monarch should enhance the surveillance of his subordinates and make all decisions himself to prevent power from falling into the hands of his subjects. Furthermore, he should stop the practice of benevolence and block all counsel and debate. The lord should do whatever he pleases, and no one would dare to resist. This way, officials and the people will be too busy correcting their own mistakes to plot any insurgency.”

    The Second Emperor was pleased with this proposal. He began scrutinizing officials more strictly, equating the brightest officers with those who taxed the people most severely and the loyalists with those who killed the most. Half of the people on the streets had criminal records, and dead bodies piled up in public squares daily. The people of Qin were terrified and yearned for insurgence.

    General Li Liang of Zhao had just subdued the chaos in Changshan commandery and reported back to the King of Zhao. The king then sent him to capture the city of Taiyuan. However, Li Liang‘s troops were halted at the town of Shiyi when the Qin army blocked the Jingjing Pass. The Qin commander forged a letter from the Second Emperor, attempting to persuade General Li Liang to change his allegiance. After reading the letter, Li Liang was not convinced and returned to Handan to request reinforcements. His request had not yet been answered when the king’s older sister went out on a drinking spree. Seeing her entourage of about a hundred people, Li Liang mistakenly thought it was the king himself and prostrated himself by the roadside to pay homage. The king’s sister, drunk and unaware of who was there, merely sent a cavalier to acknowledge him.

    General Li Liang, from an aristocratic background, felt humiliated in front of his troops. One of his officers stepped forward and said, “The people across the empire are revolting against Qin. Whoever has the might will come out on top. The King of Zhao used to rank below you, General. Yet this woman did not even get off her carriage to greet you. Allow me to catch and kill her.” Having received the letter from Qin, Li Liang was already wavering about his loyalty to the King of Zhao. Infuriated by the insult, he sent his man to catch up with the king’s sister and kill her. Li Liang then led his troops to attack the capital, Handan. The city was caught off guard. Li Liang killed the King of Zhao and Vice Prime Minister Shao Sao. Zhang Er and Chen Yu managed to escape, as they had many informants throughout the state.

    Qin Jia from Ling and Zhu Jishi from Fuli county raised an armed force and surrounded the governor of Donghai commandery in Tan county. When King Chen Sheng heard about it, he sent General Xin, titled Lord Wuping, to oversee the troops besieging Tan. Qin Jia, unwilling to accept Lord Wuping’s authority, declared himself Grand Marshal.  He hated being under General Xin’s command. He told his fellow officers, “Lord Wuping is too young and knows nothing about military matters. Do not listen to him!” Claiming he had received an order from Chen Sheng, Qin Jia then killed Lord Wuping(General Xin).

    The Second Emperor sent the court chief of staff, Sima Xin, and commandant Dong Yi to assist General Zhang Han in suppressing the “bandits and burglars.” Zhang Han had already defeated Wu Feng and proceeded to attack the top general of Zhang-Chu, Lord Fang, killing him. He then moved on to attack the troops of Zhang He, located west of Chen county. Chen Sheng himself came out to oversee the battle, but Zhang He was killed.

    In December, while returning from Ruyin county, Chen Sheng was assassinated by his chauffeur, Zhuang Jia, in a village called Xiachengfu. Zhuang Jia subsequently defected to Qin.

    In the early days when Chen Sheng became king, his fellow countrymen came to visit him, including his father-in-law. Chen Sheng treated him like any other visitor—he saluted him but did not kneel. His father-in-law was furious, saying, “You are a rioter and a title-grabber. You disrespect your elders; you won’t last long!” He turned around and left. Chen Sheng knelt and apologized, but his father-in-law did not look back. Encouraged by this, Chen Sheng‘s childhood friends began recounting old stories from their youth. Someone advised Chen Sheng, “These guests of yours are uneducated and boorish. Their talk is careless and out of control; it will bring dishonor to your name.” In response, Chen Sheng beheaded a few of the loose talkers. His chums deserted him afterward.

    Chen Sheng appointed Zhu Fang as chief examiner and Hu Wu as inquisitor. These two supervised all his officers and generals. When generals returned from conquering cities, they were often punished as criminals if their actions were deemed inappropriate. Zhu Fang and Hu Wu equated harshness with loyalty; if they found any mistakes, they either issued punishments themselves or handed them over to prosecutors. Because of this, the generals distanced themselves from King Chen Sheng. This alienation contributed to Chen Sheng’s downfall.

    General Lü Chen, a former housekeeper of King Chen Sheng, formed an armed force in Xinyang County, known as the Black-Head Army, as all the soldiers wore black headscarves. They broke into Chen county and killed Zhuang Jia, reinstating the Kingdom of Chu there. They buried King Chen Sheng in Dang county and gave him the posthumous title of King Yin of Chu.

    Chen Sheng had sent Song Liu from Zhi county to lead troops to capture the city of Nanyang and breach Wu Pass. Song Liu had already occupied Nanyang when he learned of Chen Sheng’s death. The Qin army retook Nanyang, and Song Liu surrendered. The Second Emperor ordered Song Liu to be quartered in public.

    Zhou Fu of Wei led troops to seize lands in Feng county and Pei county. He sent envoys to persuade Yong Chi to change allegiances. Yong Chi, who had previously been aloof and reluctant to report to the Duke of Pei, surrendered Feng county to the Kingdom of Wei. The Duke of Pei launched an attack on Feng county but was thwarted.

    Zhang Er and Chen Yu of Zhao reassembled an armed force from the remnants of their collapsed troops. They led tens of thousands of soldiers to attack Li Liang, defeating him.  As a result, Li Liang fled to surrender to General Zhang Han of Qin. An attendant of Zhang Er and Chen Yu advised them, “You are not natives of the Kingdom of Zhao, just mere travelers here, so you cannot claim kingship on your own. You need to find a descendant of the King of Zhao and help him become king. Then you may achieve your goals.” Following this advice, Zhang Er and Chen Yu found Zhao Xie. In January, during the spring, they installed Zhao Xie as the new King of Zhao and established Xindu county as its capital.

    The rebels in Dongyang county, led by Ning Jun and Qin Jia, learned that Chen Sheng’s troops had been defeated. They installed Jing Ju as the King of Chu and led their troops to Fangyu county, planning an attack on the Qin army at Dingtao. They sent Gongsun Qing as an envoy to the Kingdom of Qi, requesting that the Qi army join forces with them to confront the Qin army. The King of Qi, Tian Dan, rebuked the envoy: “King Chen Sheng was defeated. We do not know if he is dead or alive. Why did you install a new king without consulting us?” Gongsun Qing retorted, “The Kingdom of Qi installed its king without consulting the Kingdom of Chu. Why should the Kingdom of Chu consult with the Kingdom of Qi before installing its king?” In response, Tian Dan had Gongsun Qing executed.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 63): A Commoner and An Aristocrat

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Qin Book 2 Scroll 7 (continued)

    Liu Ban Beheading A White Snake

    The 1st year of the Second Emperor(209 B.C. continued)

    In September, Liu Bang from Pei county rose in arms, Xiang Liang from Xiaxiang county revolted in the state of Wu, and Tian Dan from Di county did the same in the state of Qi. 

    Liu Bang, whose courtesy name was Liu Ji, had a prominent nasal bridge and a noble face, with seventy-two ink spots on his left thigh. He was known for his bold personality, generosity, and extroversion, often expressing his feelings openly. Ambitious and disinclined to engage in farming or handicrafts like his family members, he eventually became the head of Sishang Post. Mr. Lü from Shanfu county, a skilled physiognomist, was fascinated by Liu Ji’s extraordinary appearance and married his daughter to him despite Liu Ji’s low rank.

    Liu Ji was once tasked with escorting a group of convicts to Lishan on behalf of the county magistrate. As they traveled, many convicts escaped along the way, and Liu Ji realized that by the time they reached their destination, all would likely have fled. When the group stopped at a post in a swamp in Feng county, Liu Ji drank wine with the convicts. He then released them, saying, “Go your own ways; I am escaping myself.” About a dozen strong men among the convicts volunteered to join him.

    As the legend has it, Liu Ji, in a drunken state, wandered along a trail in the swamp when a large snake rose up in his path. Drawing his sword, Liu Ji swiftly hacked the snake in half. Suddenly, an old woman appeared, wailing: “My son, the son of the White Emperor, transformed into a snake on this trail and was killed by the son of the Red Emperor!” She then vanished. Liu Ji hid in the swamps between Mang County and Dangshan County, where several eerie phenomena were reported, attracting many young men from Pei County who were eager to join his growing band.

    When Chen Sheng’s uprising erupted, the magistrate of Pei County considered joining the rebellion. However, his chief operating officer, Xiao He, and his chief correction officer, Cao Shen, cautioned him: “As an officer of the Qin Empire, the people of Pei may not follow you in betraying your duty. It would be wiser to summon those in exile and gather a mob of a few hundred. With pressure from the mob, no one in Pei would dare oppose you.” The magistrate then sent Fan Kuai to summon Liu Ji, who had already assembled nearly a hundred followers. Fearing a mutiny, the magistrate reconsidered, ordering the city gates shut and defensive positions established. He also intended to execute Xiao He and Cao Shen. Alarmed, they escaped, clearing the city walls and sought refuge with Liu Ji.

    Liu Ji wrote a proclamation on a piece of silk and delivered it to the city elders by tying it to an arrow and shooting it over the ramparts. The message outlined the benefits and consequences of the uprising, urging the elders of Pei to take action. Persuaded, the elders led their sons and brothers to kill the magistrate and opened the gates for Liu Ji. The people gathered around Liu Ji, proclaiming him the Duke of Pei. With the help of Xiao He and Cao Shen, Liu Ji recruited young men from Pei, amassing a force of two to three thousand. They soon joined forces with other rebels from neighboring counties.

    Xiang Liang, the son of General Xiang Yan of the Kingdom of Chu, was hiding with his nephew Xiang Ji in the Wuzhong region due to a murder charge. The scholars and elites of Wuzhong admired Xiang Liang and often sought his friendship and counsel. Xiang Ji, however, struggled with reading and writing as a child and eventually abandoned his studies. He then turned to fencing but did not excel in it either, prompting Xiang Liang‘s disapproval. Xiang Ji retorted, “Reading and writing are only useful for recording names, and fencing is for fighting a single person. These are not worthy of my time. I want to learn how to fight ten thousand people.” Impressed by his ambition, Xiang Liang began teaching him the art of war, which Xiang Ji eagerly learned. However, once he grasped the basics, he lost interest in deeper studies. Xiang Ji grew to over six feet tall, had the strength to lift sacrificial tripods, and was known for his extraordinary talent and character.

    The governor of Kuaiji Commandery, Yin Tong, heard of Chen Sheng’s rebellion and decided to send troops to support the uprising, appointing Xiang Liang and Huan Chu as co-captains. However, Huan Chu was still hiding in the swamps as an outlaw. Xiang Liang told the governor, “Only Xiang Ji knows where Huan Chu is hiding.” Xiang Liang stationed Xiang Ji outside the governor’s residence, sword in hand, while he entered to speak with Yin Tong. He proposed, “Please call Xiang Ji in and have him bring Huan Chu.” The governor agreed. Xiang Liang then brought Xiang Ji inside, and after a few moments, he signaled him with a wink: “It is time to do it!” Xiang Ji drew his sword and decapitated Yin Tong. Xiang Liang held up the governor’s severed head and donned his official seal. The governor’s attendants were thrown into panic, and chaos erupted throughout the residence. Xiang Ji killed dozens, possibly over a hundred people. Terrified, everyone in the residence laid flat on the ground, not daring to move.

    Xiang Liang summoned the local leaders and former officials he knew, announcing his plans to rebel against the Qin Empire. He recruited young men from Wuzhong and dispatched deputies to draft fighters from the counties under Kuaiji Commandery. Xiang Liang assembled an elite force of eight thousand warriors and declared himself the governor of Kuaiji, appointing Xiang Ji as his lieutenant general. Together, they governed all the counties of the commandery. Xiang Ji was only twenty-four years old at the time.

    Tian Dan was a member of the royal clan of Qi, with cousins named Tian Rong and Tian Heng. The Tian brothers were wealthy, influential, and highly regarded. When General Zhou Fu of Zhang-Chu arrived to seize Di County for Chen Sheng, the county magistrate closed the gates and fortified his defenses. To gain access, Tian Dan staged a scene by tying up his house slave and dragging him to the county court, accompanied by a crowd of young men. Pretending to seek permission from the magistrate to execute the slave for wrongdoing, Tian Dan waited until the magistrate appeared in court. Seizing the opportunity, he killed the magistrate on the spot. He then gathered the wealthy and powerful figures of Di County and declared, “All the kingdoms are rising against the Qin Empire and restoring their kings. The Kingdom of Qi has a long history, and as a member of the Tian family, I, Tian Dan, shall be the king of Qi.” Proclaiming himself king, he led his forces against Zhou Fu’s troops, driving them back. Tian Dan then marched east and reclaimed the former lands of the Kingdom of Qi.

    Meanwhile, General Han Guang led an expedition north to the former Kingdom of Yan. The local elites urged him to become the King of Yan, but Han Guang hesitated, saying, “My mother still lives in the Kingdom of Zhao. I cannot be king.” The leaders of Yan persisted, arguing, “Zhao is preoccupied with the Qin Empire to the west and wary of the Zhang-Chu Kingdom to the south. It lacks the strength to challenge us. Even the powerful Zhang-Chu Kingdom does not harm the relatives of the King of Zhao. Why would Zhao target your family, General?” Convinced, Han Guang proclaimed himself King of Yan. A few months later, Zhao handed over Han Guang’s mother and her retinue to the Kingdom of Yan.

    The King of Zhao, accompanied by Zhang Er and Chen Yu, ventured to the northern border with the Kingdom of Yan in pursuit of land. During an excursion, he was captured by Yan soldiers and imprisoned. Yan demanded territorial concessions for his release, and envoys sent to negotiate were executed. A cook of the Zhao army approached the Yan camp and spoke with the commander, asking, “Do you know what Zhang Er and Chen Yu want most right now?” The commander replied, “They probably want their king back.” The cook laughed and said, “You have no idea what those two truly desire. Wu Chen, Zhang Er, and Chen Yu conquered dozens of Zhao cities with little effort. Each of them aspires to be a king, not merely commanders or prime ministers. Initially, they didn’t divide Zhao into three kingdoms because the situation was still unstable, and they supported Wu Chen’s claim to the throne due to seniority while they secured the loyalty of the Zhao people. Now that Zhao is stable under their rule, they’re waiting for the right moment to split the kingdom and crown themselves kings. With your capture of the King of Zhao, Zhang Er and Chen Yu publicly advocate for his release but secretly hope the people of Yan kill him, allowing them to claim their own kingdoms. One Zhao kingdom would tolerate Yan, but two Zhao kingdoms, each led by wise and ambitious leaders, would surely push each other to avenge their fallen king, making Yan’s downfall inevitable.” Alarmed, the Yan commander released the King of Zhao, and the cook safely escorted him back.

    General Zhou Fu, having withdrawn from Di County, marched toward the former Kingdom of Wei with the intention of reinstating a Wei prince named Jiu, titled Lord Ningling, as king. However, Jiu was stranded in Chen County and could not reach Wei. Zhou Fu already controlled the land of Wei, and local dignitaries proposed that he became the king.  Zhou Fu refused, saying, “A loyal servant must prove himself in turbulent times. The world is rebelling against Qin, and we must restore a descendant of the former king.” Despite the people’s insistence, Zhou Fu remained firm in his refusal and sent envoys to Chen County five times before Chen Sheng finally approved Prince Jiu’s return. The people of Wei then installed Jiu as King of Wei, appointing Zhou Fu as prime minister.

    Meanwhile, the Second Emperor stripped Jiao, the Lord of Wey, of his title and banished him to a commoner, effectively ending the lineage of the state of Wey.