Reflection by Rio Grande

Category: Comprehensive Mirror

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 109): Learn Your Place

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    An Idol of Zhao Tuo in Vietnam

    The 1st year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era(179 B.C. continued)

    The Emperor had been getting up to speed on state governance. One day, he asked the Right Chancellor, Zhou Bo, how many cases were resolved in a year and how much tax and grain were collected. Zhou Bo did not know the answers and felt embarrassed, sweating through his clothes on his back.

    When the Emperor asked the Left Chancellor, Chen Ping, who replied that there were officials responsible for these matters. 

    The Emperor then asked, “Who is in charge of these matters?” 

    Chen Ping responded, “Your Majesty, when you inquire about criminal cases, the Minister of Justice is responsible; when you ask about money and grain, the Secretary of the Interior for Grain is in charge.”

    The Emperor then asked, “If everyone has their own responsibilities, what is it that you are responsible for?” 

    Chen Ping apologized, “Your Majesty, you are unaware of my incompetence, yet I have been made Chancellor. The Chancellors assist the Emperor as his highest advisors, balancing yin and yang, following the four seasons, and ensuring the needs of all living things are met. We manage foreign relations, pacify the various vassal states, care for and support the people, and ensure that ministers and officials carry out their duties.” 

    The Emperor praised Chen Ping‘s answer.

    The Right Chancellor, feeling ashamed, reproached Chen Ping after leaving, saying, “Why didn’t you teach me how to respond in that situation?” 

    Chen Ping laughed and replied, “Did you not understand your role when you accepted the position? Besides, if the Emperor asked about the number of thieves and bandits in Chang’an, would you really try to guess an answer?” 

    From then on, the Marquis of Jiang realized that his administrative abilities were far below Chen Ping‘s.

    Not long after, someone warned Zhou Bo: “Since you executed the Lü clan and enthroned the Prince of Dai, you have wielded immense power and shaken the world. But you have been highly rewarded and held your position for a long time—disaster may soon befall you.” Worried, Zhou Bo pretended to be ill and requested to resign from his position as Right Chancellor, which the Emperor accepted. On August 20, Chen Ping became the sole Chancellor after Zhou Bo‘s resignation.

    As previously stated, the Marquis of Longlü, Zhou Zao, launched an attack on the Nanyue kingdom, but his forces encountered hot and humid weather, leading to a severe epidemic among the soldiers, who were unable to clear the hills. After a year, following the death of Empress Gao, the troops were withdrawn. Seizing the opportunity, Zhao Tuo used his military power and wealth to bribe the Minyue, Âu Việt, and Luoyue kingdoms into submission. He controlled a vast territory spanning thousands of miles from east to west and adopted a yellow canopy and a flag on the left to claim equal status with the Han dynasty.

    In response, the Emperor established a garrison town to honor Zhao Tuo’s ancestors and provided annual sacrifices. He also summoned Zhao Tuo‘s brothers, granting them high positions and generous rewards. The Emperor sent Lu Jia as an envoy to the Nanyue kingdom and wrote to Zhao Tuo:

    “We are the son of Emperor Gaozu‘s concubine, abandoned and raised in the state of Dai, a remote place far from the capital. The road is long and winding, and I was isolated and ignorant. I had no opportunity to send your Majesty a letter before. After Emperor Gaozu passed away, Emperor Hui ascended the throne. When Empress Dowager Lü fell ill, the Lü clan rebelled. Thanks to the efforts of loyal ministers, we quelled the rebellion and exterminated them. However, by the insistence of princes, marquises, and officials, I had no choice but to be installed as emperor.

    Now that We are on the throne, We received Your Majesty’s letter, sent to the Marquis of Longlü, General Zhou of the Han army, asking me to recall the two generals from Changsha and to seek your brothers. In accordance with your letter, We have recalled a general, Marquis of Boyang, and We have already sent someone to inquire about your relatives in Zhending and to repair your ancestors’ tombs.”

    We have heard that you have launched attacks on our borders, causing great harm. The people of Changsha have suffered, and the people of Nanjun have endured the worst of it. Even for your own kingdom, are wars truly a gain? You will have to sacrifice many soldiers and harm excellent generals and officials. Wives will become widows, sons will become orphans, and parents will be left without care. Gaining one benefit that loses ten—We cannot bear to see this happen.

    We wish to straighten out our borders, so they no longer zigzag like a dog’s bite. We asked mine officials why the border was drawn this way, and We were told it was to isolate the kingdom of Changsha. We cannot act rashly in altering the border. Even if We gained your territory, it would not significantly enhance mine empire, and even if We acquired your wealth, it would not make me rich. You may govern your lands south of the Wuling Mountains.

    Now, Your Majesty calls himself an emperor. If we both use the title of emperor without establishing a diplomatic relationship, it will inevitably lead to conflict, which is not appropriate for benevolent rulers. We hope we can put the past behind us, and from now on, we can resume normal diplomatic relations.”

    Lu Jia, the envoy from the Han dynasty, arrived in the kingdom of Nanyue, throwing the king into a panic. The king immediately apologized and expressed his willingness to obey the emperor’s orders, pledging loyalty and tribute to the Han dynasty. He issued an order to his subjects, “I have heard that two heroes cannot coexist, and two worthy men cannot live in the same era. The Han emperor is a wise ruler. From now on, we will abolish our imperial titles, the Yellow Canopy, and the Left Banner.”

    He then wrote a letter, stating: “Great and noble Emperor, your old servant Zhao Tuo respectfully kowtows and presents this letter to Your Majesty. I was once a Han official stationed in the kingdom of Yue, and the late Emperor Gaozu bestowed upon me the seal of kingship over Nanyue. When Emperor Hui ascended the throne, he too treated me kindly, generously bestowing gifts.

    However, during the reign of Empress Dowager Lü, policies were issued that discriminated against the Yue people, prohibiting trade in gold, iron, farmland, horses, cattle, and sheep. Even when trade was allowed, only male animals were permitted, not females. My horses, cattle, and sheep have since grown old, and I believed this misfortune was due to my neglect of the gods, for which I deserved punishment. I sent three delegations, led by Chief of Staff Fan, Capital Police Chief Gao, and Censor Ping, to Chang’an to apologize, but none returned. Rumors reached me that my parents’ tombs had been desecrated and my relatives executed. My officials and I then discussed the situation and decided that if we could not receive respect from the Han empire, we might as well elevate our own status. Thus, we declared ourselves an empire, though we never intended to harm the world. When Empress Dowager Lü learned of this, she grew angry and removed Nanyue from the registry, cutting off communication. I suspect the King of Changsha spread malicious lies about me, forcing me to raise an army for defense.

    I have lived in Nanyue for forty-nine years and now hold my grandchildren in my arms. Yet, I have constantly worried about the welfare of the Han dynasty, day and night. I cannot sleep or eat properly, nor enjoy music or the beauty of life. Now, Your Majesty has shown mercy, restoring my former title and allowing communication with Han. Even if I were to die today, my bones would rest in peace. I will no longer dare to proclaim myself an emperor.”

    Prince Ai of Qi, Liu Xiang, passed away. 

    The Emperor, having heard that Wu Gong, the grand administrator of Henan Commandery, was the most capable administrator in the empire, summoned him to serve as Minister of Justice. Wu Gong recommended Jia Yi, a man from Luoyang, and the Emperor summoned Jia Yi to serve as an Erudite. At the time, Jia Yi was just over twenty years old. The Emperor, impressed by his literary talent and vast knowledge, promoted him to the position of Grandee of the Household within a year. Jia Yi proposed reforms to the calendar, official gown colors, titles, and ceremonies to establish distinct Han dynasty customs, replacing the Qin rituals. However, the Emperor, being modest and frugal, did not prioritize these suggestions.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 108): Limited Social Welfare

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo

    The 1st year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era(179 B.C.)

    In the winter, on October 1, Liu Ze, the Prince of Langya, was relocated to become the Prince of Yan, while Liu Sui, the son of Prince of Zhao–Liu You, was enfeoffed as the new Prince of Zhao.

    That winter, Chen Ping requested to resign from his position due to illness. The Emperor inquired about his decision, and Chen Ping replied, “During Emperor Gaozu’s reign, Zhou Bo did not accomplish as much as I did. However, during the elimination of the Lü Clan, I did not accomplish as much as Zhou Bo did. I would like to step down as Right Chancellor in favor of Zhou Bo.” On November 8, Emperor Wen appointed Chen Ping as Left Chancellor, Zhou Bo as Right Chancellor, and Guan Ying as Grand Commandant. The territories of Qi and Chu, which had been seized by the Lü Clan, were returned to their rightful federation.

    After the execution of the various members of the Lü clan, officials, from the Chancellor down to those of lower rank, were rewarded with increases in their fief households and gifts of gold. The Marquis of Jiang was particularly pleased and left the court with great satisfaction. The Emperor, who held him in high regard, watched him depart with admiration.

    The attendant Yuan Ang from Anling remonstrated with the Emperor, saying, “The Lü clan rebelled, and all the high-ranking officials worked together to exterminate them. At that time, the Chancellor was also the Grand Commandant and in charge of the military. He was merely successful in his duties. Now the Chancellor seems to show signs of swagger, and Your Majesty remains humble and accommodating.  When ministers are disrespectful and the sovereign is permissive, It is not an appropriate relationship, in my humble opinion.”

    After this, the Emperor became more solemn, while the Chancellor grew more cautious and fearful.

    In December, an edict was issued stating, “The law is intended to govern justly. While those who violate the law have already been sentenced, it is unacceptable to us for innocent parents, spouses, relatives, and associates to be punished and enslaved as a result. Therefore, the laws concerning the punishment of children and others guilty by association will be abolished.”

    In January, during the spring, the officials requested that a crown prince be established early. The Emperor responded, “Since I lack virtue and have not been able to extensively search for virtuous and capable individuals to whom I might abdicate, establishing a crown prince prematurely would only highlight my own lack of virtue. Let us delay this matter.”

    The officials, however, insisted, saying, “Establishing a crown prince underscores the importance of ancestral temples and national altars, ensuring the country is not neglected.”

    The Emperor said, “The Prince of Chu is my uncle, the Prince of Wu is my brother, and the Prince of Huainan is my younger brother. Are they not suitable candidates for succession? If I overlook them and only consider my sons, people will think I’ve ignored virtuous and capable individuals in favor of my own children. This is not the way to care for the country.”

    The officials persisted, “In ancient times, the dynasties of Yin and Zhou thrived in peace and prosperity for over a thousand years by following this practice. Selecting a son as the heir has been the tradition for generations. When Emperor Gaozu unified the world, he became the primogenitor. His descendants have succeeded the throne ever since. It would not be appropriate to alter his will now and select an heir from among the princes of the royal family. Such a change would go against Emperor Gaozu’s precedent. Prince Liu Qi, your eldest son, is pure, kind, and benevolent. We humbly request that he be established as the crown prince.”

    The Emperor, after hearing this, agreed to their request.

    In March, the mother of the crown prince, Lady Dou, was made Empress. She was originally from Guanjin County in Qinghe Commandery. Lady Dou had a younger brother named Dou Guangguo, whose courtesy name was Shaojun (Young Lord). As a child, he had been kidnapped and sold multiple times before finally managing to return home. Upon learning that his sister had become Empress, he wrote her a letter recounting his story.

    The Empress summoned him, and after questioning him, confirmed his story was true. She then granted him land, houses, and money, allowing him and his family to settle in Chang’an alongside his older brother, Dou Zhangjun (Older Lord).

    The Marquis of Jiang and General Guan Ying said to each other, “We have just escaped death with the Lüs, but our fates now rest in the hands of these two brothers. They come from humble origins, and if they do not choose good teachers and advisers, they may end up like the Lü clan. This is a matter of great importance!” As a result, they selected virtuous and upright scholars to serve as the brothers’ teachers and advisers. From that point on, the brothers became modest and respectful, never allowing their elevated status to turn them into reckless or egoistic brats.

    The Emperor issued a decree to provide support and loans to widows, widowers, orphans, the elderly, and the destitute. He also ordered that individuals over the age of 80 would receive monthly grants of rice, meat, and wine, while those over the age of 90 would also be given silk and cotton. The county magistrate must inspect all porridge and goods for elders, and the administrator and military officer were tasked with delivering them to those over 90 years old. For those under 90, the distribution was handled by town managers and the staff of the county magistrate. High-ranking officials were assigned to monitor local officials to ensure proper execution of the distribution, with punishments in place for those who failed to dispense the grants correctly.

    The Prince Yuan of Chu, Liu Jiao, passed away.

    In April of that summer, earthquakes struck the principalities of Qi and Chu. On the same day, twenty-nine mountains collapsed, and great floods erupted.

    Around this time, someone presented the Emperor with a horse capable of running a thousand li per day. The Emperor remarked, “With imperial banners leading and baggage carts following, my procession can march no more than fifty li a day, and the army can only manage thirty li. Should I ride this thousand-li horse and leave everyone behind?” He returned the horse to the giver and compensated them for their expenses. He then issued an edict: “I will not accept any more gifts. Let it be known throughout the realm that no one should present me with further offerings.”

    Emperor Wen had long shown kindness to the people, and the monarchs and neighboring tribes, both near and far, were pleased. At last, he rewarded those from Dai who had aided in his ascension, appointing Song Chang as the Marquis of Zhuangwu.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 107): Emperor Wen, the Prudent

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    Liu Heng, Emperor Wen of Han, A portrait in Museum.

    The 8th year of the Empress Gao(180 B.C. continued)

    While in Xingyang, Guan Ying heard that Wei Bo had persuaded the Prince of Qi to raise troops. He summoned Wei Bo and questioned him. Wei Bo responded, “When a house is on fire, the family doesn’t have time to ask the host for permission before putting it out.” After speaking, he stepped back, his legs trembling with fear, and could say nothing more. General Guan Ying laughed and said, “People say Wei Bo is brave, but he’s just an overrated man who can’t accomplish anything!” He then dismissed Wei Bo. Guan Ying‘s troops also withdrew and returned from Xingyang.

    Ban Gu’s praising commentary: During the reign of Emperor Wen, the world condemned Li Ji as a traitor. A traitor is someone who prioritizes personal gain over loyalty and righteousness. However, if Li Ji had only been coerced because his father, a meritorious official, was held hostage, even if he had betrayed his friend Lü Lu to safeguard the state, his loyalty to the emperor and his affection for his father should be acceptable.

    A group of high ranking ministers conspired in secret, saying, “Emperor Shao and the Princes of Liang, Huaiyang, and Hengshan are not truly Emperor Hui’s sons. Empress Lü falsely claimed they were his sons, killed their mothers, and raised them in the imperial harem as princes to strengthen the Lü clan. Now that the entire Lü clan has been eliminated, if those established as the emperor’s sons grow older and come to power, we have no chance of survival. It is better to choose the most capable among the princes as the new emperor.” Someone suggested, “The Prince of Qi, Emperor Gaozu’s grandson, could be chosen.” The ministers responded, “The Lü clan brought chaos through the maternal family’s dominance, almost destroying the ancestral temple. If we establish the Prince of Qi, whose uncle, Si Jun, is as aggressive and greedy as a tiger, we might end up serving another Lü clan. The Prince of Dai is Emperor Gaozu’s oldest son, and he is kind, tolerant, and respectful. Moreover, his mother’s family, the Bo clan, is honest and virtuous. Choosing the eldest is the most customary option. Besides, he is renowned for his kindness and filial piety throughout the empire!” They then secretly sent someone to summon the Prince of Dai.

    The Prince of Dai asked his advisors, including the lord of chamberlain, Zhang Wu, for their opinions. They said, “The ministers of the Han dynasty were originally high-ranking generals under Emperor Gaozu, experienced in warfare and skilled in strategy and deception. Their ambitions extend beyond their current positions. They acted cautiously out of fear of Emperor Gaozu and Empress Lü, but now they may be using the pretext of welcoming the Prince to pursue their own selfish goals. We advise your majesty to feign illness and refrain from going, so that we may observe how the situation unfolds.”

    However, Commander of the capital garrison, Song Chang, spoke up, “The opinions of the courtiers are all wrong. When the Qin dynasty fell, the feudal lords and nobles rose up, each thinking they could claim the throne, with tens of thousands vying for it. Yet, in the end, it was the Liu family who ascended, leaving the rest of the world to drop out of the contention — this was the first reason. When Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed his sons and relatives, they served as checks on each other like interlocking teeth — this was the foundation of an unshakable empire. The entire world submitted to his strength — this was the second reason. When the Han dynasty was established, the harsh policies of Qin were abolished, the laws were simplified, and benevolence and kindness were extended to the people, leaving everyone feeling secure and averse to change — this was the third reason. Even though Empress Lü exercised strict control and appointed her family members as Princes, she could not prevent the Grand Commandant from inciting the Northern Army to support the Liu family and rebel against the Lü clan, leading to their downfall. This was a sign from heaven, not the result of human effort. Now, even if the ministers attempt to create upheaval, the people will not follow them, would their factions remain united? Inside the palace, there are relatives of Marquis of Zhuxu and Marquis of Dongmou, and outside, there is fear of the external power of principalities of Wu, Chu, Huaiyang, Langya, Qi, and Dai. Among Emperor Gaozu’s sons, only the Prince of Huainan and Your Majesty remain. Your Majesty is also the eldest, and your wisdom, benevolence, and filial piety are renowned throughout the world. Therefore, the ministers genuinely wish to support Your Majesty and welcome your ascension to the throne, in accordance with the people’s will. Your Majesty should not doubt their motives.”

    The Prince of Dai reported this to his mother, Empress Dowager Bo, but remained uncertain. He consulted a divination, which revealed the hexagram “Big Horizontal.” The interpretation was: “Big Horizontal represents a heavenly Prince, like the brilliance of dawn in summer.” The Prince of Dai asked, “But I am already a Prince. What other Prince is there?” The diviner replied, “The heavenly Prince is none other than the son of Heaven.”

    Following this, the Prince of Dai sent Empress Dowager’s younger brother, Bo Zhao, to meet with the Marquis of Jiang, who explained their plan to enthrone him. Bo Zhao returned with a positive response, and the Prince of Dai smiled and said to Song Chang, “It turns out you were right.”

    The Prince of Dai, accompanied by Song Chang, rode with six others, including Zhang Wu, on a government post vehicle to Chang’an. They rested at Gaoling, and Song Chang was sent ahead to observe the situation in Chang’an. When Song Chang arrived at Wei Bridge[a bridge over Wei River], he was greeted by everyone, from the Chancellor down. Song Chang returned to report his findings. The Prince of Dai then rode to Wei Bridge, where the courtiers bowed and pledged allegiance to him. The King of Dai dismounted from his carriage and returned the salutes.

    The Grand Commandant then requested an audience. Song Chang replied, “Whatever you have to say publicly, say it publicly; whatever you have to say privately, the Prince has no private affairs.” The Grand Commandant knelt and presented the imperial seal and insignia of office. The Prince of Dai thanked him and said, “Let’s discuss it further at the Dai state residence.”

    On the leap month of September 29, the Prince of Dai arrived in Chang’an and stayed at the Dai state residence. The courtiers followed him to the residence. Chancellor Chen Ping and others bowed twice and said, “Prince Liu Hong and other young men are not the true sons of Emperor Hui and are therefore not suitable to succeed Emperor Hui and serve in the ancestral temple. As the eldest son of Emperor Gaozu, you should succeed him. We implore you to ascend the imperial throne.”

    The Prince of Dai declined three times when asked to take the throne facing west, and twice when asked to face south. Eventually, he ascended the throne as emperor. The courtiers then followed the proper protocol and saluted him.

    The Marquis of Dongmou, Liu Xingju, said, “I had no merit in the execution of the Lü clan. I request to clean up the royal palace.” He entered the palace with Grand Coachman, the Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, the Marquis of Ruyin. They told the Emperor Shao, Liu Hong, “You are not a descendant of the Liu clan and should not be on the throne!” Liu Xingju then commanded the guards to put down their weapons and leave. Although some guards initially refused, Director of Internuncio, Zhang Shi, was sent to persuade them, and they eventually complied. The Duke of Teng then had the Emperor Shao carried out in an imperial carriage. Liu Hong asked, “Where are you taking me?” The Duke of Teng replied, “Outside the palace,” and took him to the privy chamber.

    The next day, they escorted the Prince of Dai in the imperial carriage to the palace and reported, “The palace is secure.” That evening, the Prince of Dai entered Weiyang Palace. At the Duan gate, ten guards armed with halberds asked, “Who goes there? What brings you here while the emperor is inside?” The Prince of Dai ordered the Grand Commandant to speak to them, and the guards put down their weapons, allowing him to enter.

    That night, the Prince of Dai appointed Song Chang as Guard General, responsible for maintaining order among the northern and southern armies, and Zhang Wu as the lord of chamberlain. Judicial officials then executed the Prince of Liang, the Prince of Huaiyang, the Prince of Hengshan, and the Emperor Shao at their residences. Emperor Wen returned to the front hall and issued a decree granting amnesty to the entire empire.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 106): The Coup d’etat

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13 (continued)

    Express Dowager Lü

    The 7th year of the Empress Gao(181 B.C. continued)

    Chen Ping was worried about the growing power of the Lü clan and feared he might be implicated in their downfall. While Chen Ping was preoccupied with these thoughts, Lu Jia came to see him and sat down without being invited. Chen Ping didn’t even acknowledge him.

    Lu Jia asked, “What is troubling you so deeply?”

    Chen Ping replied, “What do you think is troubling me?”

    Lu Jia said, “You are extremely wealthy and have no further desires. But you are concerned about the Lü clan and the young emperor.”

    Chen Ping agreed, “Yes, that’s it. What can I do about it?”

    Lu Jia said, “When the world is at peace, the focus is on the ministers. When the world is in chaos, the focus is on the generals. When ministers and generals are in harmony, the people will follow. Even if significant events occur, power will not be divided. The balance of state power is held by two gentlemen. I often wanted to advise the Marquis of Jiang on this, but he always joked and dismissed my advice. Why don’t you befriend the Marquis of Jiang and form a deep bond with him?”

    Lu Jia then laid out plans targeting the Lü clan to Chen Ping. Following his advice, Chen Ping gave the Marquis of Jiang 500 gold coins as a birthday gift and hosted a lavish feast. The Marquis of Jiang responded in kind, and the two became close friends. As their friendship grew, the power of the Lü clan began to decline. In gratitude, Chen Ping gave Lu Jia 100 house slaves, 50 carriages, and five million coins to cover his expenses for food and drink.

    The Empress Dowager sent messengers to inform the Prince of Dai, Liu Heng, of her intention to relocate him to the principality of Zhao. The Prince of Dai expressed his gratitude but requested to remain guarding the borders of Dai. The Empress Dowager then appointed her nephew, Lü Lu, as the new Prince of Zhao and posthumously honored Lü Lu’s father, Lü Shizhi, Marquis Kang of Jiancheng, as Prince Zhao of Zhao.

    In September, the Prince of Yan, Liu Jian, passed away, leaving behind a son born to a concubine. The Empress Dowager ordered the son to be killed, bringing an end to the Principality of Yan.

    The Empress Dowager also sent the Marquis of Longlü, Zhou Zao, on a campaign against Nanyue.

    The 8th year of the Empress Gao(180 B.C.)

    In winter, on October 12, the Marquis of Dongping, Lü Tong, the son of Prince Su of Lü, was appointed Prince of Yan, while his younger brother, Lü Zhuang, became the Marquis of Dongping.

    In March, the empress dowager performed an exorcism ritual. On her return journey, as she passed through Zhidao Post, she encountered a creature resembling a gray dog, which bit her under the arm before vanishing. Divination revealed that the ghost of the Prince of Zhao—Liu Ruyi, was responsible for this, leading to the empress dowager’s illness and pain in her armpit.

    The empress dowager’s grandson, Zhang Yan, the Prince of Lu, was still young and frail. Therefore, on April 15 in the summer, she appointed Zhang Ao‘s two sons, Zhang Chi and Zhang Shou—both born of his concubine—as the Marquises of Xindu and Lechang, respectively, to assist the Prince of Lu. She also awarded the title of Marquis of Jianling to Director of Internuncio Zhang Shi, an eunuch, for his counsel in elevating the Lü clan to kingship.

    The Yangtze and Han Rivers overflowed, flooding more than ten thousand households.

    In July of autumn, as the empress dowager’s illness worsened, she appointed Lü Lu, the Prince of Zhao, as the top general to command the Northern Army, while Lü Chan, the Prince of Lü, was given command of the Southern Army. She exhorted them both, saying, “When the Lü clan was elevated to kingship, the ministers were not fully in accord. I fear that after my death, with the emperor still young, the ministers may stage a coup. You must seize control of the Palace Guards and ensure you are not distracted by the funeral procession, lest you lose grip of the army!”

    On July 30, the empress dowager passed away, leaving a will that pardoned all criminals in the empire. Lü Chan, Prince of Lü, was appointed Chancellor of State, and Lü Lu‘s daughter was made empress. After Empress Gao‘s burial, Left Chancellor Shen Yiji was appointed Grand Tutor to the emperor.

    The Lü clan plotted to take action, but hesitated due to fear of powerful ministers like the Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo, and the Marquis of Yingyin, Guan Ying. The Marquis of Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, who had married Lü Lu‘s daughter, learned of their plan and secretly informed his elder brother, Liu Xiang, the Prince of Qi. He warned that the Lü clan was preparing to act and suggested launching an attack towards the west, with the Marquis of Zhuxu and the Marquis of Dongmou as allies within the capital, to overthrow the Lü clan and enthrone the Prince of Qi as emperor.

    The Prince of Qi, along with his maternal uncle Si Jun, the Lord of Chamberlain Zhu Wu, and Commandant of the Central Guard Wei Bo, secretly conspired to launch the attack. However, the Prime Minister of Qi, Shao Ping, disapproved of the plan. In August, the Prince of Qi decided to have Shao Ping killed, but when Shao Ping discovered this, he sent troops to besiege the palace. Wei Bo deceived Shao Ping, “The Prince wished to mobilize troops but lacked the proper authorization from the Han Dynasty’s tiger tally. You did the right thing to surround the prince’s palace. I volunteered to lead the troops to put the Prince of Qi under house-arrest.” Shao Ping believed him and authorized him to lead the troop, and Wei Bo then surrounded Shao Ping’s residence, prompting Shao Ping to commit suicide.

    As a result, Si Jun became the Prime Minister of Qi, Wei Bo was appointed general, and Zhu Wu became Minister of Interior. They then mobilized the state’s military forces.

    Zhu Wu was sent to deceive Liu Ze, the Prince of Langya, saying: “The Lü clan has rebelled, and the Prince of Qi has dispatched troops to the west to exterminate them. Since the Prince of Qi is young and inexperienced in military affairs, he wishes to entrust the country to Your Majesty. As a general under Emperor Gaozu, Your Majesty’s presence in Linzi is requested to discuss matters with the Prince of Qi.”

    Believing this, the Prince of Langya hurried west to meet the Prince of Qi, but upon arrival, he was detained. Zhu Wu then mobilized and led the Langya army. The Prince of Langya advised the Prince of Qi, saying: “Your Majesty, as Emperor Gaozu‘s grandson, you are the rightful heir to the throne. However, the court officials are hesitant and have not yet made a decision. Among them, I, Liu Ze, have served the longest and am the most respected, and the officials are awaiting my judgment. Keeping me here would be meaningless. Allow me to return to the court and deliberate with the ministers.”

    The Prince of Qi agreed and sent the Prince of Langya on his way with additional carriages. Once the Prince of Langya departed, the Prince of Qi raised an army and attacked Jinan to the west, which had become part of the Lü state. He also sent letters to various princes, outlining the Lü clan’s crimes and proposing that they raise troops to exterminate them.

    Chancellor Lü Chan learned of the Prince of Qi‘s campaign and sent the Marquis of Yingyin, Guan Ying, to attack the Prince of Qi. However, when Guan Ying reached Xingyang, he had second thoughts: “The Lü clan has a strong military presence in Guanzhong and intends to threaten the Liu family and establish themselves as rulers. If I defeat Qi and return, it will only strengthen the Lü clan’s position.” He decided to remain where he was and sent envoys to meet with the Prince of Qi and other princes, intending to wait for the Lü clan to overthrow the Liu dynasty, and then crush them.

    The Prince of Qi, learning of Guan Ying‘s plan, decided to return to the western border and wait for the Lü clan’s next move.

    Lü Lu and Lü Chan wanted to revolt, but they hesitated, fearing not only the Marquis of Jiang, the Marquis of Zhuxu, and others within the court, but also the armies of Qi and Chu outside. They were also concerned that Guan Ying might defect to the other side. They hoped to wait until Guan Ying‘s forces clashed with those of Qi before launching their rebellion, but they remained indecisive.

    At that time, Liu Tai, the Prince of Jichuan; Liu Wu, the Prince of Huaiyang; Liu Chao, the Prince of Changshan; and Zhang Yan, the Prince of Lu, were all still young and had not yet departed for their respective kingdoms. They resided in Chang’an. Lü Lu, the Prince of Zhao, and Lü Chan, the Prince of Liang, commanded the northern and southern armies, respectively, and were the primary leaders of the Lü clan. None of the other marquises or ministers felt assured of their safety or were firmly committed to any particular course of action.

    The Grand Commandant, Marquis of Jiang, could not command the army directly. The Marquis of Quzhou, Li Shang, was old and in poor health, and his son, Li Ji, was a friend of Lü Lu. The Marquis of Jiang conspired with Chancellor Chen Ping and arranged for someone to abduct Li Shang, then compelled Li Ji to deceive Lü Lu by saying: “Emperor Gaozu and Empress Lü jointly established the empire, and the nine princes from the Liu clan, along with the three princes from the Lü clan, were all appointed based on the ministers’ counsel. This has been communicated to the princes, and they all support it.”

    “Now that the empress dowager has passed away and the emperor is young, you, as the Prince of Zhao, are carrying the royal seal but are not defending the state’s borders. Instead, you are acting as chief commander and keeping your army here, which is raising suspicion among the ministers and princes. Why not return the seal of commander-in-chief and entrust your army to the Grand Commandant? Also, let the Prince of Liang return the chancellor’s seal, make a pact with the ministers, and then return to your princedoms. This will force the Qi army to withdraw, and the ministers will feel secure. You can then enjoy ruling a vast princedom, securing the prosperity of your descendants for generations.”

    Lü Lu believed in this plan and considered handing over his army to the Grand Commandant. He sent word to Lü Chan and the other senior members of the Lü clan. Some thought it was a good idea, while others disagreed, leaving the plan unimplemented.

    Lü Lu trusted Li Ji and was out hunting with him when they happened to pass by his aunt, Lü Xu. She became furious and said, “If you, as a commander, abandon your troops, the Lü family will have no place to survive!” In her anger, she threw all her pearls and valuables onto the floor, exclaiming, “I don’t want to keep them for others!”

    On September 10, the Marquis of Pingyang, Cao Zhu, acting as Grand Master of the Censorate, visited Chancellor Lü Chan to discuss state affairs. During the meeting, Jia Shou, the Grand Chamberlain and an emissary back from Qi, reproached Lü Chan, saying, “As the Prince of Liang, you should have reported to your principality earlier. Now that you want to leave, is it still possible?” He then revealed Guan Ying’s plan to execute the Lü family with the assistance of the Princes of Qi and Chu, urging Lü Chan to enter the palace immediately.

    The Marquis of Pingyang overheard this and rushed to inform Chancellor Chen Ping and Grand Commandant Zhou Bo.

    The Grand Commandant attempted to enter the Northern Army but was denied access. The Marquis of Xiangping, Ji Tong, was in charge of the imperial tally. Marquis of Jiang ordered him to hold the tally and falsely claimed that the emperor had authorized the Grand Commandant to enter the Northern Army on an urgent matter. The Grand Commandant then had Li Ji and the Grand Herald, Liu Jie, persuade Lü Lu, saying, “The Emperor has appointed the Grand Commandant to lead the Northern Army and wants you to return to your princedom. You should hand over your command seal and leave immediately, or disaster will follow soon.”

    Lü Lu, trusting Li Ji, believed he wouldn’t lie and handed over his seal to the Grand Herald, entrusting his troops to the Grand Commandant. By the time the Grand Commandant arrived at the army, Lü Lu had already departed. Upon entering the army gate, the Grand Commandant commanded the soldiers, “Those who support the Lü clan should bare their right arms and shoulders, and those who support the Liu clan should bare their left arms and shoulders.” The soldiers all bared their left arms and shoulders, and the Grand Commandant took control of the Northern Army.

    However, the Southern Army remained intact. Prime Minister Chen Ping summoned the Marquis of Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, to serve as the Grand Commandant’s assistant and ordered him to guard the army camp gate. Meanwhile, the Marquis of Pingyang, Cao Zhu, instructed the Commandant of the Court Guards not to allow Chancellor Lü Chan to enter the palace.

    Lü Chan, unaware that Lü Lu had already left the Northern Army, entered Weiyang Palace with the intention of starting a rebellion. Denied entry at the palace gate, he anxiously paced back and forth. The Marquis of Pingyang, fearing he would not be able to stop Lü Chan, rushed on horse to warn the Grand Commandant. The Grand Commandant, wary of the Lü family’s influence and hesitant to openly call for their execution, instructed the Marquis of Zhuxu, “Hurry and protect the Emperor in the palace!”

    Marquis Zhuxu requested soldiers, and the Grand Commandant provided him with over a thousand troops. They entered Weiyang Palace and found Lü Chan in the court.

    In the late afternoon, they launched an attack on Lü Chan, forcing him to flee. A strong gust of wind suddenly blew, causing Lü Chan’s subordinates to panic and lose their ability to fight back. Lü Chan was chased down and killed in the latrine of the Grand Chamberlain’s office. After Lü Chan‘s death, the Emperor ordered an internuncio to present the imperial tally as a token of appreciation to Marquis of Zhuxu.

    Marquis of Zhuxu attempted to take the tally, but the internuncio refused. Determined, Marquis of Zhuxu boarded the same wagon as the internuncio and rushed to the palace with the tally, beheading Lü Gengshi, the guard captain of ChangLe Palace, along the way.

    Marquis of Zhuxu, after taking care of the palace, hurried back to the Northern Army to report to the Grand Commandant. The Grand Commandant congratulated him, “Our only concern was Lü Chan. Now that he has been executed, there will be no more problems in the empire!” He then ordered the arrest of all members of the Lü clan, men and women alike, and had them executed, regardless of age.

    On September 11, Lü Lu was arrested and executed, Lü Xu was whipped to death, and Lü Tong, the Prince of Yan, was executed. Zhang Yan, the Prince of Lu, was deposed.

    On September 18, the Prince of Jichuan(Liu Tai) was promoted to Prince of Liang. Marquis of Zhuxu was then dispatched to inform the Prince of Qi about the extermination of the Lü clan and was ordered to stop further military actions.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 105): The Reign of The First Empress

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang  

    Annals of Han Book 5 Scroll 13

    Anling, the Mausoleum of Emperor and Empress Hui, Shaanxi Province. Photo by Brücke-Osteuropa

    The 1st year of the Empress Gao (187 B.C.)

    In winter, the Empress Dowager proposed appointing members of the Lü family as kings and sought the opinion of Right Chancellor Wang Ling. Wang Ling replied, “When Emperor Gaozu swore an oath over the sacrificed white horse, he said, ‘If anyone outside the Liu family becomes king, the whole world will rise against them.’ If we make the Lü family kings now, we would be breaking that oath.” The Empress Dowager was displeased with this response, so she asked for the opinion of Left Chancellor Chen Ping and Grand Commandant Zhou Bo. They replied, “Emperor Gaozu established the rule that only the sons of kings may become kings. Now that the Empress Dowager holds power, making the Lü family kings is acceptable.” The Empress Dowager was delighted and ended the court session.

    Afterwards, Wang Ling reprimanded Chen Ping and the Marquis of Jiang, reminding them of the oath they had sworn with Emperor Gaozu. He asked, “Were you not present? Now that Emperor Gaozu has passed, and the Empress Dowager wants to make the Lü family kings, if you yield and break the oath, how will you face Emperor Gaozu in the afterlife?” Chen Ping and the Marquis of Jiang replied, “When it comes to standing your ground and directly opposing the Empress Dowager, we do not have your courage. However, in safeguarding the empire and the Liu family’s lineage, you are not as prudent as we are.” Wang Ling was unable to argue with them.

    On December 5, the Empress Dowager appointed Wang Ling as Grand Tutor to the Emperor, but in reality, she stripped him of his authority as chancellor. Wang Ling, citing poor health, resigned and retired to home.

    The Empress Dowager then promoted Left Chancellor Chen Ping to Right Chancellor and appointed the Marquis of Biyang, Shen Yiji, as Left Chancellor. However, Shen Yiji was not assigned any functions of a chancellor; he was simply tasked with overseeing the palace, as if he were the Minister of the Imperial Household. Shen Yiji, favored by the Empress Dowager, became influential, and court officials began following his lead in decision-making.

    The Empress Dowager harbored resentment toward Grand Master of Censorate Zhao Yao for his efforts to protect Prince Yin of Zhao (Liu Ruyi), and she accused him of a crime and removed him from office.

    Ren Ao, formerly a jailer in Pei County and now Prefect of Shangdang Commandery, earned the Empress Dowager‘s favor through his virtuous service to her in the past and was appointed Grand Master of the Censerate.

    The Empress Dowager posthumously honored her father, the Marquis of Linsi, Mr. Lü as King of Xuan, and her brother, the Marquis Lingwu of Zhoulü, Lü Ze, as King of Daowu, thereby paving the way for the Lü family to gradually ascend to kingship.

    In January, the laws enforcing the execution of three clans for heinous crimes and the laws punishing heresy-mongering were abolished.

    In April, Princess Yuan of Lu passed away. Her son, Zhang Yan, was named Prince of Lu, and Princess Yuan was posthumously honored as Empress Dowager Yuan of Lu.

    On April 28, the so-called sons of Emperor Hui were given noble titles: Liu Shan was granted the title of Marquis of Xiangcheng, Liu Chao was named Marquis of Zhi, and Liu Wu was made Marquis of Huguan.

    The Empress Dowager sought to establish members of the Lü family as kings. She began by naming Emperor Hui‘s so-called sons, Liu Qiang as Prince of Huaiyang and Liu Buyi as Prince of Hengshan. She then dispatched the Director of Internuncio Zhang Shi to subtly promote the idea of nominating Lü family members as kings among the ministers. The ministers subsequently proposed that Marquis of Li, Lü Tai, the eldest son of King of Daowu (Lü Ze), be made Prince of Lü, and that Jinan Commandery in Qi be ceded to the principality of Lü as its territory.

    On May 4, a fire broke out on the Cong terrace in the King of Zhao’s palace.

    In autumn, peach and plum blossoms bloomed unexpectedly.

    The 2nd year of the Empress Gao(186 B.C.)

    In November, during the winter, Prince Su of Lü, Lü Tai, passed away.

    On January 27, an earthquake struck, causing mountains to collapse between Qiangdao County and Wudu County.

    On May 9, Liu Yingke, the son of Prince Yuan of Chu, was granted the title of Marquis of Shangpi, and Liu Zhang, the son of Prince Daohui of Qi, was appointed Marquis of Zhuxu. Both were assigned to serve in the imperial guard. Additionally, the Empress Dowager married the daughter of Lü Lu to Liu Zhang.

    On June 30, the last day of the month, a solar eclipse occurred.

    In July, during autumn, Prince Ai of Hengshan, Liu Buyi, passed away.

    The currency denomination of eight zhu was reintroduced into circulation.

    On July 27, Emperor Hui‘s so-called son, the Marquis of Xiangcheng, Liu Shan, was established as Prince of Hengshan, and his name was changed to Liu Yi.

    The 3rd year of the Empress Gao(185 B.C.)

    In the summer, the Yangtze River and the Han River overflowed, causing flooding that affected over 4,000 households.

    In the autumn, stars were visible in the daytime.

    The Yi River and the Luo River also overflowed, causing flooding that affected over 1,600 households. The Ru River also overflowed, causing flooding that affected over 800 households.

    The 4th year of the Empress Gao(184 B.C.)

    On February 7, Emperor Hui’s alleged son, Liu Tai, was established as the Marquis of Changping.

    On April 21, the Empress Dowager granted her younger sister, Lü Xu, the title of Marquess of Lin’guang.

    As the Young Emperor grew older, he became aware that he was not Emperor Hui’s son and said, “How could the Empress Dowager kill my mother and make me emperor? When I am grown, I will do something about it!”

    The Empress Dowager heard of this and confined him to a narrow alley (Yong Lane), where harem women were incarcerated, claiming that he was ill and could not be seen by anyone. She told her ministers, “The emperor has been mentally ill for a long time and is unable to govern the country. We must choose a successor.” All the ministers knelt and said, “The Empress Dowager is wise and benevolent and has always been deeply concerned with the welfare of the country and the ancestors’ temples. We humbly obey the imperial edict.”

    Thus, the young emperor was deposed and killed in secret. On May 11, the Prince of Hengshan, Liu Yi, was installed as the new emperor and took the name Liu Hong. His reign was not counted as the first year of an era, as the Empress Dowager ruled as regent. The Marquis of Zhi, Liu Chao, was granted the title of Prince of Hengshan.

    In the same year, Cao Zhu was appointed grand master of the censorate.

    The officials in charge requested that the Empress Dowager ban the trade of goods and ironware at the border markets with the Nanyue kingdom. In response, the King of Nanyue, Zhao Tuo, dismissed the idea, saying, “Emperor Gaozu founded our kingdom and permitted us to trade with the Middle Kingdom and exchange emissaries. Now, Empress Gao has listened to the slanders of her advisors and seeks to isolate us and cut off our trade. This is surely the plot of the Prince of Changsha, who wants to use the Middle Kingdom’s power to attack and conquer Nanyue, annexing it as his own and taking it as his trophy.”

    The 5th year of the Empress Gao(183 B.C.)

    In the spring, King Zhao Tuo proclaimed himself Emperor Wu of Nanyue and launched an attack on Changsha. He defeated the defenses in several counties before retreating.

    In August, during the autumn, the Prince Huai of Huaiyang, Liu Qiang, passed away and was succeeded by the Marquis of Huguan, Liu Wu, who became the new Prince of Huaiyang.

    In September, cavalry from Hedong and Shangdang were dispatched to camp in Beidi commandery.

    The 6th year of the Empress Gao(182 B.C.)

    In October, during the winter, the Empress Dowager deposed the Prince of Lü, Lü Jia, for his arrogance and unruliness. In November, she appointed Lü Chan, the younger brother of Prince Su, as the new Prince of Lü.

    In the spring, stars were visible during the daytime.

    In the summer, on April 3, a general amnesty was declared across the empire.

    The emperor granted Liu Xingju, the younger brother of the Marquis of Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, the title of Marquis of Dongmou and ordered him to join the imperial guard.

    The Xiongnu invaded the counties of Didao and Ayang.

    A five-fen currency was issued.

    In the winter, the Marquis of Xuanping, Zhang Ao, passed away and was posthumously honored with the title “Prince Yuan of Lu.”

    The 7th year of the Empress Gao(181 B.C.)

    In December, during the winter, the Xiongnu invaded Didao County and captured over two thousand people.

    In the spring, during the first month, the Empress Dowager summoned Liu You, Prince You of Zhao. Liu You had married a woman from the Lü clan but did not love her, preferring another concubine. The Lü woman, angered, left him and slandered him to the Empress Dowager, claiming he had said, “How could the Lü clan have a prince? After the Empress Dowager passes away at the age of 100, I will surely attack them.” Upon hearing this, the Empress Dowager summoned Liu You to the capital, placed him under house arrest, and forbade him from seeing anyone or receiving food. Some of his officials secretly provided him food, but they were caught and punished. On January 18, Liu You died of starvation, and his body was buried in a commoner’s grave in Chang’an.

    On January 30, there was a solar eclipse. The Empress Dowager, displeased, said to those around her, “This is because of me!”

    In February, the Prince of Liang, Liu Hui, was transferred to become the Prince of Zhao, and Lü Chan, the Prince of Lü, was appointed as the new Prince of Liang. However, the new Prince of Liang did not go to his principality but instead served as the Grand Tutor to the Emperor.

    In the autumn, on June 30, the Marquis of Pingchang, Liu Tai, was installed as the Prince of Jichuan.

    The daughter of the Empress Dowager‘s sister, Lü Xu, was married to General Liu Ze, the Marquis of Yingling, who was a cousin of Emperor Gaozu. Tian Sheng from the state of Qi persuaded the Director of Internuncio, Zhang Shi, “The Lü clan has become kings, but the ministers have not yet fully accepted them. Now, the Marquis of Yingling, Liu Ze, is the eldest of the Liu clan. If you suggest to the Empress Dowager to make him a prince, the power of the Lü clan will be further strengthened.” Zhang Shi reported this to the Empress Dowager, who agreed with the idea, and thus she separated Langya commandery from the Qi state and made Liu Ze the Prince of Langya.

    When Liu Hui, the Prince of Zhao, was relocated to the territory of Liang, he was unhappy. The Empress Dowager appointed a daughter of Lü Chan as his queen, and the queen’s attendants, all members of the Lü clan, abused their power and kept a close watch on the prince. The prince’s beloved concubine was poisoned and killed on the queen’s orders. In June, overwhelmed by grief and anger, the prince committed suicide. The Empress Dowager blamed his death on his lack of respect for his royal duties and lineage, attributing it to his preference for women over his responsibilities for ancestral temples. As a result, the prince was posthumously stripped of his title, and his descendants were disinherited.

    At that time, members of the Lü clan held power and were in control. Marquis Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, though only twenty years old, was physically strong and resentful that the Liu clan was not given important positions. At one banquet with the Empress Dowager, Liu Zhang was appointed to serve wine. He requested to serve it according to military rules, and the Empress Dowager agreed. As they drank, Liu Zhang asked to sing the “Plowing and Weeding Song,” and the Empress Dowager consented. Liu Zhang sang, “Deeply plow and sow the seed, seedlings dislike being crowded. For seedlings not of the same kind, wield the hoe to weed them out!” The Empress Dowager remained silent.

    Later, a member of the Lü clan became drunk and left the banquet early. Liu Zhang pursued him, drew his sword, and killed him. Upon his return, he reported, “Someone tried to escape, and I punished him according to military law.” The Empress Dowager and her attendants were greatly shocked, but since she had agreed to his use of military law, there was no way to chastise him. The banquet ended on a sour note. After this incident, the Lü clan members feared Marquis Zhuxu, Liu Zhang, and even high officials began to side with him, strengthening the Liu clan’s power.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 101): Meeting with Triệu Đà

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang

    Annals of Han Book 4 Scroll 12 (continued)

    Zhao Tuo (Triệu Đà in Vietnamese), photograph by Zhang zhugang

    The 10th year of the Emperor Gaozu (197 B.C. continued)

    In May, the emperor appointed Zhao Tuo, the Nanhai commandant of Qin, as King of Nanyue. He immediately sent Lu Jia as an envoy to grant Zhao Tuo the king’s seal, ribbon, and tally, and to establish communication with the court through emissaries. The emperor wanted Zhao Tuo to govern all the Yue tribes and bring peace to the south.

    Earlier, during the reign of the second emperor of the Qin dynasty, Ren Xiao, the commandant of Nanhai, fell gravely ill. He summoned Zhao Tuo, the magistrate of Longchuan county, and said, “The Qin dynasty is tyrannical, and the people are suffering. I’ve heard of the rebellion led by Chen Sheng and others, and the world is uncertain. Nanhai is remote, and I fear bandits may invade this land. I want to raise an army, block the New Expressway, and defend ourselves while we wait for the turmoil among the monarchs to subside. Fanyu County is protected by mountains, and the South Sea forms a natural barrier to the south. It stretches east to west for thousands of miles, and many Middle Kingdom settlers here can support us. This place could serve as the capital of a state. The county officials are incapable of discussing this matter, so I have summoned you to consult.”

    Ren Xiao put his delegation of duties in writing and handed it to Zhao Tuo, who then assumed the role of Commandant of Nanhai, entrusted by Ren Xiao. Upon Ren Xiao’s death, Zhao Tuo immediately sent orders to Hengpu Pass, Yangshan Pass, and Huangxi Pass, declaring, “Bandits are about to arrive. We must cut off the roads and gather our troops for defense!” He also gradually eliminated the Qin-appointed officials through legal enforcement and replaced them with his own confidants as acting prefects. After the fall of the Qin dynasty, Zhao Tuo attacked Guilin and Xiangjun, declaring himself King Wu of Nanyue.

    When Lu Jia arrived, Zhao Tuo received him disrespectfully, wearing a conical hairdo like a local aboriginal and sitting with his legs wide apart. Lu Jia addressed Zhao Tuo: “You are a Han subject, and your relatives, brothers, and ancestral tombs are in Zhending. Now, you have forsaken your heritage, abandoned your titles and attire, and seek to defy the Emperor of Han with a mere petty state. This will only bring ruin upon you. Moreover, when the Qin dynasty lost its way, many tribes and nobles rose up, but only the King of Han entered the pass and occupied Xianyang. Xiang Yu, after breaking his word, proclaimed himself Hegemon King of Western Chu, and all the lords submitted to him. Yet, the King of Han rose from Ba and Shu, wielded force across the land, and eventually defeated and destroyed Xiang Yu, bringing peace to the empire within five years. This was not due to human strength but was ordained by the will of heaven.

    The Emperor has heard that the King of Nanyue has rebelled and failed to help eliminate injustice and tyranny. The Emperor and his ministers are considering sending troops to punish you. However, since the people have just endured hardship, the Emperor has chosen to wait and instead sends an envoy with the imperial seal, tally, and formal means of communication. You should welcome the envoy before he reaches the outskirts, bow to him, and declare your submission while facing north. Why would you wish to build a fledgling state and remain so unyielding? If the Han court heard of this, they would have dug up and burned your ancestors’ graves, exterminated your clan, and sent a general with 100,000 soldiers to Nanyue. The people of Nanyue would have killed you and surrendered to the Han empire like the flip of a hand.”

    Upon hearing this, Zhao Tuo suddenly stood up and apologized to Lu Jia, saying, “I have been living among the barbarians for too long and have forgotten my sense of propriety.” 

    He then asked the scholar, “Am I as wise as Xiao He, Cao Shen, and Han Xin?” 

    Lu Jia replied, “You are as wise as they are.” 

    Zhao Tuo then asked, “Am I as wise as the Emperor?”

    Lu Jia responded, “The Emperor inherits the legacies of the Five Emperors and Three Sovereigns, ruling over the Middle Kingdom. The people of the Middle Kingdom number in the hundreds of millions, and the land is vast and prosperous. The government is centralized, a system unprecedented since the formation of the universe. Now, your army has no more than 100,000 men, all of them barbarians living among rugged mountains and seas. It is equivalent to a single commandery of the Han empire. How can you compare your kingdom to the Han empire?”

    Zhao Tuo laughed heartily and said, “I do not seek to rise up in the Middle Kingdom; that is why I am a king here. But if I did it in the Middle Kingdom, how do you know my kingdom wouldn’t have been as great as the Han?” He then entertained Lu Jia for several months. Zhao Tuo said to him, “I have no one to converse with here. Since you arrived, I have learned so much every day.” He presented Lu Jia with a pack of pearls and other treasures worth thousands of catties of gold, along with other valuable gifts.

    Lu Jia conferred upon Zhao Tuo the title of King of Nanyue, asking him to become a vassal and abide by a treaty with the Han empire. Upon his return, Lu Jia reported to the emperor, who was greatly pleased and appointed him Grandee of the Palace.

    During his time at court, Lu Jia often mentioned and praised the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents. Once, the Emperor rebuked him, saying, “Your old man got his empire on horseback. What do ‘Songs’ and ‘Documents’ have to do with that?”

    Lu Jia replied, “Although your Majesty conquered the country on horseback, would you prefer to govern it on horseback as well? Moreover, King Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou gained power through conquest but sustained their rule through virtue. Combining military strength with civil virtues is the way to ensure long-lasting stability. In the past, the King of Wu—Fuchai, Zhi Bo, and the Emperor of Qin all fell because they relied too heavily on military might. If the Qin had conquered the realm and then ruled with the virtues of benevolence and justice, following the wise laws of our sages, how could your Majesty have wrested the country from them?”

    The Emperor, ashamed of his words, asked Lu Jia to write a book explaining why the Qin lost their empire and how the Han dynasty gained it, as well as the successes and failures of other kingdoms throughout history. Lu Jia composed twelve chapters in total, summarizing the rise and fall of dynasties. After each chapter was submitted, the Emperor praised it, and the entire court cheered, “Long live the lord!” The book was titled New Speak.

    The Emperor was ill and refused to see anyone. He remained in his chambers for more than ten days, issuing an order that no one, not even court officials like Zhou Bo and Guan Ying, was allowed to enter. They dared not disobey. One day, the Marquis of Wuyang, Fan Kuai, forcefully pushed his way through the gate and entered, followed by the other officials. The Emperor was lying on an eunuch as a pillow.

    Seeing him, Fan Kuai and the others wept and said, “Your Majesty and we started together in Feng and Pei, and built this grand empire, you were so invigorating! Now that the empire has been established, why are you so exhausted? Your Majesty, you are gravely ill, and the ministers are deeply concerned. Why do you not see us to discuss state affairs, instead remain alone with a single eunuch? Have you not seen what happened with Zhao Gao?”

    The Emperor laughed and got up.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 96): A Narrow Escape

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11(continued)

    Yongzuo Temple, Taiyuan(a.k.a. Jinyang), Shanxi Province. Photo by Roland Longbow

    The 7th year of the Emperor Gaozu (200 B.C.)

    In October, during the winter, the Changle Palace was completed, and the monarchs and ministers gathered to pay their respects. Early in the morning, the internuncios arranged the ceremony and led the guests into the palace in proper order, standing in rows facing east or west. Guards stood with halberds in hand on the steps or in the courtyard, while flags and banners were raised. When the alert was announced, the Emperor’s carriage emerged from the chamber. The princes followed, down to the officials with a salary of 600 picul, all coming to congratulate the Emperor, trembling in awe and respect.

    After the ceremony, a banquet was held. The attendants sat in the palace hall, all prostrating in salute and bowing their heads in reverence, and toasts were raised according to rank. After nine rounds, the internuncios announced, “The wine is being served,” and the officials in charge of discipline escorted out anyone who did not follow the proper etiquette. The banquet lasted all day, and no one behaved improperly. The Emperor then said, “Today, I truly understand the esteem of being an emperor!” He appointed Shusun Tong as the Minister of Ceremony and rewarded him with five hundred pounds of gold.

    In earlier times, the empire of Qin ruled the realm and incorporated the ceremonial practices of the six states it had conquered, selecting and preserving those that emphasized respect for the ruler and the subordination of officials. When Shusun Tong re-established the imperial ritual system, some additions and omissions were made, but it largely followed the Qin model. The system retained the imperial titles, as well as the names of officials and palace buildings, with few modifications. Written records of the system were later compiled with the legal code and stored in the archives of the judicial officials. However, the judicial officials did not transmit the ritual system to people outside the court, and no commoners or administrators spoke of it.

    Sima Guang’s commentary: The importance of rituals is enormous! When applied to oneself, they regulate one’s actions and behavior, ensuring all is done properly; when applied to the family, they establish distinctions between internal and external relations, fostering harmony among the nine kinship groups; when applied to the village, they create proper relationships between elders and youth, cultivating refined and graceful customs; when applied to the state, they ensure proper order between the ruler and ministers, leading to successful governance; when applied to the world, they bring submission from the monarchs and uphold justice. How can rituals be confined to seating arrangements in gathering or household management for the neighborhood order? Even with the wisdom of Emperor Gaozu, he praised Lu Jia’s words about ‘not governing on horseback despite winning the realm on horseback,’ and he admired Shusun Tong’s etiquette with great appreciation. Yet, the reason Gaozu couldn’t compare with the kings of the Three Dynasties was his failure in learning.

    Had he sought the assistance of great scholars and governed the world through rituals, his achievements would have surpassed what we now see. It is a pity that Shusun Tong’s capacity was so limited! He merely took the scraps and remnants of ancient rituals, following popular customs, catering to public taste, and seeking favor for himself, allowing the rituals of the former kings to decline into obscurity. Isn’t that a painful loss? This is why Yang Xiong ridiculed him, saying: ‘In ancient times, there were great scholars in Lu, but their names were lost. Someone asked: “Why were they great?” The answer was: “Shusun Tong wanted to regulate etiquette between ruler and ministers and called for scholars from Lu, but two great scholars refused to comply.” Someone asked: “Did Confucius not travel among the monarchs and serve them?” The answer was: “Confucius paved the way for his own ideals. Had he compromised his principle to fit others, wouldn’t he have implemented his own rules and standards?”

    What an excellent remark from Yang Xiong! How could a great scholar demolish his principles and abandon rules and standards, for the sake of temporary honor and reward?”

    The Emperor personally led the campaign against King of Hán, Xin, defeating his army at Tongdi and beheading General Wang Xi. Xin fled and sought refuge with the Xiongnu. Wanqiu Chen and Wang Huang, from Baitu county, enthroned Zhao Li, a descendant of the Zhao clan, as king. They gathered the remnants of Xin‘s scattered forces and planned a joint attack on the Han Dynasty with Xin and the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu dispatched the Left and Right Tuqi Kings, leading over ten thousand cavalry, who stationed themselves south of Guangwu county and reached Jinyang city. The Han army attacked, defeating the Xiongnu, who fled and then regrouped, the Han army pursued them, riding on their recent victories. However, a severe cold spell with rain and snow caused two or three out of every ten soldiers to lose fingers to frostbite.

    While the Emperor was in Jinyang, he received news that Modu Chanyu had stationed troops at Daigu and was preparing to attack. He sent scouts to assess the Xiongnu. Modu Chanyu had concealed his strongest warriors and horses, leaving only the old, weak, and thin livestock visible. Ten messengers were sent, all reporting that the Xiongnu were vulnerable. The Emperor then dispatched Liu Jing as an envoy to Xiongnu, but before his return, the Han army advanced north with 320,000 soldiers, crossing Gouzhu Pass. When Liu Jing returned, he reported, “When two countries go to war, they exaggerate their strengths and hide their weaknesses. However, I saw only the weak, thin, and old, suggesting they intentionally suggesting they intentionally showed their weakness to lure us into an ambush. In my opinion, the Xiongnu cannot be attacked at this moment.”

    By this point, the Han army was already on the move, and the Emperor, angered by Liu Jing‘s report, cursed him, “You, a mere prisoner from Qi, gained your position through eloquence, and now you spout nonsense to lower our army’s morale!” Liu Jing was then arrested and shackled in Guangwu.

    The Emperor arrived at Pingcheng, but not all his troops had assembled. Modu Chanyu mobilized 400,000 elite cavalry and besieged the Emperor at Baideng Terrace for seven days. The Han forces were unable to provide mutual aid or receive supplies. The Emperor used Chen Ping‘s secret strategy, sending a messenger to bribe Yanzhi, the Xiongnu queen, with a generous reward. Yanzhi advised Modu Chanyu, “The two rulers should not pounce on each other like this. Even if you seize Han territory, you cannot hold it permanently. Moreover, the Han ruler is also protected by divine spirits. The Chanyu should be very cautious.”

    Modu Chanyu had arranged to meet Wang Huang and Zhao Li, but their troops never arrived, making him suspect they had conspired with the Han. As a result, he released part of the siege. A thick fog shrouded the area, allowing Han messengers to move back and forth unnoticed by the Xiongnu. Chen Ping advised loading strong crossbows with two arrows each, and sending them out with arrows pointing to enemies, from the side where the siege had been lifted. The Emperor escaped the siege but wanted to move forward quickly. However, Grand Coachman–Duke of Teng, Xiahou Ying, insisted on proceeding slowly. Upon reaching Pingcheng, the rest of the Han army had arrived, and the Xiongnu cavalry retreated. The Han forces then withdrew, assigning Fan Kuai to stabilize the Dai commandery.

    The Emperor arrived at Guangwu and pardoned Liu Jing, saying, “I failed to heed your advice, which led to the siege at Pingcheng. I have already executed the previous ten envoys who misinformed me.” He then granted Liu Jing the title of Marquis of Jianxin, along with two thousand households. Continuing south to Quni county, the Emperor remarked, “What a magnificent county! I have traveled throughout the empire, but only Luoyang and this place impress me.” He granted Chen Ping the title of Marquis of Quni and bestowed the entire county as his fiefdom. Chen Ping had accompanied the Emperor on campaigns and devised six original strategies, each of which led to an expansion of his fief.

    In December, the Emperor returned and passed through the kingdom of Zhao. The King of Zhao, Zhang Ao, who was the Emperor’s son-in-law, humbled himself and treated the Emperor with utmost esteem, while the Emperor sat with his legs wide open, openly insulting Zhang Ao. This enraged the prime minister of Zhao, Guan Gao, along with Zhao Wu and others, who said, “Our king is a coward!” They approached Zhang Ao with fury, “The empire is up for grabs. Only those with courage seize power. Your Excellency humbles before the Emperor deferentially, but he shows you no respect. We want to kill him on your behalf!”

    Zhang Ao bit his finger until it bled and replied, “You are wrong! Our ancestors lost their kingdom, but it was through the Emperor’s help that we regained it. His virtue has benefited our descendants, and all we have is thanks to his power. I hope you never speak like that again!”

    Guan Gao, Zhao Wu, and the others conferred among themselves, “We should not have spoken to the king that way. Our king is a man of integrity and will not betray his loyalty. Even if we wish to kill the Emperor for insulting our king, why should we implicate the king? If we succeed, the credit will go to him; if we fail, we alone will face the consequences!”

    The Xiongnu attacked the kingdom Dai, and the King of Dai, Liu Xi (the Emperor’s older brother), abandoned his kingdom without a fight. He returned to the capital, was pardoned, and demoted to the Marquis of He’yang. On January 17, the Emperor’s son, Prince Liu Ruyi, was installed as the new King of Dai.

    In February, the Emperor arrived at Chang’an. Xiao He oversaw the construction of the Weiyang Palace, which greatly impressed the Emperor. However, the Emperor was furious, saying to Xiao He, “The world is in chaos, and we have been at war for years with the outcome still uncertain. Why are you focused on building such an extravagant palace?”

    Xiao He responded, “Precisely because the world is still unstable, we should seize this opportunity to build. Moreover, the Emperor considers the four seas as his home, and without grandeur, he cannot command respect. It is also important to leave a legacy that future generations cannot surpass.” The Emperor was pleased with this explanation.

    Sima Guang‘s commentary: A king should make benevolence and righteousness his grandeur, and moral integrity his source of awe. I have never heard that filling the world with palaces and halls is a way to demonstrate dominance. When the world is unsettled, one must practice restraint and fiscal responsibility to meet the needs of the people. To prioritize palaces and halls—how can this reflect an understanding of what is truly important? In the past, Emperor Yǔ lived in humbled palace, while Xia Jíe built extravagant ones and lost his empire. A founding lord should practice frugality and set an example for his descendants. Even the last ruler of a dynasty, despite the example of frugality, eventually succumbed to exorbitance—how much more will they be corrupted by being shown the example of indulgence? Moreover, to say “do not let future generations surpass it”—is this not a grave mistake? Emperor Wu, after all, ultimately ruined the country by overspending on palaces and halls, a trend perhaps initiated by Marquis Zan.

    The Emperor moved the capital from Yueyang to Chang’an. The Ministry of the Imperial Clan was first established to rank the genealogical records of the imperial family. In April, during the summer, the Emperor traveled to Luoyang.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 95): Inventor of Whistling Arrows

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

    A Bust of Modu (Metehan) Chanyu in Türkiye, Photo by Vikiçizer

    The 6th year of the Emperor Gaozu(201 B.C. continued)

    The emperor returned to Yueyang.

    The emperor granted his father the title Emperor Emeritus on May 23 of the summer.

    The Xiongnu empire feared the Empire of Qin and moved to the north for more than ten years.  As the empire of Qin collapsed, the Xiongnus gradually moved southward and crossed the Yellow River.  

    The chief of Xiongnu, whose name was Touman Chanyu, had a crown prince called Modu.  Then Touman’s other favorite wife bore him a younger son.  He wanted to crown his young son.  Nomad tribes Donghu was strong and Yuezhi was prosperous at the time.  Touman sent Modu to be a hostage in Yuezhi and then launched a sneak attack on Yuezhi.  Yuezhi would have killed Modu, except Modu stole a stallion and ran home.  Touman thought he was tough and let Modu command ten thousand cavalry. 

    Modu invented the kabura-ya, or whistling arrows, and trained his cavalry to use them in archery. He issued a strict command: “Anyone who fails to shoot at the same target immediately after seeing a kabura-ya hit the mark must be beheaded.” To enforce discipline, Modu shot his prized horse with a kabura-ya, followed by his beloved wife. Those who hesitated to follow his lead were executed. Eventually, he shot the best horse of the Chanyu with a whistling arrow, and everyone else shot as well. Satisfied with their readiness, Modu embarked on a hunting trip, where he shot Touman with a whistling arrow. His attendants, following his lead, killed Touman Chanyu.  Then he executed his stepmother, younger brother, and ministers who opposed him. Modu then declared himself Chanyu.

    When the Donghu tribe heard that Modu had become the Chanyu, they sent a messenger with a demand: “We want Touman Chanyu’s fast horse, the one that can run a thousand li in a day.” Modu consulted his ministers, who all advised, “This is a treasure of the Xiongnu, do not give it away!” But Modu replied, “How can we value a horse more than maintaining good relations with a neighboring state?” and so he gave them the horse.

    Soon after, the Donghu sent another messenger: “We would like one of the Chanyu’s wives.” Modu again asked his followers, who were outraged: “The Donghu are unreasonable, asking for Chanyu’s wife! Let’s attack them!” Modu responded, “How can we value a woman more than a neighboring state?” and hand out his beloved wife.

    Emboldened, the Donghu king became even more arrogant. There was a stretch of deserted land over a thousand miles wide between the Donghu and Xiongnu, each occupying their own side of the border, known as the “Ou-Tuo” (buffer zone). The Donghu then demanded this land. Modu asked his ministers for their advice; some said, “It is just deserted land, it doesn’t matter if we give it away or not.” Enraged, Modu declared, “The land is the foundation of the country, how can we give it away?” He beheaded those who had suggested giving it up.

    Modu mounted his horse and commanded, “Anyone who retreats during battle will be beheaded!” He attacked the Donghu, who had underestimated him and were unprepared, leading to their destruction.

    On returning home, Modu launched a westward attack and defeated the Yuezhi tribe. He then annexed the territories ruled by the King of Loufan and the King of Baiyang, the tribes living in the south of the Yellow River, before advancing into the states of Yan and Dai. He reclaimed the lands that had previously been taken from the Xiongnu by Meng Tian, extending the southern frontier to Chaona and Fushi counties. At the time, the Han army was preoccupied with their conflict against Xiang Yu, and the central plains were exhausted by war. This allowed Modu Chanyu to consolidate his power, amassing an army of more than 300,000 archers and inducing trepidation and submission to other nations.

    In the autumn, the Xiongnu besieged the Han vassal King of Hán, Xin at Mayi. Xin repeatedly sent messengers to the Xiongnu seeking a truce, and the empire dispatched troops to rescue him. However, the Han court grew suspicious of Xin’s loyalty, as he had sent envoys back and forth multiple times. Accused of dual loyalty and fearing punishment, in September, Xin surrendered Mayi to the Xiongnu. Seizing this opportunity, Modu Chanyu led his troops south, crossed the Gozhu Pass, raided Taiyuan commandery, and eventually reached Jinyang city.

    The emperor abolished the harsh and complicated laws of the Qin Dynasty and implemented a simpler system. However, officials began competing for recognition, and during drinking sessions, some became drunk and made reckless remarks, even drawing their swords and hacking at pillars. The emperor grew increasingly disgusted with their behavior.

    Shusun Tong advised the emperor, “Scholars may not be suited to ambitious plans, but they are capable of maintaining stability. I would like to invite scholars from Lu to establish court ceremonies, along with my own disciples.” The emperor asked, “Won’t this be difficult?” Shusun Tong replied, “The Five Emperors in history had different music, and the Three Kings had different rituals. Ceremonies should reflect the times and the people’s sentiments, so the rituals must be adjusted accordingly. I will draw on ancient rituals and blend them with Qin customs.” The emperor agreed, saying, “Let’s give it a try. Make it simple to understand, and only implement what I can manage.”

    Shusun Tong summoned over thirty scholars from the state of Lu. However, two scholars refused, saying, “You have served ten lords and flattered them all to gain favor. Now that the world has only just been pacified, the dead are not yet buried, and the wounded have not yet recovered, yet you want to start with ceremonies and music. Ceremonies and music should only be established after accumulating virtue for a hundred years. I cannot bear to follow your example. You may do as you wish, but do not tarnish my reputation!” Shusun Tong laughed and said, “You are dogmatic and shallow scholars who fail to grasp the changes of the times.”

    He then led the scholars he had recruited, along with those close to the emperor and his own disciples—a group of over a hundred people—to practice rituals and music outdoors, using ropes and thatch as mock-ups, for over a month. He reported to the emperor, “You can now observe and assess them.” The emperor ordered the court to rehearse the rituals and remarked, “I can do this.” He then instructed the officials to study and practice the rituals.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 92): Zhang Liang’s Fading Away

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11 (continued)

    One of the Temples Worshiping Chisongzi, Hong Kong

    The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C. continued)

    Lou Jing, from the kingdom of Qi, was sent to a garrison in Longxi Commandery. While passing through Luoyang, he visited his fellow townsman, General Yu of Qi, wearing a sheepskin coat and pulling a cart. He asked General Yu to introduce him to the Emperor. General Yu wanted to provide him with better attire for the meeting, but Lou Jing refused, saying, “If I come in silk, I will meet his majesty in silk. If I come in plain cloth, I will meet his majesty in plain cloth. I dare not dress differently.” General Yu mentioned Lou Jing to the Emperor, who agreed to meet him.

    When the Emperor sought his advice, Lou Jing asked, “Does your majesty intend to compete with the Zhou dynasty in terms of prosperity by choosing Luoyang as the capital?”

    The Emperor replied, “Yes.”

    Lou Jing continued, “Your majesty took over the country in a way very different from the Zhou dynasty. The ancestor of Zhou, Hou Ji, was awarded the fiefdom Tai State. From that time, the family followed a virtuous path, accumulating merit and charity over several generations. Then came King Tai, King Ji, King Wen, and King Wu of Zhou, whom other monarchs admired and supported. King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty and became emperor. When King Cheng of Zhou ascended the throne and the Duke of Zhou served as prime minister, they chose Luoyang as the capital because it was centrally located, making it equally accessible for all the monarchs to pay tributes and report to the Emperor.”

    “A virtuous king easily becomes emperor, while an unethical king is easily destroyed.  During the prime of the Zhou dynasty, the country was at peace and harmony, with all the monarchs and neighboring foreigners compliant and paying tribute. But as the Zhou dynasty declined, no one paid homage anymore, and the emperor lost control over the country. He not only lost his moral authority but was also in a weaker position. Now, your majesty began the uprising in the town of Feng in Pei county, prevailed over Shu and Hanzhong commandery, and then conquered the three kingdoms of Qin. Your majesty fought Xiang Yu between Xingyang and Chenggao, enduring more than seventy major battles and forty minor ones. The people of this country have suffered extreme cruelty. Countless bodies of fathers and sons lie scattered in the fields, the cries of the bereaved have not ceased, and the wounded have not yet risen from their beds. We are not in a position comparable to the time of King Cheng or King Kang of Zhou.”

    “The former kingdom of Qin has mountains at its back and is encircled by rivers. Fortresses have been built at strategic mountain passes on all four sides. In an emergency, a million soldiers could be mobilized instantly. With Qin’s infrastructure and fertile land, it is a god-blessed stronghold. If your majesty chooses to establish the capital within the Hangu Pass, the land of Qin will be secure, even if there are rebellions east of Xiao Mountain. In hand-to-hand combat, it is not a total victory unless you can grab your opponent by the throat and strike from his back. By securing the former kingdom of Qin as the capital, your majesty essentially grabs the country by its throat and slaps its back.”

    The Emperor consulted other ministers, all of whom were from east of the Xiao Mountains. They tripped over each other to offer their opinions: “The Zhou dynasty lasted for centuries, while the Qin dynasty perished within only two generations. Luoyang has Chenggao to the east, Xiao Mountain and Mianchi Lake to the west. It is backed by the Yellow River and faces the Yi River and Luo River, making its defensive position reliable.”

    The Emperor then sought advice from Zhang Liang. Zhang Liang said, “Luoyang is defensible, but its core area is too small, and the farming soil is poor. It is vulnerable to attacks from all directions and not an ideal place to engage in a long battle. Guanzhong, on the other hand, is different. It has Xiao Mountain and Hangu Pass to its east, Long Mountain and the Shu commandery to its west, with thousands of miles of fertile land. It is enriched by the wealth of Ba and Shu commanderies to the south and benefits from the nomads’ pastures to the north. It is protected on three sides, leaving only the eastern monarchs to deal with. If these monarchs are peaceful, the Yellow and Wei rivers can serve as conduits to transport resources westward to the capital. If they rebel, troops can swiftly move downstream, and supply lines won’t be a problem. That is why Guanzhong is known as the ‘Thousand Miles of Metal City’ or ‘God-blessed Home Base.’ Lou Jing knows what he is talking about.”

    The Emperor immediately set out westward and established Chang’an as the capital. He appointed Lou Jing as a court guard and granted him the title of Lord Fengchun. Additionally, he honored Lou Jing by bestowing his own surname, Liu, upon him.

    Zhang Liang had been in poor health and practiced a therapeutic Daoist art since following the Emperor into the west of Hangu Pass. He adopted a strict diet, avoiding grain, and rarely left his house. He declared, “My family served as prime ministers of Hán for generations. I spent ten thousand caddies of gold to avenge the brutal Qin when the kingdom of Hán was annihilated, and I made an impact on the country. I was fortunate enough to become the emperor’s advisor and was granted a fief of ten thousand households just by moving my three-inch tongue and sharing my counsel. This is the highest position a commoner could ever achieve—far beyond what I desired. Now, I wish to follow Chisongzi, a Daoist immortal, to wander freely and leave behind the troubles of the human world.”

    Sima Guang’s commentary: Death after life is as natural as night following day. From ancient times to the present, no one has escaped fate to achieve immortality. Zhang Zifang was a rational man and must have known that immortality was a fantasy. His wisdom was evident in his talk of following Chisongzi’s path. Fame and success are the hardest trials a minister faces. The Emperor praised none more than the three standouts—yet Marquis Huaiyin and his clan were extirpated, and Xiao He was imprisoned. Isn’t it because they did not stop when their lives reached their peaks? Zhang Zifang wisely turned his life over to the gods, discarding wealth and fame, and leaving the secular world. He is an example of someone who saved himself and his philosophy.

    The Emperor announced a nationwide amnesty on June 9th. 

    In July of the fall, Zang Tu, the king of Yan, rebelled, prompting the Emperor to personally lead the campaign to suppress the mutiny. 

    Both King Jing of Zhao, Zhang Er, and King Wen of Changsha, Wu Rui, passed away. 

    Zang Tu was captured in September, and Marquis Chang’an, Lu Wan, who served as the grand commandant, was appointed the king of Yan. Lu Wan had grown up in the same neighborhood as the Emperor and was born on the same day, a bond unmatched by anyone else. His appointment as king was a unique honor. 

    Li Ji, a general under Xiang Yu, also mounted an insurrection, which the emperor personally quelled, bringing Li Ji into custody.

    The construction of Changle Palace began in late September. 

    Zhongli Mo, a general under Xiang Yu, was a close friend of Han Xin, the king of Chu. He joined Han Xin‘s command. The Emperor, harboring a grudge against Zhongli Mo, issued a decree for his arrest upon learning of his escape to the kingdom of Chu.

    When Han Xin traveled to Chu for his inauguration, his large entourage was heavily armed as they passed through the towns and counties of his fiefdom state.

  • Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance(Part 89): Besieged On All Sides in Gaixia

    Comprehensive Reflections to Aid in Governance

    By Sima Guang

    Translated By Yiming Yang 

    Annals of Han Book 3 Scroll 11

    Duration of 3 years

    Xiang Yu and his horse

    The 5th year of the Emperor Gaozu (202 B.C.)

    In October of that winter, the King of Han pursued King Xiang Yu to Guling. He arranged a meeting with Han Xin, the King of Qi, and Peng Yue, the Prime Minister of Wei, to plan an assault on the army of Chu. However, Han Xin and Peng Yue did not attend. King Xiang Yu struck back at the Han forces and dealt them a severe blow. The Han troops retreated to their camps and refused to engage further.

    The King of Han asked Zhang Liang, “What should we do now that our allies haven’t come to our aid?”

    Zhang Liang replied, “The Kingdom of Chu is on the verge of collapse, but these two generals haven’t yet secured their territories. Their absence was to be expected. If Your Majesty is willing to share the land, they will come at once. The enthronement of Han Xin as King of Qi was not your original intent, and he is aware of that and not convinced of your trust. Peng Yue conquered the lands of Wei, yet Your Majesty only appointed him Prime Minister due to the presence of Wei Bao. Now that Wei Bao is dead, Peng Yue expects to be enthroned, but Your Majesty has hesitated.”

    “If Your Majesty grants the land from Suiyang county to the north, up to Gucheng, as Peng Yue‘s kingdom, and makes him king; and if you give the land from ancient State of Chen to the east, all the way to the East Ocean, to Han Xin, the King of Qi, they will join us immediately. Han Xin‘s home is in the Kingdom of Chu, and his intention would be to reclaim it. If Your Majesty cedes these lands and gives them authority to manage their battles, the downfall of Chu will not be difficult.”

    The King of Han followed Zhang Liang’s advice, and Han Xin and Peng Yue soon led their troops to join him, as expected.

    In November, General Liu Jia crossed the Huai River to the south and laid siege to the city of Shouchun. He sent an emissary to persuade King Xiang Yu’s Grand Marshal, Zhou Yin, to defect. Zhou Yin betrayed the Kingdom of Chu and led troops from Shu county in a massacre in Lu county. He then organized the soldiers of Jiujiang to welcome their former king, Qingbu. Afterward, he moved to Chengfu county, where he carried out another massacre before joining forces with General Liu Jia.

    In December, King Xiang Yu reached Gaixia. His army had dwindled, and they were running out of food. All his battles against the Han forces had ended in failure, and they were now trapped in bastions. The Han army, along with allied forces, surrounded his camps in multiple layers. One night, King Xiang Yu heard folk songs of Chu being sung by the Han soldiers from all sides. Astonished, he exclaimed, “Has the Han army taken over all of Chu? Why are so many Chu folks here?” He rose, drank liquor in his tent, and, overcome with emotion, began singing sorrowful songs, tears streaming down his face. Those around him sobbed, not daring to look at him.

    That night, King Xiang Yu mounted his favorite steed, named Zhui, and led 800 elite cavalrymen to break through the encirclement. They rode south at high speed, and it was not until dawn that the Han army realized they had fled. General Guan Ying was ordered to pursue them with 5,000 cavalrymen. King Xiang Yu managed to cross the Huai River, but by then, only about a hundred cavalrymen remained with him. They became lost near Yinling town and asked a farmer for directions. The farmer said, “Turn left.” They followed his advice and were soon trapped in a large swamp, where the Han cavalry caught up with them.

    King Xiang Yu fled east again and reached Dongcheng county with only 28 cavalrymen remaining. Several thousand Han cavalry were in pursuit. Realizing he could not escape, Xiang Yu spoke to his followers: “It has been eight years since I took up arms. I have fought more than seventy battles and never been defeated. That is why I am the hegemon of the land. Yet, now we are besieged. This is the will of Heaven, not my failure as a warrior. In this final duel of life and death, I want to fight for sport and claim at least three victories: breaking the encirclement, beheading an enemy commander, and cutting down their banner. I want to prove to you that it is Heaven’s will, not my own shortcomings, that has doomed us.”

    He divided his riders into four groups, each facing a different direction, as the Han cavalry encircled them in multiple layers. Xiang Yu told his followers, “I will take out one of their commanders for you.” He then ordered them to charge in all four directions and regroup at three points over the mountain to the east. Xiang Yu roared as he charged into the Han formation, causing their soldiers to panic and flee. He beheaded a Han commander in the chaos.

    A Han cavalry court guard named Yang Xi pursued Xiang Yu, but when Xiang Yu turned and stared at him with a thunderous shout, both Yang Xi and his horse were so terrified that they retreated several miles before recovering their nerve.

    Xiang Yu met his followers at the three rendezvous points. The Han pursuers, unsure where he was, split their forces into three groups to surround each location. Xiang Yu charged the Han troops once more, beheading another commander and killing dozens of Han soldiers. When the group regrouped again, only two horsemen were missing.

    Xiang Yu asked his followers, “How was that?”

    His men, filled with admiration, dismounted and said, “Exactly as Your Majesty said!”

    King Xiang Yu planned to cross the Yangtze River at the town of Wujiang, where the post chief of Wujiang ford had prepared a boat for him. The chief urged him, “Jiangdong region may not be large, but it covers thousands of miles and has a population in the hundreds of thousands. It is enough for Your Majesty to reclaim power. Please cross quickly—only I have boats, and the Han soldiers won’t be able to follow.”

    Xiang Yu laughed and reconsidered: “Why should I cross the river if Heaven has already doomed me? I, Xiang Ji, crossed this river with 8,000 sons of Jiangdong and launched my western campaign. Today, not one of them returned with me. Even if the people of Jiangdong still love me and make me their king, I don’t have the heart to face them again! They may not say a word, but how could I not feel ashamed?”

    He gave his horse, Zhui, as a gift to the post chief and ordered his guards to dismount for one final battle. Xiang Yu fought hand-to-hand with a sword, killing hundreds of Han soldiers on his own, though he was wounded in more than ten places.

    During the fight, Xiang Yu saw a cavalry major, Lü Matong, and asked, “Aren’t you an old friend of mine?” Lü Matong dared not face Xiang Yu, turned to calvary court guard Wang Yi, and pointed to the king, “This is King Xiang Yu!”

    Xiang Yu responded, “I’ve heard the Kingdom of Han has offered 1,000 ounces of gold and a fief of 10,000 households for my head. I’ll repay you a favor for your kindness.” With that, he slashed his own throat.

    Wang Yi took Xiang Yu’s head, but chaos erupted as Han cavalrymen trampled each other, each trying to claim a piece of Xiang Yu’s body. In the mayhem, dozens of soldiers died. Ultimately, five men—Yang Xi, Lü Matong, Lü Sheng, Yang Wu, and Wang Yi—each claimed a piece of Xiang Yu. Together, they confirmed the remains and received the reward. Each was given a fief of 2,000 households and the title of marquis.

    All the cities of the Kingdom of Chu had surrendered to Han rule, except for the county of Lu. The King of Han led the army of the entire country to attack the city. As they approached the city walls, they heard chanting and music from within. The King of Han realized that this was Xiang Yu’s fiefdom, and the people of Lu remained defiant because of their loyalty to him and adherence to the rites.

    The King of Han then showed Xiang Yu‘s severed head to the people of Lu, and the city capitulated. He ordered that Xiang Yu‘s funeral be conducted in the name of the Duke of Lu and had him buried in Gucheng county. The King of Han attended the ceremony himself and wept at the altar. He pardoned all members of the Xiang family, granting Xiang Bo and three others the title of marquis and the surname Liu. Additionally, he allowed those who had been forcibly relocated to Chu to return to their original homes.

    The great historian Sima Qian once commented: Xiang Yu rose from obscurity and dismantled the Qin Empire with the help of five allied monarchs in just three years. He divided the land and granted his followers the titles of king and marquis, becoming the de facto ruler of the country. Although his reign ended poorly, his achievements were nonetheless remarkable in history. Yearning for his home state of Chu, he abandoned the strategic region of Guanzhong. He exiled the honorary emperor and usurped power. Given this, it is difficult to fault the kings and marquises he elevated, who later turned against him. Xiang Yu was overly confident in his military prowess and trusted his own judgment, often deviating from established norms. He sought hegemony and ambitious control but relied solely on brute force to govern. He ultimately perished in the east, and his kingdom was destroyed. Even in defeat, he refused to acknowledge his faults, blaming his downfall on fate, claiming, “It was Heaven that doomed me, not my military failure.” How absurd!

    In his Exemplary Sayings, Yang Xiong commented: Someone asked, “The King of Chu failed at Gaixia. Before his death, he claimed it was Heaven’s will. Does that make sense?” The answer was: “The King of Han sought advice from many, and more ideas overcame more brute force. The King of Chu, on the other hand, discouraged counsel and weakened his own position. Victory goes to those who triumph through wisdom. Defeat comes to those who undermine themselves. What does Heaven have to do with it?”