The 3rd year of the Emperor Jing’s Early Era (154 B.C.)
In October of winter, the Prince of Liang (Liu Wu) came to the imperial court to pay his respects. At that time, the Emperor had not yet designated a crown prince. During a banquet with the Prince of Liang, the Emperor casually remarked, “May the house of Han be passed on to you when I am no longer in this world.” The Prince of Liang humbly declined and expressed his gratitude, but inwardly, he was pleased by the Emperor’s words, even though he knew the Emperor was not entirely serious. The Empress Dowager shared this sentiment.
However, the majordomo Dou Ying, brought a cup of wine to the Emperor and said, “The empire belongs to the founding Emperor Gaozu, and it is tradition for the father to pass the throne to his eldest son. This is the covenant of the Han house. How could Your Majesty consider passing the throne to the Prince of Liang?” The Empress Dowager harbored resentment toward Dou Ying for this remark. Eventually, Dou Ying retired from his position, citing illness, and the Empress Dowager revoked his palace entry permit, barring him from attending court audiences.
As a result of these events, the Prince of Liang became even more presumptuous and proud.
In spring, on January 22, a general amnesty was issued.
A comet appeared in the western sky.
The Eastern Palace in Luoyang suffered a disastrous fire.
During the reign of Emperor Wen, the Crown Prince of Wu (Liu Xian) was granted an audience and had the opportunity to drink and play games with the Imperial Crown Prince (i.e. Emperor Jing). However, during the game, the Crown Prince of Wu behaved disrespectfully, engaging in disputes. The Imperial Crown Prince killed the Crown Prince of Wu in a fit of rage by striking him with the game board. The prince’s body was sent back to Wu princedom for burial. Upon receiving the news, the Prince of Wu (Liu Pi), aggrieved, “Since we are of the same royal lineage, if he died in Chang’an, he should be buried in Chang’an. Why was his body sent back here for burial?” The body was then returned to Chang’an for burial.
Following these events, the Prince of Wu began to neglect his vassal duties and feigned illness, refusing to attend court audiences. Capital officials, suspecting that his discontent stemmed from the loss of his son, detained and interrogated Wu’s envoys. Fearing the consequences, the Prince of Wu began to contemplate rebellion.
Later, when the Prince of Wu sent an envoy to request an autumn audience, Emperor Wen inquired about the situation. The envoy explained, “The prince is not truly ill. It is because several of Han‘s officials detained our diplomats, and the Prince of Wu feared the consequences, so he feigned illness. There is a saying, ‘It is inauspicious to observe fish clearly in a deep pond,’ meaning one should be given the chance to forsake past mistakes and start anew.” Upon hearing this, Emperor Wen pardoned the envoys and allowed them to return. Additionally, the Prince of Wu was sent gifts, including a tea table and a cane in recognition of his old age, and was granted an exception from attending court audiences.
With the lifting of the investigation into the Prince of Wu, the conspiracies gradually subsided. In the principality of Wu, due to abundant copper and salt resources, the common people were exempted from taxes. Surplus goods were sold at fair prices, and the government covered travel expenses for soldiers. Talented individuals were rewarded, and gifts were distributed to neighborhoods during holidays. When officials from other princedoms or commanderies attempted to arrest fugitives, the local authorities barred them from doing so. This special status continued for over forty years.
Chao Cuo repeatedly submitted memorials to the emperor, pointing out the faults of the Prince of Wu and recommending a reduction of his power and status. However, Emperor Wen, being lenient and reluctant to punish, took no action. As a result, the Prince of Wu grew increasingly reckless.
When the Emperor ascended the throne, Chao Cuo advised him, “In the early days of Emperor Gaozu‘s reign, when the empire was first established, his brothers were young, and his sons were weak. He granted large fiefs to those of the same surname. The Prince of Qi received over seventy cities, the Prince of Chu over forty cities, and the Prince of Wu over fifty cities. Even illegitimate offspring were given land, dividing the empire in half. Now, the Prince of Wu, who once had a mishap with his crown prince, feigns illness and refuses to attend court audiences. According to ancient laws, he should be punished by death. Emperor Wen, out of mercy, only gave him gifts of a tea table and a cane, showing him great kindness in the hope he would reform. Instead, he has become even more insolent and lawless. He has begun minting coins by mining copper mountains and producing salt from seawater, luring the people into rebellious activities. If we reduce his territory, he will rebel; if we don’t, he will still rebel. Reducing it will bring rebellion sooner with minor consequences. Not reducing it will delay the rebellion, but the consequences will be severe.”
The Emperor ordered the court officials, marquises, and members of the imperial family to discuss the matter, and none dared to object. Only Dou Ying disputed Chao Cuo‘s proposal, leading to a rift between them.
Later, when the Prince of Chu, Liú Wù, came to court, Chao Cuo seized the opportunity to accuse him, “Last year, Prince Liú Wù acted improperly during Empress Dowager Bo’s funeral. He engaged in illicit affairs within the mourning halls and harbored disloyal intentions. I request that he be executed.” The emperor issued a pardon but reduced the Chu principality by removing Donghai Commandery from its jurisdiction.
In the previous year, when the Prince of Zhao(Liu Sui) committed a crime, Changshan Commandery was similarly removed from his custody. Likewise, the Prince of Jiaoxi, Liu Ang, was implicated in a scandal involving the sale of noble titles, and six of his counties were confiscated.
Baling, the Tomb of Emperor Wen of Han, Shaanxi Province
The 7th year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (157 B.C.)
In the summer, on June 1, the Emperor passed away in the Weiyang Palace. In his posthumous edict, he stated:
“We have heard that all things in the world are destined to perish. Death is part of the natural order of Heaven and Earth, so why should we be overly sorrowful? In the present age, people cherish life but fear death. They spend extravagantly on funerals, burdening their families with financial difficulties. They mourn excessively, causing harm to their own well-being. We are firmly against this practice. As for myself, we have not been virtuous enough to truly serve the people. Now, in my passing, we do not wish to burden them further by imposing long periods of mourning, subjecting them to the hardships of cold and heat, causing sorrow to fathers and sons, and hurting the feelings of the elderly. It would also disrupt their food and drink consumption and interrupt the sacrifices to gods and spirits. How can we, with my lack of virtue, do such things to the people of the realm?
“We have been fortunate to safeguard the ancestral temple and, with my feeble and short stature, ruled over the kings of the realm for over twenty years. Through the blessings of Heaven and the ancestors, there has been peace within the borders, and no wars or upheavals. Though we are witless, we have always been mindful of not tarnishing the virtues left by my predecessor through my mistakes. Over a long period, we constantly worried about not being able to fulfill my duties until the end. Now, by the grace of my allotted years, we are able to once again join Emperor Gaozu in the ancestral temple. What is there to mourn for? We hereby decree that upon the arrival of this order, after three days, all mourning garments should be removed. There should be no restrictions on marriage, funeral rites, drinking alcohol, or consuming meat. Those who need to be present for mourning rituals should not go barefoot. The width of mourning belts should not exceed three inches. No carriages or weapons should be displayed. Do not mobilize people to wail in the palace halls. Those who are to be present in the halls should wail 15 times at dawn and dusk, and after the completion of the rituals, they must stop mourning. Outside the windows of wailing time at dawn and dusk, people are forbidden to mourn in the palace halls without permission.”
“After the coffin is lowered, those wearing the Large Gong (mourning garment for close relations) should wear it for fifteen days, those wearing the Little Gong (mourning garment for slightly distant relations) for fourteen days, and those wearing Sima (hemp mourning garment for distant or maternal relations) for seven days. After that, mourning garments should be removed. Any other matters not mentioned in this decree should follow its intent. Announce this decree to the entire realm so that they may understand my intentions. Let the hills and rivers around the Ba mausoleum remain unchanged. The female officials, from Consort Madame down to minor envoy (the lowest rank of palace lady), should return to their homes.”
On June 7, the burial took place at the Ba mausoleum.
During the Emperor’s reign of twenty-three years, he made no additions to the palaces, imperial gardens, carriages, honor guards, or formal attire. Whenever there was an inconvenience to the public, he swiftly dropped the project for the benefit of the people. Once, he desired to build a terrace and summoned craftsmen to estimate the cost, which amounted to a hundred gold coins. The Emperor said, “A hundred gold coins represent the wealth of ten average households. We have inherited the palaces of my predecessor and always feared bringing shame upon them. How can we justify the construction of a new terrace?” He personally wore black silk garments. His beloved Consort, Madame Shen, also wore clothes that did not trail on the ground. The curtains and canopies had no ornate embroidery, demonstrating simplicity and setting an example for the entire realm.
In the construction of the imperial Ba mausoleum, only earthenware was used, without any decorations of precious metals such as gold, silver, copper, or tin. The tomb followed the natural contours of the mountain without constructing a mound. When the Prince of Wu feigned illness and did not attend court, the Emperor sent him canes and tables as a gesture of concern. Despite abrasive remonstrations from ministers like Yuan Ang and others, their advice was often accepted and implemented. General Zhang Wu and others received bribes in the form of gold and silver, but when discovered, they were given additional rewards to shame their corrupt behavior and stir guilt in their hearts. The Emperor was dedicated to governing with virtue and educating the people. As a result, there was peace and tranquility throughout the realm, and the people’s needs were fulfilled. Few rulers in later generations could compare to his achievements.
On June 9, the Crown Prince ascended the throne, and Empress Dowager Bo was honored as Grand Empress Dowager, while the empress was honored as Empress Dowager.
A comet appeared in the western sky in September.
This year, the King of Changsha, Wu Zhu, passed away without leaving an heir, and the kingdom was abolished.
Initially, Emperor Gaozu honored the King Wen of Changsha, Wu Rui, and issued an edict stating, “The loyal King of Changsha shall keep his title as a king.” However, during the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü, the descendants of King Wu Rui were enfeoffed as marquises, but the lineage was discontinued after several generations.
The 1st year of the Emperor Jing’s Early Era(156 B.C.)
In October, during the winter, Chancellor Shentu Jia and others submitted a memorial stating: “No one has achieved greater merit than Emperor Gaozu, and no one has exhibited greater virtue than Emperor Wen. The temple title of Emperor Gaozu should be called Taizu of Han, and the temple title of Emperor Wen should be called Taizong of Han. Sovereigns of later generations should continue to pay homage to these ancestral temples from generation to generation, and the various commanderies and principalities should each establish temples for Emperor Wen as Temple of Taizong.” The imperial response was, “It is appropriate.”
On April 22, a general amnesty was granted throughout the empire.
Grand Master of the Censorate, Tao Qing, was dispatched to the border of Dai Commandery to negotiate peace and a marriage alliance with the Xiongnu.
In May, the policy of collecting half of previous taxes on cultivated land was reinstated, with a tax rate of one-thirtieth. (Emperor Wen had initially reduced the taxes to half, and later to nothing.)
Emperor Wen abolished mutilation punishments, but the so-called “lighter” punishments often resulted in death. Those sentenced to have the toes of their right foot cut off still faced death, and those to lose the toes of their left foot were subjected to five hundred strokes of flogging, with many dying as a result. Those sentenced to have their noses cut off received three hundred strokes, with similar fatal outcomes. That year, an edict was issued: “The severity of flogging is no different from punishments for serious crimes. Even if one is fortunate enough to survive, they cannot live healthily afterward. The new laws are as follows: five hundred strokes will be reduced to three hundred, and three hundred strokes will be reduced to two hundred.”
Additionally, Zhou Ren, an advisor to the emperor, was appointed Grand Chamberlain; Zhang Ou became Minister of Justice; Marquis of Pinglu Liu Li, son of Prince Yuan of Chu, became Minister of Imperial Clans; and Chao Cuo, Grandee of the Palace, was made Interior Minister of the Left.
Zhou Ren, the palace guard captain for the Crown Prince, gained favor through his honesty and integrity. Zhang Ou, who also served the Emperor at the Crown Prince’s palace, was knowledgeable in legal matters but displayed great magnanimity. The Emperor valued them highly and promoted them among the Nine Ministers. Zhang Ou never used his position to persecute others, instead focusing on appointing honest and respectable individuals. His subordinates treated him with respect and dared not deceive him.
The 2nd year of the Emperor Jing’s Early Era (155 B.C.)
In December, during the winter, a comet appeared in the southwest.
A decree was issued lowering the age for mandatory civic duty from twenty-three to twenty for all males in the empire.
In the spring, on March 27, the imperial sons were granted princely titles: Liu De was made Prince of Hejian, Liu Yan became Prince of Linjiang, Liu Yu was appointed Prince of Huaiyang, Liu Fei became Prince of Runan, Liu Pengzu was made Prince of Guangchuan, and Liu Fa was appointed Prince of Changsha.
In the summer, on April 25, the Grand Empress Dowager, Lady Bo, passed away.
In June, Chancellor Shentu Jia also passed away. At that time, the interior minister Chao Cuo, frequently offered private advice and suggestions to the Emperor, many of which were accepted. This earned him favor and influence, allowing him to surpass the other nine ministers. He implemented several changes to laws and regulations, which displeased Chancellor Shentu Jia. Chancellor Shentu Jia took exception to Chao Cuo‘s rise and disliked him.
As interior minister, Chao Cuo found it inconvenient to use the eastern gate, so he had a new one constructed in the south. This new gate was near the temple of the Emperor Emeritus. When Chancellor Shentu Jia heard that Chao Cuo had pierced the wall of the Emperor Emeritus’s temple, he submitted a memorial requesting Chao Cuo’s execution. Rumors circulated that Chao Cuo became fearful, prompting him to secretly visit the palace at night to pay his respects and explain himself to the Emperor.
The following morning, during the court session, Chancellor Shentu Jia again requested Chao Cuo‘s execution. However, the Emperor responded, “The wall Chao Cuo penetrated is not the actual temple wall but an outer wall where unnecessary officials reside. Moreover, I ordered the work, so Chao Cuo is not guilty.” Chancellor Shentu Jia apologized and withdrew his request. After the session, Shentu Jia told his chief-of-staff, “I regret not having executed Chao Cuo before presenting my case to the Emperor. I have been deceived by him.” Upon returning home, Chancellor Shentu Jia vomited blood and died. Chao Cuo’s status and influence only grew stronger as a result.
In autumn, a peace treaty and marriage alliance were established with the Xiongnu.
On July 21, Tao Qing, the Marquis of Kaifeng and Grand Master of the Censorate, was appointed Chancellor. On August 2, Chao Cuo, the Interior Minister, was appointed Grand Master of the Censorate.
A comet appeared in the northeast.
During autumn, heavy rain and hail struck Hengshan, with some hailstones as large as five inches, and rainwater accumulating to a depth of two feet. Mars retrograded and stayed close to the North Star, while the moon passed through the North Star in an unusual manner. Saturn also retrograded and remained within the Supreme Palace Enclosure constellation.
Prince Xiao of Liang, the youngest son of Empress Dowager Dou and her favorite, controlled over forty cities and governed the most fertile lands in the country. He received endless rewards and gifts, with his treasury holding millions in gold coins and even more precious gems and treasures than the capital. He constructed the Eastern Park, which spanned over three hundred li, and expanded the city of Suiyang by seventy li. Grand palaces and covered walkways were built, connecting platforms over a distance of more than thirty miles. He gathered talented individuals from across the land, including Mei Sheng, Yan Ji from Wu, Yang Sheng, Gongsun Gui, and Zou Yang from Qi, and Sima Xiangru and others from Chu, who enjoyed his patronage and accompanied him in his leisurely pursuits.Whenever Prince Xiao of Liang came to court, the Emperor sent special envoys with insignia and imperial wagons to welcome him at the pass. Upon his arrival, his influence was unmatched. He rode with the Emperor in the same carriage during court sessions, and they would hunt and engage in archery together in the Imperial Forest. Prince Xiao frequently submitted memorials requesting to stay in the capital for an additional six months. The attendants, attendants-in-waiting, and internuncios of Liang were registered and allowed to enter and exit the imperial palace, resembling the eunuchs of the Han court.
The Great Wall in Dandong, Liaoning Province (Liaodong)
The 2nd year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (162 B.C.)
In the summer, the Emperor embarked on a journey to visit the Yuyang Palace in Yong County.
In June, Prince Xiao of Dai, Liu Can, passed away.
For several consecutive years, the Xiongnu had raided the border regions, causing extensive casualties and the plundering of both people and livestock. The most severely affected areas were Yunzhong and Liaodong, with over ten thousand people in each commandery. Troubled by this, the Emperor sent envoys with a letter to the Xiongnu. In response, the Chanyu (leader of the Xiongnu) dispatched a chieftain as an emissary to express gratitude. The court then renewed the peace treaty and marriage alliance with the Xiongnu.
On July 1, Chancellor Zhang Cang resigned from his position. The Emperor, considering Dou Guangguo, the Empress’ younger brother, to be capable and virtuous, wished to appoint him as the new Chancellor. However, he hesitated, concerned that such a move might be seen as favoritism towards his own family, potentially stirring discontent among the people.
The Emperor could not find any other suitable candidates among the remaining ministers who had served during the reign of Emperor Gaozu.
The Grand Master of the Censorate, Shentu Jia of the principality of Liang, had previously served under Emperor Gaozu as a strong-bow archer, capable of drawing a stiff bow with his feet. He had been granted the title of Marquis within Passes. On August 4, Shentu Jia was appointed Chancellor and received the title of Marquis of Gu’an. He was known for his integrity and uprightness, refusing to accept private audiences at his residence.
At that time, the Grandee of the Palace, Deng Tong, was held in great favor by the Emperor and was rewarded with lavish gifts and grants, amassing immense wealth. The Emperor often held banquets at Deng Tong‘s home, showing him exceptional favor.
Once, when Shentu Jia entered the court, Deng Tong peremptorily took a position close to the Emperor, displaying disrespectful behavior. After Shentu Jia presented his report, he remarked, “Your Majesty favors your darling associates, generously bringing them wealth and prestige as you please. But when it comes to court decorum, it must be observed with the utmost solemnity.”
The Emperor replied, “You need not speak further; this is my personal matter.”
After the court session, Shentu Jia, now in his office, sent an urgent message summoning Deng Tong. When Deng Tong did not appear, Shentu Jia ordered his execution. Fearing for his life, Deng Tong rushed to the Emperor and explained the situation. The Emperor responded, “Go to him first; I will send for you shortly.”
Deng Tong went to the Chancellor’s office, barefoot and uncapped, bowing deeply to plead for mercy to the Chancellor. Shentu Jia, however, remained seated, showing no courtesy, and sternly reprimanded him: “This court is that of Emperor Gaozu. You, a lowly official, behaved playfully and flippantly on the palace platform. By the rules, you should be executed! Officials, carry out the sentence!”
Deng Tong kowtowed incessantly, with blood dripping from his head, but Shentu Jia did not relent. Thinking that the Chancellor had given Deng Tong a hard time, the Emperor sent an envoy bearing the imperial insignia to summon Deng Tong and apologize to the Chancellor, “He is my playful servant. Please let him off.”
When Deng Tong returned, he wept and said to the Emperor, “The Chancellor almost had me killed!”
The 3rd year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (161 B.C.)
In February of that spring, the Emperor embarked on a journey to visit Dai Commandery.
This year, XiongnuLaoshang Chanyu passed away, and his son Junchen succeeded him as the new Chanyu.
The 4th year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (160 B.C.)
On April 30, there was a solar eclipse.
In May, there was a general amnesty declared throughout the entire empire.
The Emperor embarked on a journey to visit Yong County.
The 5th year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (159 B.C.)
In January of spring, the Emperor embarked on a journey to visit Longxi.
The 6th year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (158 B.C.)
In winter, 30,000 Xiongnu cavalry entered Shanggu County, and another 30,000 entered Yunzhong. They caused widespread killings and looting, with beacon fire signals reaching Ganquan County and Chang’an. The court appointed the Grandee of the Palace, Ling Mian, as General of Chariots and Cavalry, stationing him in Feihu Pass. Su Yi, the former Prime Minister of Chu, was appointed general at Gou’zhu Pass. General Zhang Wu was stationed in Beidi, while Zhou Yafu, Prefect of Henei, was appointed general at Xiliu. Liu Li, the Minister of the Imperial Clan, was stationed as general at Bashang, and Xu Li, the Marquis of Zhuzi, as general at Jimen—all in preparation against the Xiongnu threat.
The Emperor personally visited and encouraged the troops, starting from Bashang and moving to Jimen and other military camps. He rode directly into the camps, accompanied by the general and his officers on horseback. However, upon reaching the Xiliu camp, the soldiers and officers were fully armed with sharp weapons and loaded crossbows, refusing to allow the Emperor entry. The lead of the Emperor’s cavalcade announced, “The Emperor is arriving!” but the camp gate officer replied, “The general’s orders state that no one is allowed to gallop through the military camp.”
When the Emperor arrived, he still couldn’t enter. He then sent an envoy with the imperial insignia and a decree to the generals, stating, “I wish to enter the camp and personally show my appreciation to the troops.” Zhou Yafu transmitted the order to “open the camp gate.” The soldiers guarding the gate told the Chariots and Cavalry attendants, “The general has decreed that no galloping is allowed within the camp.” Thus, the Emperor proceeded slowly, holding the reins himself.
Upon arriving at the camp, General Zhou Yafu greeted him with his weapon in hand and saluted, saying, “Armored warriors do not bow. I request to greet you with military courtesy.” The Emperor, showing respect, solemnly placed his hands on the rail of the carriage and observed the military formation before expressing his gratitude to General Zhou: “The Emperor respectfully greets the General.” After leaving the camp, the court officials were amazed.
The Emperor remarked, “This is a real general indeed! The behavior of the generals at Bashang and Jimen was like child’s play. They are vulnerable to surprise attacks and capture. But Zhou Yafu is truly invincible!” The Emperor praised him constantly.
After a month, both the Han forces and the Xiongnu withdrew from the border, and peace was restored. Zhou Yafu was then appointed Commandant of the capital guard.
In April of summer, a severe drought and locust infestation struck. An order was issued for the principalities to suspend their tributary offerings. Restrictions on exploiting mountains and marshes were relaxed to allow more hunting and fishing, and expenses for imperial clothing and transportation were reduced. The number of government officials and attendants was also decreased. Granaries were opened to provide relief to the people, and citizens were permitted to sell or buy ranks and titles.
The 15th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (165 B.C.)
In the spring, the appearance of yellow dragons was reported in Chengji County. The Emperor summoned Gongsun Chen and appointed him as erudite, instructing him to clarify the essence of earth alongside other scholars and draft revisions to the calendar and the colors of official attire. As a result, Zhang Cang became despondent and resigned.
In April of summer, the Emperor made his first visit to Yong County, where he performed the imperial sacrifice to the Five Color Emperors in the suburban area. He also granted a general amnesty to the entire nation.
In September, a decree was issued instructing princes, ministers, and prefects to recommend virtuous and outspoken individuals who could offer strong remonstrances. The Emperor personally reviewed their recommendations. Chao Cuo, the Majordomo of the Crown Prince, presented a top-ranked proposal and was promoted to Grandee of the Palace. Additionally, Chao Cuo submitted a memorial proposing the reduction of the powers of the vassal kings and the revision of certain liege laws, totaling thirty articles. Although the Emperor did not fully implement all of his suggestions, he admired Chao Cuo‘s talent and abilities.
That same year, both Prince Wen of Qi, Liu Ze, and Prince Ai of Hejian, Liu Fu, passed away without leaving heirs, leading to the dissolution of their respective princedoms.
A man named Xinyuan Ping from Zhao, skilled in divination and feng shui, obtained an audience with the emperor. He informed the emperor of a divine aura with five vibrant colors in the northeast of Chang’an. In response, the Emperor ordered the construction of the Temple of the Five Emperors on the north bank of the Wei River.
The 16th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (164 B.C.)
In April of that year, during the summer, the Emperor performed the suburban sacrifice to the Supreme Deity at the Temple of the Five Emperors, north of the Wei River. At the time, Xinyuan Ping was highly honored and appointed as a senior Grandee, receiving generous rewards, including a thousand catties of gold. The Emperor also instructed erudites and their students to examine the Six Classics, compile them into the book Imperial System, and deliberate on matters concerning imperial hunting tours and Fengshan (sacrificial ceremonies worshiping heaven and earth). Additionally, an Altar of the Five Emperors was erected north of Changmen Pavilion.
The Prince of Huainan, Liu Xi, was relocated and reinstated as the Prince of Chengyang. Furthermore, the kingdom of Qi was divided into six separate principalities. On April 17, six sons of the late Prince Dǎohuì of Qi, who were alive, were enfeoffed as follows: Liu Jianglü, Marquis of Yangxu, became the Prince of Qi; Liu Zhi, Marquis of Andu, became the Prince of Jibei; Liu Xian, Marquis of Wucheng, became the Prince of Zichuan; Liu Xiongqu, Marquis of Baishi, became the Prince of Jiaodong; Liu Ang, Marquis of Pingchang, became the Prince of Jiaoxi; and Liu Piguang, Marquis of Le, became the Prince of Jinan.
As for the three surviving sons of the late Prince Li of Huainan: Liu An, Marquis of Fuling, became the Prince of Huainan; Liu Bo, Marquis of Anyang, became the Prince of Hengshan; and Liu Ci, Marquis of Yangzhou, became the Prince of Lujiang.
In September of autumn, Xinyuan Ping sent someone to present a jade cup and a written memorial to the Emperor at the palace entrance. Xinyuan Ping then told the Emperor, “There is a precious jade aura approaching beneath the throne.” Upon inspection, the cup was indeed made of jade, engraved with the words “Longevity to the Lord.” Xinyuan Ping further remarked, “Your Majesty, I anticipated that the sun would reach high noon twice.” Shortly after, the Sun reversed its course and returned to the high noon position. Consequently, the Emperor proclaimed the beginning of a new era, marking the seventeenth year of his reign as the first year of the new era, and ordered a grand celebration throughout the empire.
Xinyuan Ping foretold, “The Zhou tripod was lost in the waters of the Si River. Now that the Yellow River has breached its banks and connected with the Si River, I suspect there may be precious metal treasures in northeastern Fenyin County. It is possible that the Zhou tripod cauldrons has emerged there! Signs are visible, but if not welcomed, they will not arrive.” Subsequently, the Emperor dispatched officials to build a temple in the south of Fenyin, near the Yellow River, with the intent of honoring the emergence of the Zhou tripod cauldrons.
The 1st year of the Emperor Wen’s Later Era (163 B.C.)
In October of winter, someone submitted a letter accusing Xinyuan Ping of deceit, claiming that “all his statements were lies and fraud.” Upon investigation, Xinyuan Ping was executed along with his clan. After this incident, the Emperor was less enthusiastic about matters such as calendar rectification, the official color of court attire, and the worship of various deities. The Temple of the Five Emperors north of the Wei River and the Altar of the Five Emperors at Changmen Pavilion were placed under the supervision of the official responsible for sacrificial ceremonies, and the Emperor no longer visited them personally.
In March of spring, Empress Dowager Zhang, the widow of Emperor Hui, passed away.
An imperial decree stated: “In recent years, the harvests have not been abundant. Moreover, there have been calamities such as floods, droughts, and epidemics, which deeply concern me. We, being ignorant and lacking understanding, have yet to grasp the reasons behind these misfortunes. Is it due to faults in my governance and actions? Or is it that the heavenly principles are not in harmony, the earthly advantages are not obtained, human affairs are in disarray, and the neglect of ancestral and divine worship rites has caused this? What has led to this situation? Perhaps officials are not sufficiently compensated, and unnecessary projects abound? Is this the reason for the scarcity or poor quality of the people’s food? It is not that the amount of cultivated land has decreased, and the census has not shown significant population growth. When measuring the land in proportion to the population, there should still be a surplus as in ancient times, yet why is there such a severe shortage of food? Where does the fault lie? Is it because many people engage in non-agricultural activities that harm farming, or because alcohol production wastes grain, and a multitude of livestock consume too much food meant for humans? We have not fully grasped the intricacies of this matter.
“Therefore, We request that the Chancellor, the marquises, the officials of two thousand piculs rank, and the erudites discuss this matter. If there are any measures that can assist the people, we implore you to think deeply and not withhold any opinion!”
The 14th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (166 B.C.)
In the winter, Laoshang Chanyu of the Xiongnu led 140,000 cavalry and invaded Chaona County and Xiao Pass, killing the Commandant of Beidi Commandery, Sun Ang, and capturing a large number of people and livestock. They advanced to Pengyang County and sent elite troops in a surprise attack to burn down the Huizhong palace. Their reconnaissance cavalry even reached Yong County and Ganquan County.
The Emperor appointed Zhou She, the Commandant of the imperial guard, and Zhang Wu, the Chamberlain, as generals. They mobilized a force of 1,000 chariots and 100,000 cavalry to guard the outskirts of Chang’an, preparing to defend against the Xiongnu invaders. The Emperor also appointed the Marquis of Chang, Lu Qing, as General of Shangjun; the Marquis of Ning, Wei Chi, as General of Beidi; and the Marquis of Longlü, Zhou Zao, as General of Longxi, stationing them in the three commanderies of Beidi, Shangjun, and Longxi. The Emperor personally visited the troops, issued military orders, and bestowed rewards upon the officers and soldiers, intending to lead an expedition against the Xiongnu himself. His ministers’ advice against it, he did not listen. Only after the Empress Dowager strongly objected did he relent. As a result, Zhang Xiangru, the Marquis of Dongyang, was appointed Grand General, while Dong Chi, the Marquis of Cheng, and Luan Bu, the Minister of Interior, were also appointed as generals to lead the attack on the Xiongnu. The Chanyu remained within the borders for over a month before departing. The Han forces pursued them beyond the borders but returned immediately, unable to inflict any casualties.
As he passed by the office of the gentlemen-in-waiting, the Emperor asked the Director of the gentlemen-in-waiting, Feng Tang, “Where is your venerable ancestral home?”
Feng Tang replied, “My grandfather was from Zhao, and my father moved to Dai.”
The Emperor said, “When I lived in Dai, the chief of the imperial kitchen, Gao Qu, often praised the talented Zhao general Li Qi, who fought in the Battle of Julu. Even now, whenever I have a meal, my thoughts always turn to Julu. Do your venerable know Li Qi?”
The Emperor, clutching his thigh, exclaimed, “Alas! If only I had Lian Po and Li Mu as my generals, would I still worry about the Xiongnu?”
Feng Tang responded, “Even if Your Majesty had Lian Po and Li Mu, you would not be able to utilize them.”
The Emperor was offended, stood up, and entered the Forbidden Chamber. After some time, he summoned Feng Tang and reproached him, saying, “How dare you insult me in front of so many people? Couldn’t you find a private moment to say that?”
Feng Tang apologized, replying, “I, a lowly person, did not realize what was inappropriate.”
Still concerned about the Xiongnu, the Emperor eventually asked Feng Tang again, “How do you know that I cannot use Lian Po and Li Mu effectively?”
Feng Tang responded, “I have heard that in ancient times, when kings dispatched generals, they would kneel and push the axle of the chariot, saying, ‘The things within the palace gates, I control them; those outside, the general commands.’ Military achievements, their merits, and the rewards were all determined by the generals in the field, not reviewed by central authorities. The rewards were only reported to the court when they returned from action. This is not mere hearsay.
“My grandfather said that when Li Mu served as a general of Zhao, he governed the border and used the proceeds from the military markets to feast with the soldiers. Rewards and gifts were distributed within the camp without interference from the central government. By entrusting him with responsibility and holding him accountable for success, the king fully utilized Li Mu‘s intelligence and abilities. Li Mu selected 1,300 chariots, 13,000 cavalry, and recruited 100,000 skilled soldiers. With this force, he drove the Xiongnu Chanyu out of the north, defeated the Donghu, annihilated the Danlin (also known as Chanlan) tribe, restrained the strong Qin forces to the west, and supported Han and Wei to the south. At that time, Zhao was on the verge of dominance.
“However, after King Zhao Qian ascended the throne, Guo Kai spread slanderous rumors, leading to Li Mu‘s execution, and Yan Ju took his place. As a result, the army was defeated, and the soldiers were captured and annihilated by Qin.”
“I have heard that Wei Shang used the proceeds from the military market to provide for the soldiers during his tenure as Prefect of Yunzhong Commandery. He slaughtered a cow every five days to reward guests, military officers, and attendants from his own salary. As a result, the Xiongnu kept their distance and did not approach the borders of Yunzhong. When the enemy invaded, Wei Shang personally led the cavalry in a counterattack and killed a great number of them. The soldiers, being sons of farming families, left their fields to serve in the army. How can they be expected to understand the military merit book and team registry? They fight all day, beheading enemies and capturing prisoners. Yet, when they submit their merits to the military headquarters, they are subject to judicial scrutiny if their reports cannot be verified. The civil officials, bound by law, must enforce it, and while the soldiers’ rewards are delayed, their punishments are promptly carried out. In my humble opinion, Your Majesty’s rewards are too meager, and the punishments too severe.
“Furthermore, when Wei Shang, the Prefect of Yunzhong, was accused of a discrepancy of merely six head counts in the recognition of enemy kills, Your Majesty handed him over to the judicial officers, stripped him of his rank, and imposed a one-year prison sentence. Based on this, even if Your Majesty had Lian Po and Li Mu, you would not be able to fully utilize them!”
The Emperor was pleased by the critique. That very day, he ordered Feng Tang to carry the imperial insignia to pardon Wei Shang, releasing him from prison and reinstating him as the Prefect of Yunzhong. Feng Tang was also appointed as the Commandant of the Chariots and Cavalry.
In the spring, a decree was issued to significantly expand the altars and ceremonial offerings of jade and silk for various sacrificial rituals. The decree stated, ‘We have heard that the officials in charge of sacrificial ceremonies attribute blessings solely to mine and not to the people. We are deeply ashamed of this. It reflects my own lack of virtue to enjoy exclusive blessings while the people are left out. Therefore, We command the sacrificial officials to pray without making any specific requests for mine.’
That same year, Prince Wen of Hejian, Liu Piqiang, passed away.
Initially, Chancellor Zhang Cang believed that the Han Dynasty was aligned with the essence of water, while Gongsun Chen of Lu believed it should be associated with the essence of earth, citing the sighting of a yellow dragon as evidence. However, Zhang Cang dismissed this, arguing it was senseless and rejecting the proposal to adopt yellow official gowns.
The 13th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (167 B.C.)
In Spring, on February 16, an imperial edict was issued: “We personally lead the farming activities throughout the country to ensure an abundant harvest, and the Empress personally tends the mulberry trees and cultivates silkworms to provide sacrificial attire. Study and work out the proper rituals.”
During the Qin dynasty, there existed a secret office of diviners who had secret prayer. Whenever there were signs of disaster or auspicious events, they would attribute to officials in lower positions, shifting away from the emperor. In the summer, an imperial edict was issued, stating: “It is widely known that the heavenly mandate brings calamity through grievances and prosperity through virtue. If there are any shortcomings among the various officials, it should be attributed to mine personally. Now, the office of secret prayer, which shifts blame to others, highlights my lack of virtue, and I strongly reject it. Eliminate it!”
The Magistrate of the Taicang (Grand Granary) in the principality of Qi, Chunyu Yi, was found guilty of a crime and was to be punished. An imperial edict ordered his arrest and detention in Chang’an. His young daughter, Chunyu Tiying, wrote a memorial: “My father served as an official, and his integrity and fairness were acclaimed throughout Qi. Now he is being subjected to the punishment of the law. I am deeply saddened by the fact that the deceased cannot be revived, and those subjected to punishment cannot be restored. Even if he were to desire to reform and start anew, there would be no way to do so. I am willing to offer myself as a maidservant to the government, in order to redeem my father’s criminal punishment and allow him the chance to be reinvigorated.”
The Emperor, moved by her plea, showed compassion. An imperial edict was issued in May: “The Book of Songs states: ‘O my amical and warmhearted lord, you are the people’s father and mother.’ Currently, when people commit wrongdoings, punishment is imposed before education has been given. Some may desire to change their ways and do good, but they have no opportunity to do so. We deeply sympathize with them! Physical punishment inflicts severe harm on the body, carving into the flesh and leaving lifelong scars or even being infertile. Such painful punishment is immoral. Is this in line with the intentions of being a parent to the people? Let us abolish corporal punishment and find alternative methods. Also, let it be known that offenders will be punished with prison terms according to the severity of their crimes, and after a certain number of years, they will be released as long as they have not fled. Draft the necessary laws!”
Chancellor Zhang Cang and Grand Master of the Censorate Feng Jing submitted a proposal to amend the laws as follows: “For those sentenced to have their heads and faces shaved, men shall be punished with hard labor, such as building city walls, while women shall be assigned to pound or husk rice. For those sentenced to face-branding, they shall be shaved, shackled, and subjected to hard labor. For those sentenced to have their noses cut off, they shall be flogged three hundred times. For those sentenced to the amputation of their left toe, they shall be flogged five hundred times. For those sentenced to the amputation of their right toe, including murderers who turned them in, officials who accept bribes, distort justice, embezzle government assets, or steal entrusted property, who, after being punished, commit another offense deserving flogging, they shall all be sentenced to public beheading. For those whose criminal cases have been adjudicated, and for those already subjected to hard labor, there shall be a designated number of years of imprisonment, after which they shall be freed.”
The Emperor approved the proposal.
At that time, the Emperor personally practiced Daoism’s Politics of non-intervention, while the ministers and generals were mostly veteran figures of merit, with fewer literary talents and more practical experience. To correct the excesses and eradicate the governance style of the Qin dynasty, discussions focused on leniency and forgiveness, avoiding the humiliation of exposing people’s faults, and sought to transform the national atmosphere. The prevailing culture of accusation and denunciation was gradually fading. Officials were content in their roles, and the people found joy in their occupations. Wealth and resources accumulated year after year, and the population steadily grew. People treated each other with respect and kindness, with far fewer prohibitions. Suspects were treated fairly, leading to a significant reduction in punishments. Only four hundred convictions occurred across the empire each year. It became increasingly common to resort to criminal laws less frequently.
In June, an imperial edict was issued, stating: “Agriculture is the foundation of the nation, and no task is greater than its cultivation. At present, the people diligently engage in agriculture, yet they are burdened with taxes and levies. This blurs the distinction between the essential (agriculture) and the superficial (commerce). The promotion of agricultural endeavors has not been fully realized. Therefore, we should abolish taxes on farmland.”
Shennong, the Divine Farmer By Guo Xu (1456–c.1529)
The 12th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (168 B.C.)
In December, during the winter, the Yellow River burst its banks in Suanzao County, breaching the Jindi levee and flooding Dongjun Commandery. A large number of soldiers from Dongjun Commandery were mobilized to repair the breach.
In March, during the spring, the checkpoints and city passes between regions were eliminated, and travel no longer required permits (tallies).
“When a virtuous ruler is in power, the people do not suffer from cold or hunger. This is not because the ruler can farm and feed them or weave and clothe them, but because the ruler has opened up channels for resources and wealth. During Emperor Yao’s nine years of flooding and King Tang of Shang’s seven years of drought, there were no starved corpses on the roads or bones left scattered because they had stocked up plenty of food and prepared in advance.
“Yet today, although the world is unified and the population and land are no less than during the times of King Tang of Shang or Yu the Great, and although there have been no floods or droughts in many years, why is there still a lack of food reserves? The land holds untapped resources, the people have energy to spare, the fertile land is still uncultivated, and the mountains and rivers remain underutilized. Many people wander idly, not having returned to farming.
“When people are cold, they do not wait for fine clothes, but cover themselves with whatever they have; when hungry, they do not wait for delicacies, but seek food to stave off hunger. If hunger and cold persist, dignity is forgotten. If a person eats only once a day, they remain hungry. If they make clothes only once a year, they remain cold. When one’s stomach growls with hunger and skin shivers from cold, even the most loving mother cannot comfort her child. How then can a ruler claim the support of his people if they are left uncared for?
“A wise ruler knows this and thus prioritizes agriculture and textile production, imposes light taxes, encourages saving, fills the granaries, and prepares for floods and droughts, so the people are provided for. The ruler must herd his people, and they will pursue their own interests naturally, like water flowing downward, indifferent to direction.
“The value of pearls, jade, gold, and silver does not lie in their ability to satiate hunger or provide warmth, but in their appeal to the wealthy. These items are portable, easily carried without concern for hunger or cold. This ease of transport leads to ministers betraying their lords, people abandoning their homes, and bandits and thieves being lured, while fugitives can easily acquire resources. By contrast, crops like grain, rice, silk, and cloth are grown from the land and require time and effort to cultivate. Their weight makes them difficult for the average person to carry, and they are not easy targets for tricksters. Yet without them, people go hungry and cold even for a day. Therefore, wise rulers value crops over precious items like gold and jade.”
“Currently, a farming family of five requires at least two members to serve in public duties, yet their land rarely exceeds 100 mu[Chinese acre], and their harvest seldom surpasses 100 piculs of grain. They work tirelessly throughout the year, plowing and sowing in spring, tilling in summer, harvesting in autumn, and storing in winter. In addition to this, they must gather firewood, construct government buildings, and provide labor for those in power. They endure harsh conditions—dusty winds in spring, scorching heat in summer, relentless rains in autumn, and bitter cold in winter—without respite. Moreover, they must attend to personal matters such as delivering messages, entertaining friends, attending funerals, caring for the sick, and looking after the elderly and the young.
“Despite their hard work, they remain vulnerable to natural disasters and untimely taxes, whimsical policy changes. Some farmers are even forced to sell their grain at half price during times of need, while others have incurred crippling debt from loans with exorbitant interest rates. Many have been compelled to sell their land, homes, and even their wife and children to repay these debts. Meanwhile, large merchants hoard grain and lend at high interest, while small merchants and traders exploit their advantageous positions, amassing wealth by manipulating prices in the marketplace. These merchants, who live in luxury, neither till the land nor weave cloth or cultivate silkworms. They wear vibrant clothing and feast on fine meats and cereals, far removed from the labor of the fields, all while collecting wealth in the tens of thousands of coins.
“Their riches afford them influence with nobles and kings, giving them more power than government officials. They ride plump horses and solid carriages, wearing silk boots and white satin, traveling thousands of miles to visit one another, their carriages jamming the traffic. This is why merchants have come to dominate farmers, forcing many of them to abandon their homes.
“To remedy this situation, we must encourage a renewed focus on farming. One solution is to raise the societal value of grain. This can be done by rewarding people with titles and pardons in exchange for contributing grain to government stockpiles. The wealthy can gain titles, farmers can earn money, and surplus grain can be used to reduce the tax burden on the poor. By taking surplus grain from those who have it and using it to meet government needs, we can reduce taxes on the less fortunate. This principle of redistributing the surplus to support the deficient benefits the people immediately through new government policies.
“Under current policies, anyone who contributes a horse-drawn chariot is exempt from military service for three individuals, as the chariot strengthens the military. This requirement for military contributions is necessary. As the ancient teachings of Shennong(Devine Farmer) remind us, ‘Without grain, even a city with ten-meter-high walls, a hundred-meter-wide moat, and a hundred thousand armored soldiers cannot be defended.’ Thus, grain is the most vital resource for a ruler and the foundation of governance.
“At present, we allow plebeians to offer grain in exchange for titles up to Grandee Five and above, which exempts one man from draft duty. This is a greater sacrifice than contributing a chariot, as titles are bestowed by those in power without limit, whereas grain must be produced by farmers. Obtaining high titles and avoiding punishment is something everyone desires. By allowing people throughout the country to offer grain to the frontier in exchange for titles and immunity from punishment, within three years, the borders will have abundant grain stored.”
The Emperor agreed and decreed that the people should contribute grain to the border, with noble titles granted in proportion to the amount contributed.
Chao Cuo wrote again, “Your Majesty’s decree to allow people to contribute grain to the border in exchange for ranks and noble titles is a great favor. However, I fear that the grain supply for the border troops will not be sufficient, thus requesting a massive transport of grain from across the country. When border supply is enough to sustain the troops for five years, it would be better to allow grain to be contributed to the granary of the local counties. Once the local counties have enough supply for more than a year, we can exempt their taxes and not collect rent from farmers. By doing so, the kindness and benevolence of the emperor will be extended to all the people, and they will work harder on farms and become richer and happier.”
The Emperor adopted the suggestion and issued a decree, “The way to benefit the people lies in focusing on agriculture. We personally led the farming efforts throughout the empire for ten years, but the cultivated land has not been expanded, and people starve as soon as there is a bad harvest. This is because an insufficient population is working on agriculture , and local officials have not emphasized the importance of farming to the people. We have issued several decrees encouraging people to plant trees, but there has been little progress because officials are not diligent and do not explain to the people properly. Furthermore, the farmers are suffering greatly, but the officials have not paid attention to their plight. How can we achieve success in agriculture in this situation? Give half of this year’s taxes to the farmers as a gift return.”
“I have heard that when Qin raised an army to attack the Nomads and Yue, it was not to defend the borders or save lives but out of greed and a desire for expansion. As a result, no achievements were secured, and the world descended into chaos. Moreover, raising an army without understanding the situation leads to soldiers being captured in battle or starving to death in besieged camps.
“The people of the northern Nomads and Yemaek tribes are accustomed to cold weather, while those of the Yangzhou and Yue tribes are accustomed to heat. Qin soldiers on the borders could not tolerate these environments. The garrisoned troops perished beyond the borders, while the laborers transporting supplies died on the roads. When Qin citizens saw these men depart, it was as if they were being sent to a public execution. They were sent away as punishment, labeled ‘ousted frontiers.’
“Banished officials, uxorilocal sons-in-laws, registered merchants, and those who had once been merchants were the first to be sent away. Later, the selection extended to those whose grandparents or parents had been merchants, and then to the poor and lowly in the community. The selection process was disorganized, and those chosen felt bitterness. They faced great danger, yet received no compensation if they were injured or killed in battle. Even with the death of soldiers, their families received not even a head tax refund for a year. People throughout the land knew that violent tyranny was imposed on them.
“Chen Sheng led troops on a garrison mission at Daze Township and became the first to lead an uprising. Soon, people across the realm followed him like flowing water. That was a direct consequence of Qin‘s oppressive conscription and threatening people with violence.”
“The livelihood of the nomads is not tied to the land, allowing them to easily disrupt the borders by constantly moving back and forth. This is the nomadic way of life and also the reason the people of the Middle Kingdom have abandoned their farms. The nomads often roam and hunt near the border, waiting for an opportunity to attack when the guard is weak. If the emperor does not send aid, the people on the border will lose hope and may surrender to the enemy. If aid is sent in insufficient numbers or arrives too late, the nomads would already have fled.
“Continuously gathering and dispersing troops is costly, but if the troops are disbanded, the nomads will return. Year after year, this will impoverish the Middle Kingdom and make the people discontent. Your Majesty’s concern for the border is a great kindness, and sending officials and troops to manage it is commendable. However, the troops stationed there are rotated annually and are unfamiliar with the nomads’ capabilities. It would be wiser to select people who already live in the border regions, grant them land for cultivation, and prepare them for defense. Build high walls and deep moats, establish cities and towns in strategic locations and at river confluences, but settle no fewer than a thousand households in any place.
“First, provide them with housing and farming tools, and then recruit more settlers. Those who enlist will receive pardons, ranks, and titles, and their inland families would receive tax and corvee exemptions. They will be given winter and summer clothing, as well as enough food until they are self-sufficient. If the people on the border do not have a greater income, they cannot remain in such dangerous places for long. If the nomads drive them away and steal their livestock, those who fight back and recover the spoils will keep half. The other half will be bought by the county government and returned to their original owners.
“If the people on the border are treated this way, the villages will support each other and risk their lives to resist the barbarians. This is not due to their virtue, but to protect their families and wealth. Compared to soldiers from the east, who are unfamiliar with the terrain and fearful of the nomads, this strategy is ten thousand times more effective. By relocating people to the border during your reign, you can eliminate the need for distant garrisons. Fathers and sons living on the border will protect one another and their families, removing the fear of captivity. Your wise policies will benefit future generations and earn you the reputation of a just and enlightened ruler—one far different from Qin‘s, whose people were full of grievances.”
The emperor adopted Chao Cuo’s advice and recruited people to settle the border areas.
“Your Majesty’s decision to recruit and relocate people to the frontier is of great benefit. It will reduce the need for military garrisons and lower the costs of transportation and supplies. If local officials follow the law, care for the elderly and weak kindly, and treat the young and strong well without oppressing them, the first settlers will be comfortable and content, and they will not long for their old homes. Then, the poor will be motivated to follow by envy, encouraging one another to relocate.
“I have heard that in ancient times, when people were relocated, they would first balance the yin and yang, test the water and springs, and then build towns, establish cities, divide the land, and allocate house sites. They would construct houses first and acquire the necessary tools. Once the people had a place to live, they could work and put those tools to use. This is why people were willing to leave their hometowns and move to new settlements. The government must send doctors and priests to the colonies to help with illness and worship. They assisted in arranging marriages, raising children, and conducting burials. They planted trees and herded livestock. The houses were secure and fully equipped, fostering a love for the new homes and a desire to stay.
“I have also heard that in ancient times, to defend against enemies, five families formed a team, and the team had a leader. Ten team leaders formed a neighborhood, led by a lieutenant sergeant. Four neighborhoods formed a company, with a lieutenant captain (deputy 500). Ten companies formed a town, overseen by a deputy commander. These leaders were chosen from among the talented and responsible, those who knew the terrain and understood the people. They trained the residents in archery at home and prepared them for going to battle when engaging with the enemy. Their rank and file was internally formed already, so when the army was mobilized to defend against external threats, military and political orders were executed seamlessly. The soldiers were well-trained and disciplined, not allowed to migrate to other places. They played together in youth and worked together as adults. In night battles, they could recognize each other by sound, and in day battles, by sight. Their mutual loyalty was so strong that they were willing to die for one another.
“With encouragement and rewards, along with strict punishments, they never turned back in battle. However, those who are not strong and capable should not be relocated to the border, as it would waste resources. Even if they are strong, without good officials, their efforts will be in vain.
“Your Majesty, if you refuse to make peace with the Xiongnu, I humbly believe they will invade southward during the winter. Securing the border will leave a lasting impression. If you choose to punish their harassment, it should be a fatal blow. To establish your authority, preparations must begin in autumn. If they are allowed to escape, they will regain strength and become even more difficult to conquer in the future.”
Chao Cuo, known for his sharp and abrasive nature, earned the favor of the Crown Prince through his debating skills. The Crown Prince’s family affectionately referred to him as “the master mind.”
The 11th year of the Emperor Wen of Early Era (169 B.C.)
In November of winter, the Emperor traveled to the principality of Dai, returning to the capital in January of spring.
In June, during the summer, Prince Huai of Liang, Liu Yi, died without an heir. Jia Yi once again presented a memorial to the Emperor:
“If your Majesty does not establish a clear policy on the vassal states now, the situation will continue to worsen. The principalities, with only one or two generations of succession, act independently and are not constrained by the central court. As they grow stronger and more assertive, the laws of Han will no longer be enforced. Your Majesty’s barriers and the Crown Prince’s foundation rest with two key principalities: Huaiyang (Liu Wu) and Dai (Liu Can).
“Dai borders the powerful Xiongnu in the north, and would have done more than its due if it could defend itself. However, compared to the other powerful princedoms, Huaiyang is like a mole on the face—significant enough to tempt larger states but not strong enough to resist their advances. Your Majesty holds all the power, yet you allow your son’s fief to serve as bait for these larger princedoms. This is not a sound strategy.
“I humbly propose this: Take land from the princedom of Huainan to strengthen the princedom Huaiyang and establish a successor for the Prince of Liang. You could grant two or three cities in northern Huaiyang, along with the Dongjun Commandery, to the Princedom of Liang, thereby enlarging it. Alternatively, you could relocate the Prince of Dai to Suiyang as the new capital of Liang. The Principality of Liang would then stretch from Xinqi county to the Yellow River in the north, while Huaiyang would encompass the old Chen kingdom, reaching the Yangtze River in the south.
“If this plan is implemented, the other princes will be too intimidated to rebel against the empire. The principality of Liang will be able to defend against the principalities of Qi and Zhao, and Huaiyang will be able to shield the empire from the principalities of Wu and Chu. This strategy will ensure Your Majesty can rest easy, free from worries in the east, and will provide stability for at least two generations.
“Your Majesty currently enjoys a time of peace while the princes are still young, but in a few years, the threat they pose will become evident. Qin worked tirelessly to eliminate the problems posed by the six states, and now, Your Majesty directs the empire to your satisfaction with your fingers or facial expression, holding all the power to act. But if you idly allow the princedoms to grow into six powerful states once again, it would be difficult to say that your Majesty was a wise ruler.
“Even if nothing happens in Your Majesty’s lifetime, the troubles are simmering beneath the surface, and by doing nothing, you will leave them for your elderly mother and young children to grapple with after your passing. This is not the act of a benevolent ruler.”
The Emperor followed Jia Yi‘s advice and relocated the Prince of Huaiyang to become the Prince of Liang. He was granted over forty large counties, including Mount Tai in the north and Gaoyang County in the west. Jia Yi passed away a year later at the age of 33.
The Emperor also relocated the Prince of Chengyang, Liu Xi, appointing him as the new Prince of Huainan.
Meanwhile, the Xiongnu have begun invading Didao county.
At this time, the Xiongnu posed a frequent threat to the border. The Crown Prince’s majordomo, Chao Cuo, submitted a military proposal:
“The Art of War says, ‘There are commanders who are certain to win, but there is no such nation which is sure to win.’ From this, we understand that to defend the border and achieve military success, it is essential to select capable commanders.
“I have also heard that three factors are crucial in winning a battle: the terrain, the training of the troops, and the quality of their armory. The Art of War teaches that different terrains require different strategies for infantry, cavalry, archery, pikes, spears, swords, and shields. Ten soldiers using the wrong tactics are no match for one soldier using the right tactics.
“If officers are not selected from the best, and soldiers do not willingly practice; if they are careless in their daily routines and lack proper training; if they cannot move swiftly to seize opportunities or retreat in an organized manner when necessary; if the front engages in battle while the rear is in disarray; if they fail to respond to the signals of drums and trumpets from their commanders, then it is a failure of discipline and training. A hundred such untrained soldiers are no match for ten well-trained ones.”
“If the weapons are not of good quality, they are as useless as empty hands. If the armor is not strong and secure, it is as ineffective as wearing no protection at all. If bows and arrows cannot hit their targets, they are no better than daggers, and if arrows cannot penetrate the enemy’s armor, they are as ineffective as arrows with no heads. This is the greatest danger for commanders who neglect the upkeep of their weaponry and equipment. Five ill-equipped soldiers are no match for one well-equipped soldier.
“Moreover, the Art of War states: ‘If the equipment is inadequate, the soldiers are lost to the enemy; if the troops are not well-trained, the general is lost to the enemy; if the general is ignorant of military affairs, the ruler is lost to the enemy; and if the ruler fails to select capable generals, the state is lost to the enemy.’ These four factors are the most critical in warfare.
“I have also heard that states of different sizes adopt different styles, states with varying strengths and weaknesses take different positions, and defending regions with different geographical features requires different preparations. Humbly serving a larger state is a self-preserving strategy for smaller states. Defending against a stronger enemy with a coalition of weaker forces is the position of a state of equal strength. Driving barbarians to attack other barbarians is a strategy of the Middle Kingdom, like Han.
“The Xiongnu‘s terrain and tactics differ greatly from those of the Middle Kingdom. They excel in navigating mountains and hills, crossing streams and gorges, and their horses are faster than ours. On difficult terrain, whether riding or shooting, the Han cavalry cannot compare to the Xiongnu. When facing fatigue from wind and rain, or enduring hunger and thirst, the people of the Middle Kingdom are no match for the Xiongnu.
“These are Xiongnu‘s strengths. However, they are vulnerable on open plains to sudden attacks by chariots and cavalry ambushes. They cannot withstand strong bows or long spears used for long-range attacks, nor can they resist the disciplined formations of the Middle Kingdom’s troops—organized into groups of five soldiers and teams of ten, moving in unison, equipped with a mix of long and short weapons and wearing metal armor. The detachments of crossbowmen and archers can easily overpower their leather outfits and wooden shields as our skilled artisans produce powerful bows and precise arrows; The Xiongnu are no match for the Middle Kingdom’s foot soldiers in close combat or the cavalry’s charge. These are the strengths of the Middle Kingdom.
“Considering all of this, the Xiongnu possess three key strengths, while the Middle Kingdom has five. Your Majesty plans to deploy hundreds of thousands of troops to defeat the Xiongnu, who number only in the tens of thousands. This is a strategy of overwhelming force.
“However, war is a dangerous and unpredictable endeavor. Sometimes, what is large becomes small, and what is strong turns weak in an instant. The risk of losing lives in battle is great, and once they are lost, there is no chance of recovery. The way of an emperor and a king is to take every precaution and ensure full preparation.
“Currently, there are thousands of people from the Nomads, Yiqu, and other barbarian tribes who have surrendered to us. They share the lifestyle and skills as the Xiongnu. We should equip them with sturdy armor, warm clothing, strong bows, and sharp arrows, reinforcing them with the elite cavalry from the border regions. Experienced generals who understand their customs and can unite their hearts should be appointed by Your Majesty.
“In treacherous terrain, these forces should bear the brunt of the fighting. On flat terrain, the empire’s chariots and skilled archers should be deployed. Both armies should use their respective strengths, complementing each other with reinforcements. This is a fail-safe strategy.”
The Emperor appreciated Chao Cuo‘s advice and wrote back to him as encouragement.
“The ruler is like a hall, his officials like the steps leading up to it, and the people like the ground below. If the steps are nine levels high and far from the ground, then the hall is elevated. If the steps are level with the ground, then the hall is low. Thus, in ancient times, wise kings created a hierarchical system, with chancellors, ministers, officers, and scholars within the court, and noble ranks—duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron—outside the court. Among the plebeians were officers and local bureaucrats, as well as common people. This system was carefully structured, with the Son of Heaven at its apex, ensuring that his position was beyond coveting.”
“The proverb says, ‘Beware of the vessel when pelting a rat.’ This is an apt analogy. When the rat is near a vessel, one hesitates to strike it, fearing damage to the vessel. How much more should this apply to a noble minister near their ruler? By observing proper etiquette and ethical conduct, a ruler can discipline ministers without degrading their dignity. Thus, there have been cases where a minister was allowed to commit suicide rather than suffer brutality. Punishments such as branding the face or cutting off the nose do not apply to grandees because of their proximity to the ruler. According to etiquette, a subordinate must not check the age of an emperor’s horse by examining its teeth, and there is punishment for kicking the fodder of imperial carriage horses to prevent ministers from showing disrespect towards the ruler. Today, even the nobility—kings, marquesses, and the Three Excellencies—are treated with respect by the Son of Heaven, just as ancient emperors referred to their elders as ‘uncles.’
“And yet, if we implement laws such as branding, cutting off the nose, shaving hair, amputation, flogging, or beheading in the market, is this not like a hall without a staircase? Are those who suffer such humiliation too close to the Sovereign? Without due respect, will ministers wielding significant power and holding important positions be reduced to criminals and slaves with no sense of shame? That the Second Emperor of Qin was slew in Wangyi Palace, punished to the full extent of the law, was another example of pelting rats without protecting the vessel.
“I have heard the saying, ‘Even if shoes are new, they are not used as pillows; even if a hat is worn out, it is not to be placed underfoot.’ Once a person has held a position of honor and favor, the Son of Heaven’s demeanor and etiquette towards them change, and the officials and people have once bowed in reverence and fear. Now, if there is a transgression, it is within the emperor’s prerogative to decree their removal, dismissal, or even grant them death or complete destruction. However, to bind and shackle them, subject them to lowly officials, hand them over to constables, and let them be insulted and flogged by subordinate officials of the constabulary, is hardly a way to make the common people witness justice.
“If those of lowly status become accustomed to seeing their superiors treated so harshly, they may believe they can subject them to the same treatment if a grandee makes a mistake and loses their status. This is not how we cultivate a culture of revering the revered and respecting the respected. In ancient times, high officials who lacked integrity were removed from office, but were not accused of corruption directly; instead, it was said, ‘The Fu and Gui(sacrificial vessels) are not rightly laid out.’ Those who engaged in lewd and immoral behavior, trespassing the boundaries between men and women, were not directly labeled adulterers; rather, its euphemism, ‘The curtains are not properly arranged.’ Those who were lazy and incompetent were not called disqualified; instead, it was termed as, ‘The subordinate is not up to his duty.’ Thus, for high-ranking officials, their faults were recognized, but they were not publicly denounced. They were given the leeway to conceal their misconduct.
“Even in cases of severe punishment, when it entered the realm of severe condemnation, upon hearing the judgment, the condemned wore a white hat with long tassels, knelt before a basin of water with a sword ready for self-mutilation, requested an audience, and confessed their wrongdoing. They were not physically bound or dragged away. For those who committed lesser offenses, upon hearing the orders, they slit their throats; they were not forced to stretch their necks. For those who committed grave offenses, upon hearing the orders, they faced north, bow twice, knelt, and took their own lives; they were not dragged by their hair and decapitated. The Sovereign conveyed to them: ‘You know you did something wrong, yet I still treat you with respect.’ When a ruler treats his subjects with respect, the courtiers maintain their self-esteem; when he demonstrates integrity and a sense of shame, individuals uphold dignity in their actions. When a ruler establishes integrity, propriety, and righteousness in his treatment of subordinates, and the subordinates do not respond with appropriate conduct, they are no longer considered human.
“Therefore, when civilization is established and customs are set, all who serve as subjects should prioritize propriety over personal gain, uphold principles, and adhere to righteousness. In doing so, they can be entrusted with the power of governance and the responsibility of protecting a young and vulnerable ruler before he comes of age. This is the result of strict integrity, observance of shame, and the practice of courtesy and righteousness. What could a ruler lose by doing so? When such practices could have been implemented but instead the wrong method of treating ministers was prolonged, it becomes a matter worthy of long sighs.”
At this time, the Marquis of Jiang was imprisoned but eventually released without charge. Jia Yi used this opportunity to criticize the emperor. After the emperor took Jia Yi’s words to heart and treated his ministers with dignity, his officials, when found guilty of an offense, chose to commit suicide rather than take punishment.
The 7th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (173 B.C.)
In October, during the winter, an edict was issued prohibiting the mothers of marquesses, the consorts of marquesses, and the sons of kings and officials with an emolument of over 2,000 piculs of grain from conducting unauthorized arrests and searches.
In April, during the summer, a general amnesty was declared throughout the country.
On June 2, a fire broke out on the trellis outside the east gate of Weiyang Palace.
The people sang a song about the Prince of Huainan that went: “With a foot of cloth, it can still be sewn; with a peck of grain, it can still be pounded. But two brothers cannot live together in harmony!” When the emperor heard this, he was troubled by it.
The 8th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (172 B.C.)
In the summer, the Emperor granted marquisates to the sons of the late Prince of Huainan, Liu An and three others. Knowing the emperor intended to restore the former prince’s line, Jia Yi submitted a memorial urging him to reconsider. Jia Yi wrote:
“The late Prince of Huainan(Liu Chang) was infamous for his rebellion and wickedness; his crimes are known to all. Although Your Majesty pardoned and banished him, he died of illness, and the world considers his death fitting. Now, by honoring the son of a criminal, you risk tarnishing your reputation. How could this young man forget his father’s fate? The Duke of Bai, Sheng, who sought to avenge his father, succeeded because his father’s killers were his grandfather and uncle. Although the Duke of Bai rebelled, he never sought to usurp the country’s rightful ruler. His rebellion was a rash act of anger, an attempt to thrust a sharp dagger into the chests of his enemies, and perished together with them.
“Though the state of Huainan is small, its former leader, Qing Bu, was able to raise an army and revolt. The Han dynasty endures only by good fortune. Allowing someone to avenge their enemy could endanger the state’s resources and stability, which is unwise. Personal grudges are a source of danger for the state. Therefore, it is inadvisable to grant power or accumulate wealth for such individuals. If this situation is not exactly the same as that of Wu Zixu or the Duke of Bai, who sought revenge in the large capital city, then it is more like the suspicion that there may arise another Zhuan Zhu or Jing Ke (assassins) from within the ranks. Rewarding him with power and wealth is no different from arming bandits or giving wings to tigers. This will inevitably lead to future trouble. I beg Your Majesty to think carefully before making this decision!”
However, the emperor did not heed Jia Yi’s advice.
A long comet appeared in the east.
The 9th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (171 B.C.)
In the spring, there was a severe drought.
The 10th year of the Emperor Wen’s Early Era (170 B.C.)
In winter, the Emperor traveled to Ganquan Palace.
General Bo Zhao killed a court envoy. The Emperor could not bear to impose punishment on his maternal uncle, so he ordered the court officials to drink with him, hoping that Bo Zhao would repent and take responsibility for his actions. However, Bo Zhao refused. The Emperor then sent court officials to express their condolences to Bo Zhao‘s family, which forced Bo Zhao, feeling ashamed and remorseful, to commit suicide.
Sima Guang’s commentary: Li Deyu believed the Emperor Wen‘s decision to execute Bo Zhao was just but not compassionate. When Duke Kang of Qin bid farewell to Duke Wen of Jin, he said it felt as if his mother were still alive. The Emperor’s mother was still alive, and Bo Zhao was her only younger brother. Executing Bo Zhao would hurt his mother’s feelings. In my humble opinion, the law is the common recourse of the world; only those who enforce it equally for the high and low can prevent violations. Though Bo Zhao was known for his virtues, the Emperor Wen did not appoint a teacher of virtue to guide him but instead appointed him as a military commander. This led to his snobbery and emboldened him to kill an imperial envoy. If the emperor had pardoned him, how would this be any different from the reigns of Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ai?
Emperor Wen of Wei once praised Emperor Wen of Han but criticized him for not addressing Bo Zhao’s actions earlier, stating, ‘The family of the emperor’s mother should be treated with kindness for their benefaction in nurturing the ruler, but not be given power to meddle state affairs. Once they have violated the law, they have to face the consequences.’ His criticism implied that Emperor Wen of Han did not restrain Bo Zhao earlier. This remark was right on target. If the emperor wished to comfort his mother, he should have acted prudently from the beginning.
Reflection by Rio Grande 